1973:(2008) tested the response of gynephilic trans women to two steroids hypothesized to be sex pheromones: the progestin-like 4,16-androstadien-3-one (AND) and the estrogen-like 1,3,5(10),16-tetraen-3-ol (EST). Despite the difference in sexual orientation, the trans women's hypothalamic networks activated in response to the AND pheromone, like the androphilic cis women's control groups. Both groups experienced amygdala activation in response to EST. Gynephilic cis male control groups experienced hypothalamic activation in response to EST. However, the trans women also experienced limited hypothalamic activation to EST. The researchers concluded that in terms of pheromone activation, trans women occupy an intermediate position with predominantly female features. The transfeminine subjects had not undergone any hormonal treatment at the time of the study, according to their own declaration beforehand, and confirmed by repeated tests of hormonal levels.
3496:"feminine and demasculinized" and in FtM it was possible to find traits which are "masculine and defeminized" (Kreukels & Guillamon, 2016)....Due to conflicting results, it was, however, not possible to identify specific brain features which consistently differ between cisgender and transgender nor between heterosexual and homosexual groups. Very small brain changes, to date undetectable using the current neuroimaging tools, may affect behavior. The small number of studies, the small sample size of each study, the heterogeneity of investigations, the lack of negative results reported by some studies, and the fact that some studies did not report the sexual orientation of the individuals that composed their sample did not allow drawing general conclusions. Moreover, as the samples of the publications involved are not representative of the population analyzed, caution should be taken in the interpretation of the results of this review.
1861:, which is generally thicker in cisgender women's brains than in cisgender men's brains, may also be thicker in trans women's brains, but is present in a different location to cisgender women's brains. It also stated that for both trans women and trans men, "cross-sex hormone treatment affects the gross morphology as well as the white matter microstructure of the brain. Changes are to be expected when hormones reach the brain in pharmacological doses. Consequently, one cannot take hormone-treated transsexual brain patterns as evidence of the transsexual brain phenotype because the treatment alters brain morphology and obscures the pre-treatment brain pattern."
1840:(2006) studied gross brain volume in 8 trans men and in 6 trans women undergoing hormone therapy. They found that hormones altered the sizes of the hypothalamus in a gender-consistent manner: treatment with masculinizing hormones shifted the hypothalamus towards the male direction in the same way as in male controls, and treatment with feminizing hormones shifted the hypothalamus towards the female direction in the same way as female controls. They concluded: "The findings suggest that, throughout life, gonadal hormones remain essential for maintaining aspects of sex-specific differences in the human brain."
1913:, which is generally thicker in cisgender women's brains than in cisgender men's brains, may also be thicker in trans women's brains, but is present in a different location to cisgender women's brains. For trans men, research indicates that those with early-onset gender dysphoria and who are gynephilic have brains that generally correspond to their assigned sex, but that they have their own phenotype with respect to cortical thickness, subcortical structures, and white matter microstructure, especially in the right hemisphere.
1729:(and which is affected by prenatal androgens), cadavers of six trans women had female-normal BSTc size, similar to the study's cadavers of cisgender women. While the trans women had undergone hormone therapy, and all but one had undergone sex reassignment surgery, this was accounted for by including cadavers of cisgender men and cisgender women as controls who, for a variety of medical reasons, had experienced hormone reversal. The controls still had sizes typical for their sex. No relationship to sexual orientation was found.
2088:, and quality of adjustment. However, the theory has been criticized in papers from Veale, Nuttbrock, Moser, and others who argue that it is poorly representative of trans women and non-instructive, and that the experiments behind it are poorly controlled and/or contradicted by other data. A 2009 study by Charles Moser of 29 cisgender women in the healthcare field based on Blanchard's methods for identifying autogynephilia found that 93% of respondents qualified as autogynephiles based on their own responses.
1875:
women, and cisgender women all had decreased connectivity compared with cisgender men in superior parietal regions, as part of the salience (SN) and the executive control (ECN) networks. Trans men also had weaker connectivity compared with cisgender men between intra-SN regions and weaker inter-network connectivity between regions of the SN, the default mode network (DMN), the ECN and the sensorimotor network. Trans women had lower small-worldness, modularity and clustering coefficient than cisgender men.
2019:
gender dysphoria. This group is usually androphilic in adulthood. Late-onset gender dysphoria does not include visible signs in early childhood, but some report having had wishes to be the opposite sex in childhood that they did not report to others. Trans women who experience late-onset gender dysphoria are more likely be attracted to women and may identify as lesbians or bisexual. It is common for people assigned male at birth who have late-onset gender dysphoria to experience
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in adulthood, and seem thus to have arisen during development" and that "All observations that support the neurobiological theory about the origin of transsexuality, i.e. that it is the sizes, the neuron numbers, and the functions and connectivity of brain structures, not the sex of their sexual organs, birth certificates or passports, that match their gender identities".
2057:" (a taxonomic category referring to trans women attracted to men) are attracted to men and develop gender dysphoria typically during childhood, and characterizes them as displaying overt and obvious femininity since childhood; he characterizes "non-homosexual transsexuals" (trans women who are sexually attracted to women) as developing gender dysphoria primarily due to
1640:
1548:. Most notably, transmasculine subjects not only had the variant genotype more frequently, but had an allele distribution equivalent to cisgender male controls, unlike the cisgender female controls. The paper concluded that the loss of a female-specific CYP17 T -34C allele distribution pattern is associated with transmasculinity.
1849:
found that "Female INAH3 and BSTc have been found in MtF transsexual persons. The only female-to-male (FtM) transsexual person available to us for study so far had a BSTc and INAH3 with clear male characteristics. (...) These sex reversals were found not to be influenced by circulating hormone levels
1884:
found that "although the majority of neuroanatomical, neurophysiological, and neurometabolic features" in transgender people "resemble those of their natal sex rather than those of their experienced gender", for trans women they found feminine and demasculinized traits, and vice versa for trans men.
1874:
A 2020 paper tried to investigate and differentiate between the two competing hypotheses of a neurodevelopmental cortical hypothesis that suggests the existence of different brain phenotypes vs a functional-based hypothesis in relation to regions involved in the own body perception. Trans men, trans
1805:
compared to cisgender men. Like earlier studies, researchers concluded that transgender identity was associated with a distinct cerebral pattern. MRI scanning allows easier study of larger brain structures, but independent nuclei are not visible due to lack of contrast between different neurological
1755:
theorized that changes in fetal hormone levels produce changes in BSTc synaptic density, neuronal activity, or neurochemical content which later lead to size and neuron count changes in BSTc, or alternatively, that the size of BSTc is affected by the generation of a gender identity inconsistent with
1625:
is disrupted, decreasing the masculinization of genitalia. Individuals with this condition are typically assigned female and raised as girls due to their feminine appearance at a young age. However, more than half of males with this condition raised as females come to identify as male later in life.
1565:
and 8 of 35 (22.8%) pairs of assigned females. Among dizygotic or genetically non-identical twin pairs, there was only 1 of 38 (2.6%) pairs where both twins were trans. The significant percentage of identical twin pairs in which both twins are trans and the virtual absence of dizygotic twins (raised
1524:
male sex characteristics. The research weakly suggests reduced androgen and androgen signaling contributes to trans women's identity. The authors say that a decrease in testosterone levels in the brain during development might prevent complete masculinization of trans women's brains, thereby causing
2583:
Combining data from the present survey with those from past-published reports, 20% of all male and female monozygotic twin pairs were found concordant for transsexual identity... The responses of our twins relative to their rearing, along with our findings regarding some of their experiences during
2381:
Combining data from the present survey with those from past-published reports, 20% of all male and female monozygotic twin pairs were found concordant for transsexual identity... The responses of our twins relative to their rearing, along with our findings regarding some of their experiences during
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combined a survey of pairs of twins where one or both had undergone, or had plans and medical approval to undergo, gender transition, with a literature review of published reports of transgender twins. The study found that one third of identical twin pairs in the sample were both transgender: 13 of
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found that among transgender individuals meeting diagnostic criteria for gender dysphoria, "cortical thickness, gray matter volume, white matter microstructure, structural connectivity, and corpus callosum shape have been found to be more similar to cisgender control subjects of the same preferred
3495:
Results suggest that, although the majority of neuroanatomical, neurophysiological, and neurometabolic features in transgenders resemble those of their natal sex rather than those of their experienced gender,...in the gender identity investigation, in MtF it was possible to find traits which are
2001:
A 2016 review reported that the brain structure of early-onset gynephilic trans men generally corresponds to their assigned sex, but that they have their own phenotype with respect to cortical thickness, subcortical structures, and white matter microstructure, especially in the right hemisphere.
1936:
used MRI to compare 24 gynephilic trans women with 48 controls consisting of 24 cisgender men and 24 cisgender women. None of the study participants were undergoing hormone therapy. The researchers found sex-typical differentiation between the trans women and cisgender females, and the cisgender
1901:
A 2016 review reported that early-onset androphilic transgender women have a brain structure similar to cisgender women's and unlike cisgender men's, but that they have their own brain phenotype. It also reported that gynephilic trans women differ from both cisgender female and male controls in
2018:
tends to follow one of two broad trajectories: early-onset or late-onset. Early-onset gender dysphoria is behaviorally visible in childhood. Sometimes, gender dysphoria may stop for a while in this group, and they may identify as gay or homosexual for a period of time, followed by recurrence of
1574:
Sex hormones in the prenatal environment differentiate the male and female brain. One hypothesis proposes that transgender individuals may have been exposed to atypical levels of sex hormones during later stages of fetal development, leading to brain structures atypical of their sex assigned at
1964:
Contrary to the primary hypothesis, no sex-atypical features with signs of 'feminization' were detected in the transsexual group ... The present study does not support the dogma that have atypical sex dimorphism in the brain but confirms the previously reported sex differences. The observed
1885:
They stated that due to limitations and conflicting results in the studies that had been done, they could not draw general conclusions or identify-specific features that consistently differed between cisgender and transgender people. The review also found differences when comparing cisgender
2061:(sexual arousal by the thought or image of themselves as a woman), and as attracted to women, attracted to both women and men (Blanchard calls this "pseudo-bisexuality", believing attraction to males to be not genuine, but part of the performance of an autogynephilic sexual fantasy), or
2339:
female and male twins, nine (39.1%) were concordant for GID; in contrast, none of the 21 same‐sex dizygotic female and male twins were concordant for GID, a statistically significant difference (P = 0.005)... These findings suggest a role for genetic factors in the development of
1790:(2000). The differences were even more pronounced than with BSTc; control males averaged 1.9 times the volume and 2.3 times the neurons as control females, yet regardless of hormone exposure, trans women were within the female range and the trans men within the male range.
1853:
A 2015 review reported that two studies found a pattern of white matter microstructure differences away from a transgender person's birth sex, and toward their desired sex. In one of these studies, sexual orientation had no effect on the diffusivity measured.
1759:
It has been suggested that the BSTc differences may be a result of hormone replacement therapy. It has also been suggested that because pedophilic offenders have also been found to have a reduced BSTc, a feminine BSTc may be a marker for
2648:
Clayton PE, Miller WL, Oberfield SE, Ritzén EM, Sippell WG, Speiser PW (2002). "Consensus statement on 21-hydroxylase deficiency from the
European Society for Paediatric Endocrinology and the Lawson Wilkins Pediatric Endocrine Society".
2027:, early-onset gender dysphoria is the most common course. This group is usually sexually attracted to women. Trans men who experience late-onset gender dysphoria will usually be sexually attracted to men and may identify as gay.
1993:
males so that a conclusion of "male shift" could be made, the study did reveal that the gynephilic trans men showed significant decrease in blood flow in the left anterior cingulate cortex and a significant increase in the right
3126:
Rametti G, Carrillo B, Gómez-Gil E, Junque C, Segovia S, Gomez Á, Guillamon A (February 2011). "White matter microstructure in female to male transsexuals before cross-sex hormonal treatment. A diffusion tensor imaging study".
541:
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Besser M, Carr S, Cohen-Kettenis P, Connolly P, de Sutter P, Diamond M, Di Ceglie D, Higashi Y, Jones L, Kruijver F, Martin J, Playdon Z, Ralph D, Reed T, Reid R, Reiner W, Swaab D, Terry T, Wilson P, Wylie K (2006).
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male controls. Trans women were more likely than cisgender males to have a longer version of a receptor gene (longer repetitions of the gene) for the sex hormone androgen, which reduced its effectiveness at binding
1029:
1782:), part of the hypothalamic uncinate nucleus, had properties similar to the BSTc with respect to sexual dimorphism and gender incongruence. The same method of controlling for hormone usage was used as in Zhou
1965:
differences between MtF-TR and controls raise the question as to whether gender dysphoria may be associated with changes in multiple structures and involve a network (rather than a single nodal area).
1566:
in the same family at the same time) in which both were trans would provide evidence that transgender identity is significantly influenced by genetics if both sets were raised in different families.
1767:
In a review of the evidence in 2006, Gooren considered the earlier research as supporting the concept of gender incongruence as a "sexual differentiation disorder" of the sexually dimorphic brain.
1283:
1626:
Scientists speculate that the definition of masculine characteristics during puberty and the increased social status afforded to men are two possible motivations for a female-to-male transition.
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1740:(1995), but with even more dramatic differences. One transfeminine subject who had never received hormone therapy was also included, and nonetheless matched up with the female neuron counts.
1833:". Compared to 24 cisgender males, they showed only lower FA values in the corticospinal tract. The white matter patterns in trans men were found to be shifted in the direction of cis men.
1610:. Research has shown that people with CAH and XX chromosomes will be more likely to experience same-sex attraction, and at least 5.2% of these individuals develop serious gender dysphoria.
1928:
While MRI taken on gynephilic trans women have likewise shown differences in the brain from non-trans people, no feminization of the brain's structure has been identified. Neuroscientists
1921:
can cause transgender women's brains to become closer to those of cisgender women, and morphological changes observed in the brains of trans men might be due to the anabolic effects of
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Fewer brain structure studies have been performed on transgender men than on transgender women. A team of neuroscientists, led by Nawata in Japan, used a technique called
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3439:"Structural, Functional, and Metabolic Brain Differences as a Function of Gender Identity or Sexual Orientation: A Systematic Review of the Human Neuroimaging Literature"
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women than that of cisgender men. It also reports that gynephilic trans women differ from both cisgender female and male controls in non-dimorphic brain areas.
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concentrations were more similar to those of cisgender men than of cisgender women, but there was a significantly greater volume of gray matter in the right
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1582:(CAH) results in heightened exposure to prenatal androgens, resulting in masculinization of the genitalia. Individuals with CAH are typically subjected to
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Swaab DF (December 2004). "Sexual differentiation of the human brain: relevance for gender identity, transsexualism and sexual orientation". Review.
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A 2016 review reported that, for androphilic trans women and gynephilic trans men, hormone treatment may have large effects on the brain, and that
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2512:"A polymorphism of the CYP17 gene related to sex steroid metabolism is associated with female-to-male but not male-to-female transsexualism"
1905:
The available research indicates that the brain structure of androphilic trans women with early-onset gender dysphoria is closer to that of
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suggest that there are likely genetic causes of gender incongruence, although the precise genes involved are not known or fully understood.
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Swaab DF, Castellanos-Cruz L, Bao AM (2016). "The Human Brain and Gender: Sexual
Differentiation of Our Brains.". In Schreiber G (ed.).
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Smith YL, van Goozen SH, Kuiper AJ, Cohen-Kettenis PT (December 2005). "Transsexual subtypes: clinical and theoretical significance".
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2080:. Blanchard argued that there are significant differences between the two groups, including sexuality, age of transition, ethnicity,
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including prenatal hormone treatment and postnatal genital reconstructive surgeries. Such treatments are sometimes criticized by
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males; but the gynephilic trans women "displayed also singular features and differed from both control groups by having reduced
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Nguyen, Hillary B.; Loughead, James; Lipner, Emily; Hantsoo, Liisa; Kornfield, Sara L.; Epperson, C. Neill (January 2019).
3197:"Sexual differentiation of the human brain: relation to gender identity, sexual orientation and neuropsychiatric disorders"
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Several studies have found a correlation between gender identity and brain structure. A first-of-its-kind study by Zhou
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1989:(rCBF) of 11 gynephilic trans men with that of 9 androphilic cis women. Although the study did not include a sample of
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4080:"A further assessment of Blanchard's typology of homosexual versus non-homosexual or autogynephilic gender dysphoria"
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Uribe, Carme; Junque, Carme; Gómez-Gil, Esther; Abos, Alexandra; Mueller, Sven C.; Guillamon, Antonio (2020-05-01).
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2002:
Morphological increments observed in the brains of trans men might be due to the anabolic effects of testosterone.
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3164:"Changing your sex changes your brain: influences of testosterone and estrogen on adult human brain structure"
2053:, which argues that trans women have one of two primary causes of gender dysphoria. Blanchard theorized that "
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2829:
2170:
Altinay, Murat; Anand, Amit (2020). "Neuroimaging gender dysphoria: a novel psychobiological model". Review.
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Pol HE, Cohen-Kettenis PT, Van Haren NE, Peper JS, Brans RG, Cahn W, Schnack HG, Gooren LJ, Kahn RS (2006).
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childhood and adolescence show their identity was much more influenced by their genetics than their rearing.
2382:
childhood and adolescence show their identity was much more influenced by their genetics than their rearing.
2054:
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organizations as non-consensual, invasive, and unnecessary interventions. Individuals with CAH are usually
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2015:
1950:
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Blanchard R (August 1989). "The classification and labeling of nonhomosexual gender dysphorias". Review.
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discovered that the trans men's white matter, compared to 19 cisgender gynephilic females, showed higher
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2601:"Prenatal Dexamethasone for Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia: An Ethics Canary in the Modern Medical Mine"
2020:
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728:
628:
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Blanchard R (October 1989). "The concept of autogynephilia and the typology of male gender dysphoria".
2903:"Sexual differentiation of the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis in humans may extend into adulthood"
1736:(2000) looked at the number of neurons in BSTc instead of volumes. They found the same results as Zhou
3561:"Male-to-female transsexuals show sex-atypical hypothalamus activation when smelling odorous steroids"
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2111: – How a person thinks of oneself with regard to romantic and sexual orientation and behaviour
1986:
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2557:(2013). "Transsexuality Among Twins: Identity Concordance, Transition, Rearing, and Orientation".
2355:(2013). "Transsexuality Among Twins: Identity Concordance, Transition, Rearing, and Orientation".
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study by Luders et al. found that among 24 trans women not treated with hormone therapy, regional
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Blanchard R (Winter 1991). "Clinical observations and systematic studies of autogynephilia".
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2442:"Androgen receptor repeat length polymorphism associated with male-to-female transsexualism"
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2117: – Characteristics of the brain that differentiate the male brain and the female brain
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tissue types, hence other studies on e.g. BSTc were done by dissecting brains post-mortem.
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Nawata H, Ogomori K, Tanaka M, Nishimura R, Urashima H, Yano R, et al. (April 2010).
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Nuttbrock L, Bockting W, Mason M, Hwahng S, Rosenblum A, Macri M, Becker J (April 2011).
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Veale JF, Clarke DE, Lomax TC (August 2008). "Sexuality of male-to-female transsexuals".
3038:"A sex difference in the hypothalamic uncinate nucleus: relationship to gender identity"
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Hare L, Bernard P, Sánchez FJ, Baird PN, Vilain E, Kennedy T, Harley VR (January 2009).
17:
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2950:
Gooren L (November 2006). "The biology of human psychosexual differentiation". Review.
2927:
2918:
2902:
2625:
2600:
2554:
2466:
2441:
2352:
2302:
2278:
2253:
2058:
1995:
1946:
1809:
Rametti et al. (2011) studied 18 trans men who had not undergone hormone therapy using
1323:
891:
886:
433:
2747:
Transsexuality in
Theology and Neuroscience. Findings, Controversies, and Perspectives
1774:
In 2008, Garcia-Falgueras & Swaab discovered that the interstitial nucleus of the
5539:
5451:
5394:
5384:
4944:
4764:
4724:
4720:
4711:
4554:
4523:
4512:
4502:
4429:
4331:
4225:
4015:
3859:
3689:
3618:
3601:
3490:
3423:
3388:
3371:
3242:
Smith, Elke
Stefanie; Junger, Jessica; Derntl, Birgit; Habel, Ute (1 December 2015).
3140:
3094:
2730:
2578:
2528:
2511:
2376:
2322:
2207:
2073:
2042:
1954:
1886:
1826:
972:
955:
940:
901:
694:
636:
273:
229:
4156:
3902:
3816:
3740:
3711:
Freund K, Steiner BW, Chan S (February 1982). "Two types of cross-gender identity".
3283:
3259:
3244:"The transsexual brain – A review of findings on the neural basis of transsexualism"
3077:
Luders E, Sánchez FJ, Gaser C, Toga AW, Narr KL, Hamilton LS, Vilain E (July 2009).
2979:
2709:
Erickson-Schroth L (2013). "Update on the
Biology of Transgender Identity". Review.
2678:
5241:
4542:
4519:
4064:
3843:
3556:
3508:
3228:
3022:
2846:
2457:
2077:
1929:
1922:
1814:
1618:
1562:
1537:
1533:
1505:
1484:
1445:
1391:
907:
570:
512:
263:
1594:
and tend to develop similar cognitive abilities to the typical females, including
1374:
380:
348:
4047:
4030:
3646:(Fifth ed.). Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Publishing. 2013. pp.
3602:"Regional cerebral blood flow changes in female to male gender identity disorder"
2722:
2570:
2368:
5380:
5292:
5236:
5074:
4859:
4558:
4377:
3372:"Brain network interactions in transgender individuals with gender incongruence"
3212:
2963:
2050:
1798:
1761:
1711:
1699:
1545:
1496:
1480:
1468:
1453:
1449:
776:
674:
388:
369:
343:
299:
280:
147:
34:
3454:
3306:"What has sex got to do with it? The role of hormones in the transgender brain"
2183:
5327:
5322:
5039:
4774:
4314:
4140:
4095:
3999:
3964:
3929:
3800:
3321:
3006:
2616:
2269:
2135:
Curtis R, Levy A, Martin J, Playdon ZJ, Wylie K, Reed R, Reed R (March 2009).
2062:
1768:
1703:
1607:
1603:
1557:
1472:
896:
319:
304:
3787:
Blanchard R (August 2005). "Early history of the concept of autogynephilia".
3407:
3329:
3267:
2510:
Bentz EK, Hefler LA, Kaufmann U, Huber JC, Kolbus A, Tempfer CB (July 2008).
2423:
2191:
293:
4989:
3773:
3756:
The Man Who Would Be Queen: The
Science of Gender-Bending and Transsexualism
3577:
3560:
3529:
3512:
2862:"Male-to-female transsexuals have female neuron numbers in a limbic nucleus"
2085:
1990:
1906:
1707:
1541:
1500:
1476:
1163:
881:
338:
258:
224:
205:
4148:
4113:
4056:
4007:
3937:
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3808:
3627:
3586:
3538:
3482:
3415:
3347:
3275:
3220:
3196:
3148:
3112:
3063:
3054:
3037:
3014:
2971:
2936:
2887:
2878:
2861:
2670:
2634:
2537:
2475:
2330:
2307:"Gender identity disorder in twins: a review of the case report literature"
2287:
2199:
1714:), are limited, as they include only a small number of tested individuals.
1483:), are limited, as they include only a small number of tested individuals.
4166:
3972:
3894:
3732:
3697:
2860:
Kruijver FP, Zhou JN, Pool CW, Hofman MA, Gooren LJ, Swaab DF (May 2000).
2838:
2415:
5441:
5201:
4906:
1938:
1918:
1328:
354:
331:
3180:
3163:
2797:"A sex difference in the human brain and its relation to transsexuality"
5342:
3886:
3724:
3398:
1942:
1802:
1529:
361:
287:
252:
2662:
2254:"A Review of the Status of Brain Structure Research in Transsexualism"
2049:
of male-to-female transsexualism built upon the work of his colleague
3437:
Frigerio, Alberto; Ballerini, Lucia; Valdes-Hernandez, Maria (2021).
2820:
1779:
1318:
325:
2305:, Schelfaut C, Elaut E, Vanden Bossche H, et al. (March 2012).
2011:
268:
3079:"Regional gray matter variation in male-to-female transsexualism"
2336:
2105: – Relationship between different sex and gender minorities
1338:
309:
4170:
1499:
who were mostly already undergoing hormone treatment, with 258
3916:
Blanchard R (January 1988). "Nonhomosexual gender dysphoria".
1794:
1633:
1343:
28:
3513:"Sex dimorphism of the brain in male-to-female transsexuals"
1998:, two brain regions known to respond during sexual arousal.
2081:
2795:
Zhou JN, Hofman MA, Gooren LJ, Swaab DF (November 1995).
2749:. Berlin and Boston: Walter de Gruyter. pp. 23–42.
1817:, the structure of which is sexually dimorphic. Rametti
1512:(NR3C4) is activated by the binding of testosterone or
1917:
can also affect transgender people's brain structure;
3758:. Washington, D.C.: Joseph Henry Press. p. 170.
3643:
2599:
Dreger A, Feder EK, Tamar-Mattis A (September 2012).
1525:
a more feminized brain and a female gender identity.
2866:
The
Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism
5368:
5250:
5139:
5132:
5030:
4905:
4773:
4697:
4599:
4405:
4398:
4261:
2704:
2702:
2252:Guillamon A, Junque C, Gómez-Gil E (October 2016).
2137:"Transgender experiences – Information and support"
1871:gender compared with those of the same natal sex."
1540:, has been found to be linked to transsexuality in
1516:, where it plays a critical role in the forming of
3671:
3669:
3667:
3464:20.500.11820/7258d49f-d222-4094-a40f-dc564d163ea7
2901:Chung WC, De Vries GJ, Swaab DF (February 2002).
2830:20.500.11755/9da6a0a1-f622-44f3-ac4f-fec297a7c6c2
2247:
2245:
2243:
2241:
2239:
2237:
1813:(DTI), an MRI technique which allows visualizing
1751:in BSTc did not establish until adulthood. Chung
3550:
3548:
2774:(7th ed.). Pearson Education. p. 418.
2549:
2547:
2235:
2233:
2231:
2229:
2227:
2225:
2223:
2221:
2219:
2217:
1878:A 2021 review of brain studies published in the
1725:(BSTc), a region of the brain known for sex and
1448:. This is experienced by people who identify as
278:
4031:"Blanchard's Autogynephilia Theory: a critique"
1962:
1825:values in posterior part of the right SLF, the
1698:Transgender brain studies, especially those on
1467:Transgender brain studies, especially those on
3195:Bao, Ai-Min; Swaab, Dick (February 18, 2011).
3036:Garcia-Falgueras A, Swaab DF (December 2008).
2691:: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of August 2024 (
4182:
2594:
2592:
2068:Blanchard's theory has received support from
1440:Gender incongruence is the state of having a
1421:
8:
1893:people, with the same limitations applying.
1721:(1995) found that in the bed nucleus of the
1661:. There might be a discussion about this on
4127:Moser C (2009). "Autogynephilia in women".
1561:39 (33%) monozygotic or identical pairs of
5136:
4402:
4189:
4175:
4167:
2711:Journal of Gay & Lesbian Mental Health
1983:single-photon emission computed tomography
1428:
1414:
134:
4103:
4046:
3678:The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease
3617:
3576:
3555:Berglund H, Lindström P, Dhejne-Helmy C,
3528:
3472:
3462:
3397:
3387:
3337:
3179:
3102:
3053:
2926:
2877:
2828:
2624:
2527:
2465:
2277:
1681:Learn how and when to remove this message
123:Learn how and when to remove this message
5353:Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance
3248:Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews
2491:"Transsexual study reveals genetic link"
2400:"Atypical Gender Development – A Review"
59:. Please improve this article by adding
55:Relevant discussion may be found on the
2559:International Journal of Transgenderism
2435:
2433:
2404:International Journal of Transgenderism
2357:International Journal of Transgenderism
2127:
1945:volumes and elevated GM volumes in the
1495:A 2008 study compared the genes of 112
146:
3365:
3363:
3361:
3359:
3357:
2684:
1897:Androphilic vs. gynephilic trans women
4845:Psychological effects of Internet use
3606:Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences
2021:sexual excitement from cross-dressing
1532:gene, which acts on the sex hormones
7:
3953:Journal of Sex & Marital Therapy
2392:
2390:
2165:
2163:
1743:In 2002, a follow-up study by Chung
4825:Digital media use and mental health
2772:Psychology: The Science of Behavior
2496:Australian Broadcasting Corporation
2041:In the 1980s and 1990s, sexologist
2037:Blanchard's transsexualism typology
463:Puberty-suppressing hormone therapy
4456:Automatic and controlled processes
2919:10.1523/jneurosci.22-03-01027.2002
1764:rather than transgender identity.
1444:that does not correspond to one's
25:
4865:Smartphones and pedestrian safety
3168:European Journal of Endocrinology
2489:Carter, Helen (27 October 2008).
2142:. NHS. p. 12. Archived from
5516:
5503:
5491:
5490:
4890:Mobile phones and driving safety
3690:10.1097/00005053-198910000-00004
3619:10.1111/j.1440-1819.2009.02059.x
3389:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2020.116613
3141:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2010.05.006
3095:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2009.03.048
2529:10.1016/j.fertnstert.2007.05.056
2323:10.1111/j.1743-6109.2011.02567.x
1985:(SPECT) to compare the regional
1638:
1398:
1397:
1385:
1373:
524:Assisted reproductive technology
33:
4793:Computer-mediated communication
3260:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2015.09.008
3201:Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology
3129:Journal of Psychiatric Research
2115:Neuroscience of sex differences
1960:The researchers concluded that:
1953:and an area covering the right
1846:Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology
1732:In a follow-up study, Kruijver
1578:In people with XX chromosomes,
1552:Gender incongruence among twins
1464:have been studied for decades.
72:"Causes of gender incongruence"
5070:Empathising–systemising theory
4373:female intrasexual competition
4310:Evolutionarily stable strategy
3844:10.1016/j.psychres.2005.01.008
2458:10.1016/j.biopsych.2008.08.033
2311:The Journal of Sexual Medicine
1580:congenital adrenal hyperplasia
882:Cisgender / cissexual
877:Childhood gender nonconformity
503:Facial masculinization surgery
1:
5430:Standard social science model
4483:Cognitive tradeoff hypothesis
2605:Journal of Bioethical Inquiry
2098:Genetic diagnosis of intersex
1570:Prenatal hormonal environment
1462:causes of gender incongruence
1359:Social construction of gender
61:secondary or tertiary sources
5278:Missing heritability problem
4870:Social aspects of television
4493:Evolution of nervous systems
4461:Computational theory of mind
4048:10.1080/00918369.2010.486241
2723:10.1080/19359705.2013.753393
2571:10.1080/15532739.2013.750222
2369:10.1080/15532739.2013.750222
2014:, gender dysphoria in those
1615:5-alpha-reductase deficiency
931:Gender-sexuality questioning
5524:Evolutionary biology portal
4084:Archives of Sexual Behavior
3988:Archives of Sexual Behavior
3875:Archives of Sexual Behavior
3789:Archives of Sexual Behavior
3713:Archives of Sexual Behavior
3511:, Arver S (November 2011).
3443:Archives of Sexual Behavior
3213:10.1016/j.yfrne.2011.02.007
2995:Gynecological Endocrinology
2964:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2006.06.011
2907:The Journal of Neuroscience
2258:Archives of Sexual Behavior
1902:non-dimorphic brain areas.
1881:Archives of Sexual Behavior
1843:A 2011 review published in
1528:A variant genotype for the
496:Facial feminization surgery
5597:
5485:Evolutionary psychologists
5358:Trivers–Willard hypothesis
5273:Human–animal communication
4985:Ovulatory shift hypothesis
4835:Imprinted brain hypothesis
4803:Human–computer interaction
3455:10.1007/s10508-021-02005-9
2184:10.1007/s11682-019-00121-8
2172:Brain Imaging and Behavior
2034:
1485:Studies conducted on twins
866:Androphilia and gynephilia
566:Gender self-identification
5479:
5405:Environmental determinism
5376:Cultural selection theory
5263:Evolutionary epistemology
5177:evolutionary neuroscience
4850:Rank theory of depression
4352:Parent–offspring conflict
4204:
4141:10.1080/00918360903005212
4096:10.1007/s10508-009-9579-2
4000:10.1007/s10508-007-9306-9
3965:10.1080/00926239108404348
3930:10.1080/00224498809551410
3801:10.1007/s10508-005-4343-8
3322:10.1038/s41386-018-0140-7
3007:10.1080/09513590400018231
2617:10.1007/s11673-012-9384-9
2301:Heylens G, De Cuypere G,
2270:10.1007/s10508-016-0768-5
240:Non-binary or genderqueer
5581:Transgender and medicine
5298:Cultural group selection
5182:Biocultural anthropology
4875:Societal impacts of cars
4808:Media naturalness theory
4498:Fight-or-flight response
4129:Journal of Homosexuality
4035:Journal of Homosexuality
2030:
2025:assigned female at birth
1932:and Stefan Arver at the
1811:diffusion tensor imaging
685:Parental rights movement
594:Political office-holders
473:Gender-affirming surgery
18:Causes of transsexuality
5561:Behavioral neuroscience
5498:Evolutionary psychology
5462:Sociocultural evolution
5303:Dual inheritance theory
4760:Personality development
4221:Theoretical foundations
4198:Evolutionary psychology
3918:Journal of Sex Research
3310:Neuropsychopharmacology
2665:(inactive 2024-08-24).
2516:Fertility and Sterility
2055:homosexual transsexuals
1951:inferior frontal cortex
1867:Neuropsychopharmacology
1747:found that significant
1600:language lateralization
1456:, and often results in
279:
212:Bissu, Calabai, Calalai
5551:Psychological theories
5420:Social constructionism
5415:Psychological nativism
5390:Biological determinism
5338:Recent human evolution
5333:Punctuated equilibrium
5156:Behavioral epigenetics
5151:evolutionary economics
5120:Variability hypothesis
5065:Emotional intelligence
4798:Engineering psychology
4488:Evolution of the brain
2879:10.1210/jcem.85.5.6564
2016:assigned male at birth
1967:
1380:Transgender portal
1349:Sex–gender distinction
908:Gender detransitioning
795:Anatomical terminology
44:relies excessively on
5447:Multilineal evolution
5410:Nature versus nurture
5369:Theoretical positions
5217:Functional psychology
5212:Evolutionary medicine
5187:Biological psychiatry
4895:Texting while driving
4885:Lead–crime hypothesis
4745:Cognitive development
4730:Caregiver deprivation
4241:Gene selection theory
3578:10.1093/cercor/bhm216
3530:10.1093/cercor/bhr032
2952:Hormones and Behavior
2446:Biological Psychiatry
2416:10.1300/J485v09n01_04
2035:Further information:
1823:fractional anisotropy
1776:anterior hypothalamus
1584:medical interventions
1446:sex assigned at birth
1334:Queer heterosexuality
946:Rapid-onset dysphoria
729:Yogyakarta Principles
5571:Behavioural genetics
5566:Causes of conditions
5400:Cultural determinism
5207:Evolutionary biology
5192:Cognitive psychology
5140:Academic disciplines
4788:Cognitive ergonomics
4755:Language acquisition
4735:Childhood attachment
4548:Wason selection task
4442:Behavioral modernity
4231:Cognitive revolution
4214:Evolutionary thought
3055:10.1093/brain/awn276
2031:Blanchard's typology
1977:Gynephilic trans men
1934:Karolinska Institute
1786:(1995) and Kruijver
1756:one's assigned sex.
1702:attracted to women (
1651:confusing or unclear
1471:attracted to women (
920:Gender transitioning
872:Blanchard's typology
800:Fictional characters
746:Events and awareness
652:Anti-gender movement
5546:Transgender studies
5467:Unilineal evolution
5232:Population genetics
5017:Sexy son hypothesis
4955:Hormonal motivation
4935:Concealed ovulation
4476:Dual process theory
4347:Parental investment
3832:Psychiatry Research
3181:10.1530/eje.1.02248
2813:1995Natur.378...68Z
2770:Carlson NR (2010).
1987:cerebral blood flow
1831:corticospinal tract
1659:clarify the section
1623:dihydrotestosterone
1514:dihydrotestosterone
1314:Anti-LGBTQ rhetoric
859:Theory and concepts
741:Society and culture
722:Trans panic defense
5425:Social determinism
5308:Fisher's principle
5268:Great ape language
5258:Cultural evolution
5227:Philosophy of mind
5060:Division of labour
5022:Westermarck effect
4970:Mating preferences
4880:Distracted driving
4614:Literary criticism
4471:Domain specificity
4451:modularity of mind
3887:10.1007/BF01541951
3754:Bailey JM (2003).
3725:10.1007/BF01541365
3048:(Pt 12): 3132–46.
2743:For a survey, see
1911:Cortical thickness
1859:cortical thickness
1771:(2004) concurred.
1710:attracted to men (
1598:, verbal ability,
1479:attracted to men (
1354:Sexual orientation
1193:Disenfranchisement
762:Day of Remembrance
663:trans-exclusionary
148:Transgender topics
5533:
5532:
5511:Psychology portal
5475:
5474:
5318:Hologenome theory
5288:Unit of selection
5283:Primate cognition
5197:Cognitive science
5128:
5127:
4999:Sexual attraction
4975:Mating strategies
4740:Cinderella effect
4670:Moral foundations
4574:Visual perception
4466:Domain generality
4435:Facial expression
4383:Sexual dimorphism
4342:Natural selection
4288:Hamiltonian spite
3765:978-0-309-08418-5
3657:978-0-89042-554-1
2756:978-3-11-044080-5
2663:10.1159/000065490
2149:on 6 January 2012
2103:Intersex and LGBT
2070:J. Michael Bailey
2010:According to the
1864:A 2019 review in
1749:sexual dimorphism
1727:anxiety responses
1691:
1690:
1683:
1510:androgen receptor
1438:
1437:
1284:elected officials
914:Gender expression
767:Day of Visibility
576:Non-binary gender
542:Standards of Care
199:Gender identities
133:
132:
125:
107:
16:(Redirected from
5588:
5520:
5507:
5494:
5493:
5137:
5133:Related subjects
4920:Adult attachment
4447:Cognitive module
4403:
4390:Social selection
4364:Costly signaling
4359:Sexual selection
4246:Modern synthesis
4191:
4184:
4177:
4168:
4161:
4160:
4124:
4118:
4117:
4107:
4075:
4069:
4068:
4050:
4029:Moser C (2010).
4026:
4020:
4019:
3983:
3977:
3976:
3948:
3942:
3941:
3913:
3907:
3906:
3870:
3864:
3863:
3827:
3821:
3820:
3784:
3778:
3777:
3751:
3745:
3744:
3708:
3702:
3701:
3673:
3662:
3661:
3638:
3632:
3631:
3621:
3597:
3591:
3590:
3580:
3552:
3543:
3542:
3532:
3505:
3499:
3498:
3476:
3466:
3449:(8): 3329–3352.
3434:
3428:
3427:
3401:
3391:
3367:
3352:
3351:
3341:
3301:
3295:
3294:
3292:
3290:
3239:
3233:
3232:
3192:
3186:
3185:
3183:
3159:
3153:
3152:
3123:
3117:
3116:
3106:
3074:
3068:
3067:
3057:
3033:
3027:
3026:
2990:
2984:
2983:
2947:
2941:
2940:
2930:
2898:
2892:
2891:
2881:
2857:
2851:
2850:
2832:
2821:10.1038/378068a0
2792:
2786:
2785:
2767:
2761:
2760:
2741:
2735:
2734:
2706:
2697:
2696:
2690:
2682:
2651:Hormone Research
2645:
2639:
2638:
2628:
2596:
2587:
2586:
2551:
2542:
2541:
2531:
2507:
2501:
2500:
2486:
2480:
2479:
2469:
2437:
2428:
2427:
2394:
2385:
2384:
2349:
2343:
2342:
2298:
2292:
2291:
2281:
2249:
2212:
2211:
2178:(4): 1281–1297.
2167:
2158:
2157:
2155:
2154:
2148:
2141:
2132:
1723:stria terminalis
1706:), and those on
1686:
1679:
1675:
1672:
1666:
1642:
1641:
1634:
1617:, conversion of
1475:), and those on
1458:gender dysphoria
1430:
1423:
1416:
1401:
1400:
1392:LGBTQ portal
1390:
1389:
1388:
1378:
1377:
1228:
1055:
922:
910:
868:
815:Media portrayals
668:
667:
666:radical feminism
664:
660:
612:Military service
544:
532:
515:
505:
498:
489:
482:
475:
465:
446:
436:
427:
420:
418:Gender dysphoria
413:
284:
168:
165:
162:
159:
156:
135:
128:
121:
117:
114:
108:
106:
65:
37:
29:
21:
5596:
5595:
5591:
5590:
5589:
5587:
5586:
5585:
5576:Gender identity
5536:
5535:
5534:
5529:
5471:
5457:Neoevolutionism
5364:
5348:Species complex
5313:Group selection
5251:Research topics
5246:
5222:Neuropsychology
5124:
5110:Substance abuse
5032:Sex differences
5026:
4940:Coolidge effect
4901:
4813:Neuroergonomics
4778:
4769:
4693:
4595:
4529:Folk psychology
4410:
4394:
4264:
4257:
4200:
4195:
4165:
4164:
4126:
4125:
4121:
4077:
4076:
4072:
4028:
4027:
4023:
3985:
3984:
3980:
3950:
3949:
3945:
3915:
3914:
3910:
3872:
3871:
3867:
3829:
3828:
3824:
3786:
3785:
3781:
3766:
3753:
3752:
3748:
3710:
3709:
3705:
3675:
3674:
3665:
3658:
3640:
3639:
3635:
3599:
3598:
3594:
3565:Cerebral Cortex
3559:(August 2008).
3554:
3553:
3546:
3523:(11): 2525–33.
3517:Cerebral Cortex
3507:
3506:
3502:
3436:
3435:
3431:
3369:
3368:
3355:
3303:
3302:
3298:
3288:
3286:
3241:
3240:
3236:
3194:
3193:
3189:
3161:
3160:
3156:
3125:
3124:
3120:
3076:
3075:
3071:
3035:
3034:
3030:
2992:
2991:
2987:
2949:
2948:
2944:
2900:
2899:
2895:
2859:
2858:
2854:
2807:(6552): 68–70.
2794:
2793:
2789:
2782:
2769:
2768:
2764:
2757:
2744:
2742:
2738:
2708:
2707:
2700:
2683:
2647:
2646:
2642:
2598:
2597:
2590:
2553:
2552:
2545:
2509:
2508:
2504:
2488:
2487:
2483:
2439:
2438:
2431:
2396:
2395:
2388:
2351:
2350:
2346:
2300:
2299:
2295:
2251:
2250:
2215:
2169:
2168:
2161:
2152:
2150:
2146:
2139:
2134:
2133:
2129:
2124:
2109:Sexual identity
2094:
2039:
2033:
2008:
1979:
1915:Hormone therapy
1899:
1696:
1687:
1676:
1670:
1667:
1656:
1643:
1639:
1632:
1630:Brain structure
1596:spatial ability
1592:assigned female
1588:intersex rights
1572:
1554:
1493:
1442:gender identity
1434:
1396:
1386:
1384:
1372:
1364:
1363:
1309:
1301:
1300:
1222:
1216:
1209:
1049:
994:
988:
978:
977:
968:Transmedicalism
936:Gender variance
926:Gender identity
918:
906:
864:
860:
852:
851:
791:
786:
757:Beauty pageants
748:
742:
734:
733:
690:Transgender men
665:
662:
659:Gender-critical
658:
657:
648:
598:
584:Rights movement
580:
561:
550:
549:
540:
528:
511:
508:
501:
494:
485:
478:
471:
468:
461:
444:Hormone therapy
442:
439:
432:
423:
416:
409:
405:
394:
393:
245:Gender fluidity
201:
191:
166:
163:
160:
157:
154:
129:
118:
112:
109:
66:
64:
54:
50:primary sources
38:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
5594:
5592:
5584:
5583:
5578:
5573:
5568:
5563:
5558:
5553:
5548:
5538:
5537:
5531:
5530:
5528:
5527:
5514:
5501:
5488:
5480:
5477:
5476:
5473:
5472:
5470:
5469:
5464:
5459:
5454:
5449:
5444:
5439:
5434:
5433:
5432:
5427:
5422:
5417:
5412:
5407:
5402:
5397:
5392:
5378:
5372:
5370:
5366:
5365:
5363:
5362:
5361:
5360:
5355:
5350:
5345:
5340:
5335:
5330:
5325:
5320:
5315:
5310:
5305:
5300:
5295:
5285:
5280:
5275:
5270:
5265:
5260:
5254:
5252:
5248:
5247:
5245:
5244:
5239:
5234:
5229:
5224:
5219:
5214:
5209:
5204:
5199:
5194:
5189:
5184:
5179:
5162:
5153:
5143:
5141:
5134:
5130:
5129:
5126:
5125:
5123:
5122:
5117:
5112:
5107:
5102:
5097:
5092:
5087:
5082:
5077:
5072:
5067:
5062:
5057:
5052:
5047:
5042:
5036:
5034:
5028:
5027:
5025:
5024:
5019:
5014:
5001:
4992:
4987:
4982:
4977:
4972:
4967:
4962:
4957:
4952:
4947:
4942:
4937:
4932:
4927:
4922:
4917:
4911:
4909:
4903:
4902:
4900:
4899:
4898:
4897:
4892:
4887:
4882:
4872:
4867:
4862:
4857:
4852:
4847:
4842:
4840:Mind-blindness
4837:
4832:
4827:
4822:
4817:
4816:
4815:
4810:
4805:
4800:
4795:
4784:
4782:
4771:
4770:
4768:
4767:
4762:
4757:
4752:
4747:
4742:
4737:
4732:
4727:
4714:
4709:
4703:
4701:
4695:
4694:
4692:
4691:
4686:
4685:
4684:
4674:
4673:
4672:
4662:
4661:
4660:
4655:
4650:
4640:
4635:
4634:
4633:
4623:
4622:
4621:
4616:
4605:
4603:
4597:
4596:
4594:
4593:
4592:
4591:
4586:
4581:
4571:
4566:
4561:
4552:
4551:
4550:
4545:
4535:
4533:theory of mind
4526:
4517:
4516:
4515:
4510:
4505:
4495:
4490:
4485:
4480:
4479:
4478:
4473:
4468:
4463:
4458:
4444:
4439:
4438:
4437:
4432:
4427:
4416:
4414:
4400:
4396:
4395:
4393:
4392:
4387:
4386:
4385:
4380:
4375:
4366:
4356:
4355:
4354:
4344:
4339:
4334:
4329:
4328:
4327:
4317:
4312:
4307:
4302:
4300:Baldwin effect
4297:
4296:
4295:
4290:
4285:
4275:
4269:
4267:
4259:
4258:
4256:
4255:
4250:
4249:
4248:
4243:
4238:
4233:
4228:
4218:
4217:
4216:
4205:
4202:
4201:
4196:
4194:
4193:
4186:
4179:
4171:
4163:
4162:
4119:
4070:
4041:(6): 790–809.
4021:
3978:
3943:
3908:
3865:
3822:
3779:
3764:
3746:
3703:
3684:(10): 616–23.
3663:
3656:
3633:
3592:
3544:
3500:
3429:
3353:
3296:
3234:
3207:(2): 214–226.
3187:
3154:
3135:(2): 199–204.
3118:
3069:
3028:
2985:
2958:(4): 589–601.
2942:
2913:(3): 1027–33.
2893:
2872:(5): 2034–41.
2852:
2787:
2780:
2762:
2755:
2736:
2698:
2640:
2611:(3): 277–294.
2588:
2543:
2502:
2481:
2429:
2386:
2344:
2293:
2264:(7): 1615–48.
2213:
2159:
2126:
2125:
2123:
2120:
2119:
2118:
2112:
2106:
2100:
2093:
2090:
2059:autogynephilia
2032:
2029:
2007:
2004:
1978:
1975:
1898:
1895:
1695:
1692:
1689:
1688:
1646:
1644:
1637:
1631:
1628:
1613:In males with
1571:
1568:
1563:assigned males
1553:
1550:
1492:
1489:
1436:
1435:
1433:
1432:
1425:
1418:
1410:
1407:
1406:
1395:
1394:
1382:
1369:
1366:
1365:
1362:
1361:
1356:
1351:
1346:
1341:
1336:
1331:
1326:
1324:Gender studies
1321:
1316:
1310:
1307:
1306:
1303:
1302:
1299:
1298:
1297:
1296:
1291:
1289:Cafeteria riot
1286:
1281:
1271:
1269:United Kingdom
1266:
1261:
1256:
1251:
1246:
1241:
1240:
1239:
1229:
1210:
1208:
1207:
1206:
1205:
1200:
1195:
1185:
1184:
1183:
1178:
1171:United Kingdom
1168:
1167:
1166:
1158:
1153:
1152:
1151:
1143:
1138:
1137:
1136:
1128:
1123:
1122:
1121:
1116:
1108:
1103:
1098:
1097:
1096:
1091:
1086:
1078:
1077:
1076:
1071:
1066:
1056:
1044:
1039:
1034:
1033:
1032:
1022:
1017:
1012:
1011:
1010:
1005:
990:
989:
984:
983:
980:
979:
976:
975:
970:
965:
964:
963:
953:
948:
943:
938:
933:
928:
923:
916:
911:
904:
899:
894:
892:Cross-dressing
889:
887:Cisnormativity
884:
879:
874:
869:
861:
858:
857:
854:
853:
850:
849:
844:
839:
834:
829:
828:
827:
817:
812:
807:
802:
797:
787:
785:
784:
779:
774:
769:
764:
759:
754:
752:Awareness Week
744:
743:
740:
739:
736:
735:
732:
731:
726:
725:
724:
719:
709:
704:
699:
698:
697:
692:
687:
682:
675:Discrimination
672:
671:
670:
647:
646:
645:
644:
639:
637:Bathroom bills
631:
626:
625:
624:
619:
609:
604:
597:
596:
591:
586:
579:
578:
573:
568:
562:
556:
555:
552:
551:
548:
547:
546:
545:
533:
526:
521:
516:
507:
506:
499:
492:
491:
490:
487:male-to-female
483:
480:female-to-male
467:
466:
459:
458:
457:
452:
438:
437:
434:Sex assignment
430:
429:
428:
414:
406:
400:
399:
396:
395:
392:
391:
386:
385:
384:
377:
367:
366:
365:
358:
351:
341:
336:
335:
334:
329:
322:
317:
312:
307:
302:
297:
290:
285:
276:
271:
261:
256:
249:
248:
247:
237:
232:
227:
222:
215:
208:
202:
197:
196:
193:
192:
190:
189:
184:
179:
173:
170:
169:
151:
150:
144:
143:
131:
130:
41:
39:
32:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5593:
5582:
5579:
5577:
5574:
5572:
5569:
5567:
5564:
5562:
5559:
5557:
5554:
5552:
5549:
5547:
5544:
5543:
5541:
5526:
5525:
5519:
5515:
5513:
5512:
5506:
5502:
5500:
5499:
5489:
5487:
5486:
5482:
5481:
5478:
5468:
5465:
5463:
5460:
5458:
5455:
5453:
5452:Neo-Darwinism
5450:
5448:
5445:
5443:
5440:
5438:
5437:Functionalism
5435:
5431:
5428:
5426:
5423:
5421:
5418:
5416:
5413:
5411:
5408:
5406:
5403:
5401:
5398:
5396:
5395:Connectionism
5393:
5391:
5388:
5387:
5386:
5385:indeterminism
5382:
5379:
5377:
5374:
5373:
5371:
5367:
5359:
5356:
5354:
5351:
5349:
5346:
5344:
5341:
5339:
5336:
5334:
5331:
5329:
5326:
5324:
5321:
5319:
5316:
5314:
5311:
5309:
5306:
5304:
5301:
5299:
5296:
5294:
5291:
5290:
5289:
5286:
5284:
5281:
5279:
5276:
5274:
5271:
5269:
5266:
5264:
5261:
5259:
5256:
5255:
5253:
5249:
5243:
5240:
5238:
5235:
5233:
5230:
5228:
5225:
5223:
5220:
5218:
5215:
5213:
5210:
5208:
5205:
5203:
5200:
5198:
5195:
5193:
5190:
5188:
5185:
5183:
5180:
5178:
5174:
5170:
5166:
5163:
5161:
5157:
5154:
5152:
5148:
5145:
5144:
5142:
5138:
5135:
5131:
5121:
5118:
5116:
5113:
5111:
5108:
5106:
5105:Schizophrenia
5103:
5101:
5098:
5096:
5093:
5091:
5090:Mental health
5088:
5086:
5083:
5081:
5078:
5076:
5073:
5071:
5068:
5066:
5063:
5061:
5058:
5056:
5053:
5051:
5048:
5046:
5043:
5041:
5038:
5037:
5035:
5033:
5029:
5023:
5020:
5018:
5015:
5013:
5009:
5005:
5002:
5000:
4996:
4993:
4991:
4988:
4986:
4983:
4981:
4978:
4976:
4973:
4971:
4968:
4966:
4965:Mate guarding
4963:
4961:
4958:
4956:
4953:
4951:
4948:
4946:
4943:
4941:
4938:
4936:
4933:
4931:
4928:
4926:
4925:Age disparity
4923:
4921:
4918:
4916:
4913:
4912:
4910:
4908:
4904:
4896:
4893:
4891:
4888:
4886:
4883:
4881:
4878:
4877:
4876:
4873:
4871:
4868:
4866:
4863:
4861:
4858:
4856:
4855:Schizophrenia
4853:
4851:
4848:
4846:
4843:
4841:
4838:
4836:
4833:
4831:
4828:
4826:
4823:
4821:
4818:
4814:
4811:
4809:
4806:
4804:
4801:
4799:
4796:
4794:
4791:
4790:
4789:
4786:
4785:
4783:
4781:
4780:Mental health
4776:
4775:Human factors
4772:
4766:
4765:Socialization
4763:
4761:
4758:
4756:
4753:
4751:
4748:
4746:
4743:
4741:
4738:
4736:
4733:
4731:
4728:
4726:
4725:paternal bond
4722:
4718:
4715:
4713:
4710:
4708:
4705:
4704:
4702:
4700:
4696:
4690:
4687:
4683:
4680:
4679:
4678:
4675:
4671:
4668:
4667:
4666:
4663:
4659:
4656:
4654:
4651:
4649:
4646:
4645:
4644:
4641:
4639:
4636:
4632:
4629:
4628:
4627:
4624:
4620:
4617:
4615:
4612:
4611:
4610:
4607:
4606:
4604:
4602:
4598:
4590:
4589:Naïve physics
4587:
4585:
4582:
4580:
4577:
4576:
4575:
4572:
4570:
4567:
4565:
4562:
4560:
4556:
4555:Motor control
4553:
4549:
4546:
4544:
4541:
4540:
4539:
4536:
4534:
4530:
4527:
4525:
4521:
4518:
4514:
4513:Ophidiophobia
4511:
4509:
4506:
4504:
4503:Arachnophobia
4501:
4500:
4499:
4496:
4494:
4491:
4489:
4486:
4484:
4481:
4477:
4474:
4472:
4469:
4467:
4464:
4462:
4459:
4457:
4454:
4453:
4452:
4448:
4445:
4443:
4440:
4436:
4433:
4431:
4430:Display rules
4428:
4426:
4423:
4422:
4421:
4418:
4417:
4415:
4413:
4408:
4404:
4401:
4397:
4391:
4388:
4384:
4381:
4379:
4376:
4374:
4370:
4367:
4365:
4362:
4361:
4360:
4357:
4353:
4350:
4349:
4348:
4345:
4343:
4340:
4338:
4335:
4333:
4332:Kin selection
4330:
4326:
4323:
4322:
4321:
4318:
4316:
4313:
4311:
4308:
4306:
4303:
4301:
4298:
4294:
4291:
4289:
4286:
4284:
4281:
4280:
4279:
4276:
4274:
4271:
4270:
4268:
4266:
4260:
4254:
4251:
4247:
4244:
4242:
4239:
4237:
4234:
4232:
4229:
4227:
4226:Adaptationism
4224:
4223:
4222:
4219:
4215:
4212:
4211:
4210:
4207:
4206:
4203:
4199:
4192:
4187:
4185:
4180:
4178:
4173:
4172:
4169:
4158:
4154:
4150:
4146:
4142:
4138:
4135:(5): 539–47.
4134:
4130:
4123:
4120:
4115:
4111:
4106:
4101:
4097:
4093:
4090:(2): 247–57.
4089:
4085:
4081:
4074:
4071:
4066:
4062:
4058:
4054:
4049:
4044:
4040:
4036:
4032:
4025:
4022:
4017:
4013:
4009:
4005:
4001:
3997:
3994:(4): 586–97.
3993:
3989:
3982:
3979:
3974:
3970:
3966:
3962:
3959:(4): 235–51.
3958:
3954:
3947:
3944:
3939:
3935:
3931:
3927:
3924:(1): 188–93.
3923:
3919:
3912:
3909:
3904:
3900:
3896:
3892:
3888:
3884:
3881:(4): 315–34.
3880:
3876:
3869:
3866:
3861:
3857:
3853:
3849:
3845:
3841:
3838:(3): 151–60.
3837:
3833:
3826:
3823:
3818:
3814:
3810:
3806:
3802:
3798:
3795:(4): 439–46.
3794:
3790:
3783:
3780:
3775:
3771:
3767:
3761:
3757:
3750:
3747:
3742:
3738:
3734:
3730:
3726:
3722:
3718:
3714:
3707:
3704:
3699:
3695:
3691:
3687:
3683:
3679:
3672:
3670:
3668:
3664:
3659:
3653:
3649:
3645:
3644:
3637:
3634:
3629:
3625:
3620:
3615:
3612:(2): 157–61.
3611:
3607:
3603:
3596:
3593:
3588:
3584:
3579:
3574:
3571:(8): 1900–8.
3570:
3566:
3562:
3558:
3551:
3549:
3545:
3540:
3536:
3531:
3526:
3522:
3518:
3514:
3510:
3504:
3501:
3497:
3492:
3488:
3484:
3480:
3475:
3470:
3465:
3460:
3456:
3452:
3448:
3444:
3440:
3433:
3430:
3425:
3421:
3417:
3413:
3409:
3405:
3400:
3395:
3390:
3385:
3381:
3377:
3373:
3366:
3364:
3362:
3360:
3358:
3354:
3349:
3345:
3340:
3335:
3331:
3327:
3323:
3319:
3315:
3311:
3307:
3300:
3297:
3285:
3281:
3277:
3273:
3269:
3265:
3261:
3257:
3253:
3249:
3245:
3238:
3235:
3230:
3226:
3222:
3218:
3214:
3210:
3206:
3202:
3198:
3191:
3188:
3182:
3177:
3174:: S107–S114.
3173:
3169:
3165:
3158:
3155:
3150:
3146:
3142:
3138:
3134:
3130:
3122:
3119:
3114:
3110:
3105:
3100:
3096:
3092:
3088:
3084:
3080:
3073:
3070:
3065:
3061:
3056:
3051:
3047:
3043:
3039:
3032:
3029:
3024:
3020:
3016:
3012:
3008:
3004:
3001:(6): 301–12.
3000:
2996:
2989:
2986:
2981:
2977:
2973:
2969:
2965:
2961:
2957:
2953:
2946:
2943:
2938:
2934:
2929:
2924:
2920:
2916:
2912:
2908:
2904:
2897:
2894:
2889:
2885:
2880:
2875:
2871:
2867:
2863:
2856:
2853:
2848:
2844:
2840:
2836:
2831:
2826:
2822:
2818:
2814:
2810:
2806:
2802:
2798:
2791:
2788:
2783:
2781:9780205547869
2777:
2773:
2766:
2763:
2758:
2752:
2748:
2740:
2737:
2732:
2728:
2724:
2720:
2717:(2): 150–74.
2716:
2712:
2705:
2703:
2699:
2694:
2688:
2680:
2676:
2672:
2668:
2664:
2660:
2657:(4): 188–95.
2656:
2652:
2644:
2641:
2636:
2632:
2627:
2622:
2618:
2614:
2610:
2606:
2602:
2595:
2593:
2589:
2585:
2580:
2576:
2572:
2568:
2564:
2560:
2556:
2550:
2548:
2544:
2539:
2535:
2530:
2525:
2521:
2517:
2513:
2506:
2503:
2498:
2497:
2492:
2485:
2482:
2477:
2473:
2468:
2463:
2459:
2455:
2451:
2447:
2443:
2436:
2434:
2430:
2425:
2421:
2417:
2413:
2409:
2405:
2401:
2393:
2391:
2387:
2383:
2378:
2374:
2370:
2366:
2362:
2358:
2354:
2348:
2345:
2341:
2338:
2332:
2328:
2324:
2320:
2316:
2312:
2308:
2304:
2297:
2294:
2289:
2285:
2280:
2275:
2271:
2267:
2263:
2259:
2255:
2248:
2246:
2244:
2242:
2240:
2238:
2236:
2234:
2232:
2230:
2228:
2226:
2224:
2222:
2220:
2218:
2214:
2209:
2205:
2201:
2197:
2193:
2189:
2185:
2181:
2177:
2173:
2166:
2164:
2160:
2145:
2138:
2131:
2128:
2121:
2116:
2113:
2110:
2107:
2104:
2101:
2099:
2096:
2095:
2091:
2089:
2087:
2083:
2079:
2075:
2074:Anne Lawrence
2071:
2066:
2064:
2060:
2056:
2052:
2048:
2044:
2043:Ray Blanchard
2038:
2028:
2026:
2022:
2017:
2013:
2005:
2003:
1999:
1997:
1992:
1988:
1984:
1976:
1974:
1972:
1966:
1961:
1958:
1956:
1955:angular gyrus
1952:
1948:
1947:right insular
1944:
1940:
1935:
1931:
1926:
1924:
1920:
1916:
1912:
1908:
1903:
1896:
1894:
1892:
1888:
1883:
1882:
1876:
1872:
1869:
1868:
1862:
1860:
1855:
1851:
1848:
1847:
1841:
1839:
1836:Hulshoff Pol
1834:
1832:
1828:
1827:forceps minor
1824:
1820:
1816:
1812:
1807:
1804:
1800:
1796:
1791:
1789:
1785:
1781:
1777:
1772:
1770:
1765:
1763:
1757:
1754:
1750:
1746:
1741:
1739:
1735:
1730:
1728:
1724:
1720:
1715:
1713:
1709:
1705:
1701:
1693:
1685:
1682:
1674:
1671:November 2022
1664:
1663:the talk page
1660:
1654:
1652:
1647:This section
1645:
1636:
1635:
1629:
1627:
1624:
1620:
1616:
1611:
1609:
1605:
1601:
1597:
1593:
1589:
1585:
1581:
1576:
1569:
1567:
1564:
1559:
1551:
1549:
1547:
1543:
1539:
1535:
1531:
1526:
1523:
1519:
1515:
1511:
1507:
1502:
1498:
1490:
1488:
1486:
1482:
1478:
1474:
1470:
1465:
1463:
1459:
1455:
1451:
1447:
1443:
1431:
1426:
1424:
1419:
1417:
1412:
1411:
1409:
1408:
1405:
1393:
1383:
1381:
1376:
1371:
1370:
1368:
1367:
1360:
1357:
1355:
1352:
1350:
1347:
1345:
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1340:
1337:
1335:
1332:
1330:
1327:
1325:
1322:
1320:
1317:
1315:
1312:
1311:
1305:
1304:
1295:
1292:
1290:
1287:
1285:
1282:
1280:
1277:
1276:
1275:
1274:United States
1272:
1270:
1267:
1265:
1262:
1260:
1257:
1255:
1252:
1250:
1247:
1245:
1242:
1238:
1235:
1234:
1233:
1230:
1226:
1221:
1218:
1217:
1215:
1214:
1204:
1201:
1199:
1196:
1194:
1191:
1190:
1189:
1188:United States
1186:
1182:
1179:
1177:
1174:
1173:
1172:
1169:
1165:
1162:
1161:
1159:
1157:
1154:
1150:
1147:
1146:
1145:South Africa
1144:
1142:
1139:
1135:
1132:
1131:
1129:
1127:
1124:
1120:
1117:
1115:
1112:
1111:
1109:
1107:
1104:
1102:
1099:
1095:
1092:
1090:
1087:
1085:
1082:
1081:
1079:
1075:
1072:
1070:
1067:
1065:
1062:
1061:
1060:
1057:
1053:
1048:
1045:
1043:
1040:
1038:
1035:
1031:
1028:
1027:
1026:
1023:
1021:
1018:
1016:
1013:
1009:
1006:
1004:
1001:
1000:
999:
996:
995:
993:
987:
982:
981:
974:
973:Transmisogyny
971:
969:
966:
962:
959:
958:
957:
956:Transfeminism
954:
952:
949:
947:
944:
942:
941:Postgenderism
939:
937:
934:
932:
929:
927:
924:
921:
917:
915:
912:
909:
905:
903:
902:Gender binary
900:
898:
895:
893:
890:
888:
885:
883:
880:
878:
875:
873:
870:
867:
863:
862:
856:
855:
848:
845:
843:
840:
838:
835:
833:
830:
826:
823:
822:
821:
818:
816:
813:
811:
808:
806:
803:
801:
798:
796:
793:
792:
790:
783:
780:
778:
775:
773:
770:
768:
765:
763:
760:
758:
755:
753:
750:
749:
747:
738:
737:
730:
727:
723:
720:
718:
715:
714:
713:
710:
708:
705:
703:
700:
696:
695:Transmisogyny
693:
691:
688:
686:
683:
681:
678:
677:
676:
673:
669:
655:
654:
653:
650:
649:
643:
640:
638:
635:
634:
632:
630:
627:
623:
622:United States
620:
618:
615:
614:
613:
610:
608:
605:
603:
600:
599:
595:
592:
590:
589:Organizations
587:
585:
582:
581:
577:
574:
572:
569:
567:
564:
563:
560:
554:
553:
543:
539:
538:
537:
534:
531:
530:Voice therapy
527:
525:
522:
520:
517:
514:
510:
509:
504:
500:
497:
493:
488:
484:
481:
477:
476:
474:
470:
469:
464:
460:
456:
455:masculinizing
453:
451:
448:
447:
445:
441:
440:
435:
431:
426:
422:
421:
419:
415:
412:
411:Gender clinic
408:
407:
403:
398:
397:
390:
387:
383:
382:
378:
376:
373:
372:
371:
368:
364:
363:
359:
357:
356:
352:
350:
347:
346:
345:
342:
340:
337:
333:
330:
328:
327:
323:
321:
318:
316:
313:
311:
308:
306:
303:
301:
298:
296:
295:
291:
289:
286:
283:
282:
277:
275:
272:
270:
267:
266:
265:
262:
260:
257:
255:
254:
250:
246:
243:
242:
241:
238:
236:
233:
231:
230:Gender bender
228:
226:
223:
221:
220:
216:
214:
213:
209:
207:
204:
203:
200:
195:
194:
188:
185:
183:
180:
178:
175:
174:
172:
171:
153:
152:
149:
145:
141:
137:
136:
127:
124:
116:
105:
102:
98:
95:
91:
88:
84:
81:
77:
74: –
73:
69:
68:Find sources:
62:
58:
52:
51:
47:
42:This article
40:
36:
31:
30:
27:
19:
5556:Neuroscience
5522:
5509:
5496:
5483:
5242:Sociobiology
5100:Neuroscience
5080:Intelligence
4626:Anthropology
4579:Color vision
4564:Multitasking
4543:Flynn effect
4538:Intelligence
4520:Folk biology
4263:Evolutionary
4132:
4128:
4122:
4087:
4083:
4073:
4038:
4034:
4024:
3991:
3987:
3981:
3956:
3952:
3946:
3921:
3917:
3911:
3878:
3874:
3868:
3835:
3831:
3825:
3792:
3788:
3782:
3755:
3749:
3719:(1): 49–63.
3716:
3712:
3706:
3681:
3677:
3642:
3636:
3609:
3605:
3595:
3568:
3564:
3520:
3516:
3503:
3494:
3446:
3442:
3432:
3379:
3375:
3316:(1): 22–37.
3313:
3309:
3299:
3287:. Retrieved
3251:
3247:
3237:
3204:
3200:
3190:
3171:
3167:
3157:
3132:
3128:
3121:
3089:(4): 904–7.
3086:
3082:
3072:
3045:
3041:
3031:
2998:
2994:
2988:
2955:
2951:
2945:
2910:
2906:
2896:
2869:
2865:
2855:
2804:
2800:
2790:
2771:
2765:
2746:
2739:
2714:
2710:
2687:cite journal
2654:
2650:
2643:
2608:
2604:
2582:
2565:(1): 24–38.
2562:
2558:
2519:
2515:
2505:
2494:
2484:
2449:
2445:
2410:(1): 29–44.
2407:
2403:
2380:
2363:(1): 24–38.
2360:
2356:
2347:
2334:
2317:(3): 751–7.
2314:
2310:
2296:
2261:
2257:
2175:
2171:
2151:. Retrieved
2144:the original
2130:
2078:James Cantor
2067:
2040:
2009:
2000:
1980:
1970:
1968:
1963:
1959:
1930:Ivanka Savic
1927:
1923:testosterone
1904:
1900:
1891:heterosexual
1879:
1877:
1873:
1865:
1863:
1856:
1852:
1844:
1842:
1837:
1835:
1818:
1815:white matter
1808:
1792:
1787:
1783:
1773:
1766:
1758:
1752:
1744:
1742:
1737:
1733:
1731:
1718:
1716:
1697:
1677:
1668:
1657:Please help
1648:
1619:testosterone
1612:
1577:
1573:
1555:
1538:progesterone
1534:pregnenolone
1527:
1506:testosterone
1494:
1466:
1461:
1439:
1259:Nazi Germany
1211:
991:
832:Publications
788:
745:
571:Legal gender
559:legal status
513:Hair removal
379:
360:
353:
324:
292:
264:Third gender
251:
217:
210:
119:
110:
100:
93:
86:
79:
67:
43:
26:
5381:Determinism
5293:Coevolution
5237:Primatology
5075:Gender role
4980:Orientation
4860:Screen time
4717:Affectional
4699:Development
4378:Mate choice
4305:By-products
4273:Adaptations
4236:Cognitivism
3399:2445/183973
3254:: 251–266.
2522:(1): 56–9.
2452:(1): 93–6.
2337:monozygotic
2051:Kurt Freund
2023:. In those
1799:gray matter
1762:paraphilias
1712:androphilic
1700:trans women
1556:In 2013, a
1546:trans women
1544:but not in
1497:trans women
1481:androphilic
1469:trans women
1454:transsexual
1450:transgender
1223: [
1203:Transphobia
1156:South Korea
1126:New Zealand
1050: [
617:South Korea
557:Rights and
425:in children
402:Health care
389:Transsexual
370:Transgender
344:Trans woman
300:Mudoko dako
281:Femminiello
5540:Categories
5328:Population
5323:Lamarckism
5169:behavioral
5147:Behavioral
5095:Narcissism
5040:Aggression
4830:Hypophobia
4820:Depression
4707:Attachment
4689:Universals
4653:Psychology
4631:Biological
4619:Musicology
4609:Aesthetics
4508:Basophobia
4315:Exaptation
4293:Reciprocal
3382:: 116613.
3376:NeuroImage
3308:. Review.
3246:. Review.
3199:. Review.
3083:NeuroImage
2153:2012-07-01
2122:References
2047:a taxonomy
2045:developed
1887:homosexual
1769:Dick Swaab
1704:gynephilic
1653:to readers
1608:aggression
1604:handedness
1558:twin study
1473:gynephilic
1094:Tamil Nadu
986:By country
897:Deadnaming
847:Television
825:non-binary
810:Literature
707:Inequality
680:Non-binary
607:Healthcare
450:feminizing
320:Two-spirit
305:Mukhannath
274:Faʻafafine
83:newspapers
46:references
5173:cognitive
5165:Affective
5050:Cognition
5004:Sexuality
4990:Pair bond
4750:Education
4407:Cognition
4325:Inclusive
4265:processes
4253:Criticism
4016:207089236
3860:207445960
3491:233870640
3424:211068133
3408:1053-8119
3330:1740-634X
3289:4 October
3268:0149-7634
2731:216136930
2579:144330783
2555:Diamond M
2424:1553-2739
2377:144330783
2353:Diamond M
2303:Zucker KJ
2208:167207854
2192:1931-7565
2086:fetishism
1991:cisgender
1969:Berglund
1907:cisgender
1708:trans men
1542:trans men
1522:secondary
1501:cisgender
1477:trans men
1294:Stonewall
1264:Singapore
1232:Australia
1220:Argentina
1181:2022 bill
1141:Singapore
1114:2017 bill
1110:Pakistan
1084:2014 bill
1030:2016 bill
1015:Australia
998:Argentina
519:Pregnancy
404:practices
381:Akava'ine
349:Fakaleitī
339:Trans man
259:Koekchuch
225:Cisgender
219:Burrnesha
206:Androgyne
113:July 2022
57:talk page
5442:Memetics
5202:Ethology
5160:genetics
4995:Physical
4960:Jealousy
4915:Activity
4721:maternal
4677:Religion
4665:Morality
4643:Language
4524:taxonomy
4337:Mismatch
4283:Cheating
4278:Altruism
4157:14368724
4149:19591032
4114:20039113
4057:20582803
4008:18299976
3938:22375647
3903:43151898
3852:16298429
3817:15986011
3809:16010466
3774:52779246
3741:42131695
3628:20132527
3587:18056697
3539:21467211
3483:33956296
3416:32057995
3348:30082887
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