Habitat fragmentation - Knowledge (XXG)

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them to alter their behaviours and interactions, therefore resetting the so-called "behavioral space race". The way in which fragmentation changes and re-shapes these interactions can occur in many different forms. Most prey species have patches of land that are a refuge from their predators, allowing them the safety to reproduce and raise their young. Human introduced structures such as roads and pipelines alter these areas by facilitating predator activity in these refuges, increasing predator-prey overlap. The opposite could also occur in the favour of prey, increasing prey refuge and subsequently decreasing predation rates. Fragmentation may also increase predator abundance or predator efficiency and therefore increase predation rates in this manner. Several other factors can also increase or decrease the extent to which the shifting predator-prey dynamics affect certain species, including how diverse a predators diet is and how flexible habitat requirements are for predators and prey. Depending on which species are affected and these other factors, fragmentation and its effects on predator-prey dynamics may contribute to species extinction. In response to these new environmental pressures, new adaptive behaviours may be developed. Prey species may adapt to increased risk of predation with strategies such as altering mating tactics or changing behaviours and activities related to food and foraging.

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vocalizations, the song, and the territorial call. The territorial call is used by males to defend and signal territory from other male Larks and is shared between neighbouring territories when males respond to a rivals song. Occasionally it is used as a threat signal to signify an impending attack on territory. A large song repertoire can enhance a male's ability to survive and reproduce as he has a greater ability to defend his territory from other males, and a larger number of males in the species means a larger variety of songs being transmitted. Fragmentation of the Dupont's Lark territory from agriculture, forestry and urbanization appears to have a large effect on their communication structures. Males only perceive territories of a certain distance to be rivals and so isolation of territory from others due to fragmentation leads to a decrease in territorial calls as the males no longer have any reason to use it or have any songs to match.

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fragmentation per se), has been suggested to be small. A review of empirical studies found that, of the 381 reported significant effect of habitat fragmentation per se on species occurrences, abundances or diversity in the scientific literature, 76% were positive whereas 24% were negative. Despite these results, the scientific literature tends to emphasize negative effects more than positive effects. Positive effects of habitat fragmentation per se imply that several small patches of habitat can have higher conservation value than a single large patch of equivalent size. Land sharing strategies could therefore have more positive impacts on species than land sparing strategies. Although the negative effects of habitat loss are generally viewed to be much larger than that of habitat fragmentation, the two events are heavily connected and observations are not usually independent of one another.

541:. Genetic drift is random changes to the genetic makeup of populations and leads to reductions in genetic diversity. The smaller the population is, the more likely genetic drift will be a driving force of evolution rather than natural selection. Because genetic drift is a random process, it does not allow species to become more adapted to their environment. Habitat fragmentation is associated with increases to genetic drift in small populations which can have negative consequences for the genetic diversity of the populations. However, research suggests that some tree species may be resilient to the negative consequences of genetic drift until population size is as small as ten individuals or less. 66: 665:

fitness and survival. Habitat fragmentation alters the resources available and the structure of habitats, as a result, alters the behaviours of species and the dynamics between differing species. Behaviours affected can be within a species such as reproduction, mating, foraging, species dispersal, communication and movement patterns or can be behaviours between species such as predator-prey relationships. In addition, when animals happen to venture into unknown areas in between fragmented forests or landscapes, they can supposedly come into contact with humans which puts them at a great risk and further decreases their chances of survival.

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Endogenous threats can result in changes to breeding patterns or migration patterns and are often triggered by exogenous processes. Exogenous processes are independent of species biology and can include habitat degradation, habitat subdivision or habitat isolation. These processes can have a substantial impact on endogenous processes by fundamentally altering species behavior. Habitat subdivision or isolation can lead to changes in dispersal or movement of species including changes to seasonal migration. These changes can lead to a decrease in a density of species, increased competition or even increased predation.

51: 513:. When a habitat becomes fragmented and reduced in area, gene flow and migration are typically reduced. Fewer individuals will migrate into the remaining fragments, and small disconnected populations that may have once been part of a single large population will become reproductively isolated. Scientific evidence that gene flow is reduced due to fragmentation depends on the study species. While trees that have long-range pollination and dispersal mechanisms may not experience reduced gene flow following fragmentation, most species are at risk of reduced gene flow following habitat fragmentation. 1106:

Planted forests become increasingly important as they supply approximately a quarter of global industrial roundwood production and are predicted to account for 50% of global output within two decades (Brown, 1998; Jaakko Poyry, 1999). Although there have been many difficulties, the implementation of forest certification has been quite prominent in being able to raise effective awareness and disseminating knowledge on a holistic concept, embracing economic, environmental and social issues, worldwide. While also providing a tool for a range of other applications than assessment of

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electricity transmission ROWs, gas pipeline and telecommunication ROWs. Electricity transmission ROWs are created to prevent vegetation interference with transmission lines. Some studies have shown that electricity transmission ROWs harbor more plant species than adjoining forest areas, due to alterations in the microclimate in and around the corridor. Discontinuities in forest areas associated with utility right-of-ways can serve as biodiversity havens for native bees and grassland species, as the right-of-ways are preserved in an early successional stage.

355: 1612: 1169: 442:. The existence of viable habitat is critical to the survival of any species, and in many cases, the fragmentation of any remaining habitat can lead to difficult decisions for conservation biologists. Given a limited amount of resources available for conservation is it preferable to protect the existing isolated patches of habitat or to buy back land to get the largest possible contiguous piece of land. In rare cases, a 7310: 162:, or whether the term primarily applies to the phenomenon of habitat being cut into smaller pieces without significant reduction in habitat area. Scientists who use the stricter definition of "habitat fragmentation" per se would refer to the loss of habitat area as "habitat loss" and explicitly mention both terms if describing a situation where the habitat becomes less connected and there is less overall habitat. 1157:

that is denoted by isolated patches of habitat surrounded by unsuitable landscape environments, the variegation model applies to landscapes modified by agriculture where small patches of habitat remain near the remnant original habitat. In between these patches are a matrix of grassland that is often modified versions of the original habitat. These areas do not present as much of a barrier to native species.

1211: 1183: 587: 842: 155:"fragmentation ... not only causes loss of the amount of habitat but by creating small, isolated patches it also changes the properties of the remaining habitat" (van den Berg et al. 2001). Habitat fragmentation is the landscape level of the phenomenon, and patch level process. Thus meaning, it covers; the patch areas, edge effects, and patch shape complexity. 395:

different climate and favours different species from the interior habitat. Small fragments are therefore unfavourable for species that require interior habitat. The percentage preservation of contiguous habitats is closely related to both genetic and species biodiversity preservation. Generally a 10% remnant contiguous habitat will result in a 50%

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organisms are disproportionately affected by some types of habitat fragmentation because they cannot respond quickly to the altered spatial configuration of the habitat. Habitat fragmentation consistently reduces biodiversity by 13 to 75% and impairs key ecosystem functions by decreasing biomass and

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The other model is the variegation model. Variegated landscapes retain much of their natural vegetation but are intermixed with gradients of modified habitat This model of habitat fragmentation typically applies to landscapes that are modified by agriculture. In contrast to the fragmentation model

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Forest patches that are smaller or more isolated will lose species faster than those that are larger or less isolated. A large number of small forest "islands" typically cannot support the same biodiversity that a single contiguous forest would hold, even if their combined area is much greater than

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In the boreal woodland caribous of British Columbia, the effects of fragmentation are demonstrated. The species refuge area is peatland bog which has been interrupted by linear features such as roads and pipelines. These features have allowed their natural predators, the wolf, and the black bear to

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Habitat fragmentation due to anthropogenic activities has been shown to greatly affect the predator-prey dynamics of many species by altering the number of species and the members of those species. This affects the natural predator-prey relationships between animals in a given community and forces

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The best solution is generally dependent on the particular species or ecosystem that is being considered. More mobile species, like most birds, do not need connected habitat while some smaller animals, like rodents, may be more exposed to predation in open land. These questions generally fall under

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The effects of current fragmentation will continue to emerge for decades. Extinction debts are likely to come due, although the counteracting immigration debts may never fully be paid. Indeed, the experiments here reveal ongoing losses of biodiversity and ecosystem functioning two decades or longer

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than nearby protected areas, and forest fires only affected 0.1 percent of certified land area, compared to 10.4 percent of protected areas. However, it must be duly noted that short term decisions regarding forest sector employment and harvest practices can have long-term effects on biodiversity.

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Forest fragmentation also includes less subtle forms of discontinuities such as utility right-of-ways (ROWs). Utility ROWs are of ecological interest because they have become pervasive in many forest communities, spanning areas as large as 5 million acres in the United States. Utility ROWs include

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of an environment. Increased fragmentation has been linked to reduced populations and diversity of fungi responsible for decomposition, as well as the insects they are host to. This has been linked to simplified food webs in highly fragmented areas compared to old growth forests. Furthermore, edge

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As the remaining habitat patches are smaller, they tend to support smaller populations of fewer species. Small populations are at an increased risk of a variety of genetic consequences that influence their long-term survival. Remnant populations often contain only a subset of the genetic diversity

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Reduced fragment area, increased isolation, and increased edge initiate changes that percolate through all ecosystems. Habitat fragmentation is able to formulate persistent outcomes which can also become unexpected such as an abundance of some species and the pattern that long temporal scales are

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may gain some measure of disease protection by being distributed in isolated habitats, and when controlled for overall habitat loss some studies have shown a positive relationship between species richness and fragmentation; this phenomenon has been called the habitat amount hypothesis, though the

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Fletcher, Robert J.; Didham, Raphael K.; Banks-Leite, Cristina; Barlow, Jos; Ewers, Robert M.; Rosindell, James; Holt, Robert D.; Gonzalez, Andrew; Pardini, Renata; Damschen, Ellen I.; Melo, Felipe P.L.; Ries, Leslie; Prevedello, Jayme A.; Tscharntke, Teja; Laurance, William F.; Lovejoy, Thomas;

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Although the way habitat fragmentation affects the genetics and extinction rates of species has been heavily studied, fragmentation has also been shown to affect species' behaviours and cultures as well. This is important because social interactions can determine and have an effect on a species'

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and reducing gene flow within plant species. While genetic variation may decrease with remnant population size, not all fragmentation events lead to genetic losses and different types of genetic variation. Rarely, fragmentation can also increase gene flow among remnant populations, breaking down

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is found in the fossil record.Studies have demonstrated the impacts of individual species at the landscape level For example, From research the results show that the impact of deer herbivory on forest plant communities can be observed at the landscape level at the Rondeau Provincial park for the

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Forest fragmentation is a form of habitat fragmentation where forests are reduced (either naturally or man-made) to relatively small, isolated patches of forest known as forest fragments or forest remnants. The intervening matrix that separates the remaining woodland patches can be natural open

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become more likely in the area as humidity drops and temperature and wind levels rise. Exotic and pest species may establish themselves easily in such disturbed environments, and the proximity of domestic animals often upsets the natural ecology. Also, habitat along the edge of a fragment has a

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There are two types of processes that can lead to habitat fragmentation. There are exogenous processes and endogenous processes. Endogenous is a process that develops as a part of species biology so they typically include changes in biology, behavior, and interactions within or between species.

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reservoirs. Habitats which were once continuous become divided into separate fragments. Due to human activities, many tropical and temperate habitats have already been severely fragmented, and in the near future, the degree of fragmentation will significantly rise. After intensive clearing, the

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In order for populations to evolve in response to natural selection, they must be large enough that natural selection is a stronger evolutionary force than genetic drift. Recent studies on the impacts of habitat fragmentation on adaptation in some plant species have suggested that organisms in

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Area is the primary determinant of the number of species in a fragment and the relative contributions of demographic and genetic processes to the risk of global population extinction depend on habitat configuration, stochastic environmental variation and species features. Minor fluctuations in

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Additionally, forest fragmentation affects the native plant species present within the area by dividing large populations into smaller ones. In turn, smaller populations are more inclined to be affected by genetic drift and population performance, as well as experience increases in inbreeding

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of native vegetation. In some cases, a bridge or underpass may be enough to join two fragments. This has the potential to mitigate the problem of isolation but not the loss of interior habitat. Wildlife corridors can help animals to move and occupy new areas when food sources or other natural

371:. In an unfragmented landscape a declining population can be "rescued" by immigration from a nearby expanding population. In fragmented landscapes, the distance between fragments may prevent this from happening. Additionally, unoccupied fragments of habitat that are separated from a source of 350:

Habitat loss, which can occur through the process of habitat fragmentation, is considered to be the greatest threat to species. But, the effect of the configuration of habitat patches within the landscape, independent of the effect of the amount of habitat within the landscape (referred to as

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Fragmentation affecting the communication behaviours of birds has been well studied in Dupont's Lark. The Larks primarily reside in regions of Spain and are a small passerine bird which uses songs as a means of cultural transmission between members of the species. The Larks have two distinct

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climate, resources, or other factors that would be unremarkable and quickly corrected in large populations can be catastrophic in small, isolated populations. Thus fragmentation of habitat is an important cause of species extinction. Population dynamics of subdivided populations tend to vary

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The species-oriented approach focuses specifically on individual species and how they each respond to their environment and habitat changes with in it. This approach can be limited because it does only focus on individual species and does not allow for a broad view of the impacts of habitat

422:. These fragments of habitat may not be large or connected enough to support species that need a large territory where they can find mates and food. The loss and fragmentation of habitats makes it difficult for migratory species to find places to rest and feed along their migration routes. 3973:

Haddad, Nick M.; Brudvig, Lars A.; Clobert, Jean; Davies, Kendi F.; Gonzalez, Andrew; Holt, Robert D.; Lovejoy, Thomas E.; Sexton, Joseph O.; Austin, Mike P.; Collins, Cathy D.; Cook, William M.; Damschen, Ellen I.; Ewers, Robert M.; Foster, Bryan L.; Jenkins, Clinton N. (2015-03-06).

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Pavlova, Alexandra; Beheregaray, Luciano B.; Coleman, Rhys; Gilligan, Dean; Harrisson, Katherine A.; Ingram, Brett A.; Kearns, Joanne; Lamb, Annika M.; Lintermans, Mark; Lyon, Jarod; Nguyen, Thuy T. T.; Sasaki, Minami; Tonkin, Zeb; Yen, Jian D. L.; Sunnucks, Paul (July 2017).

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Bogaert, Jan; Barima, Yao S. S.; Mongo, Léon Iyongo Waya; Bamba, Issouf; Mama, Adi; Toyi, Mireille; Lafortezza, Raffaele (2011), Li, Chao; Lafortezza, Raffaele; Chen, Jiquan (eds.), "Forest Fragmentation: Causes, Ecological Impacts and Implications for Landscape Management",

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and tries to infer causal relationships between the defined landscapes and the occurrence of species or groups of species within them. The approach has limitations in its collective assumptions across species or landscapes which may not account for variations amongst them.

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increases, facilitating the expression of deleterious alleles that reduce the fitness. Habitat fragmentation can lead to inbreeding depression for many species due to reduced gene flow. Inbreeding depression is associated with conservation risks, like local extinction.

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Wilson, Maxwell C.; Chen, Xiao-Yong; Corlett, Richard T.; Didham, Raphael K.; Ding, Ping; Holt, Robert D.; Holyoak, Marcel; Hu, Guang; Hughes, Alice C.; Jiang, Lin; Laurance, William F.; Liu, Jiajia; Pimm, Stuart L.; Robinson, Scott K.; Russo, Sabrina E. (2016-02-01).

451:(Single Large or Several Small). Habitat loss in a biodiversity hotspot can result in a localized extinction crisis, generally speaking habitat loss in a hotspot location can be a good indicator or predictor of the number of threatened and extinct endemic species. 698:

have also brought on varying implications into ecosystems which in turn affect animal behaviour and responses generated. Although there are some species which are able to survive these kinds of harsh conditions, such as, cutting down wood in the forests for

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more efficiently travel over landscapes and between patches of land. Since their predators can more easily access the caribous' refuge, the females of the species attempt to avoid the area, affecting their reproductive behaviours and offspring produced.

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compared to interior forest due to variations in light availability, presence of wind, changes in precipitation, and overall moisture content of leaf litter. These microenvironments are often not conducive to overall forest health as they enable

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after fragmentation occurred. Understanding the relationship between transient and long-term dynamics is a substantial challenge that ecologists must tackle, and fragmentation experiments will be central for relating observation to theory.

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released a university based newspaper statement stating that 70% of the world's remaining forest stands within one kilometre of a forest edge putting biodiversity at an immense risk based on research conducted by international scientists.

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Brooks, Thomas M.; Mittermeier, Russell A.; Mittermeier, Cristina G.; da Fonseca, Gustavo A. B.; Rylands, Anthony B.; Konstant, William R.; Flick, Penny; Pilgrim, John; Oldfield, Sara; Magin, Georgina; Hilton-Taylor, Craig (August 2002).

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van den Berg LJL, Bullock JM, Clarke RT, Langsten RHW, Rose RJ. 2001. Territory selection by the Dartford warbler (Sylvia undata) in Dorset, England: the role of vegetation type, habitat fragmentation, and population size. Biol. Conserv.

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Another mitigation measure is the enlargement of small remnants to increase the amount of interior habitat. This may be impractical since developed land is often more expensive and could require significant time and effort to restore.

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of a forest patch depends on a) the size of the patch, and b) its degree of isolation. Isolation depends on the distance to the nearest similar patch, and the contrast with the surrounding areas. For example, if a cleared area is

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in unfragmented forests verses fragmented forests. As for an example of an antagonistic relationship of nest predation, a study found that there is no increase in nest predation on fragmented forests - thus not supporting the

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will lessen the isolation of the forest fragments. However, when formerly forested lands are converted permanently to pastures, agricultural fields, or human-inhabited developed areas, the remaining forest fragments, and the

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Dixo, Marianna; Metzger, Jean Paul; Morgante, João S.; Zamudio, Kelly R. (August 2009). "Habitat fragmentation reduces genetic diversity and connectivity among toad populations in the Brazilian Atlantic Coastal Forest".

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While habitat fragmentation is often associated with its effects on large plant and animal populations and biodiversity, due to the interconnectedness of ecosystems there are also significant effects that it has on the

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Wagner, David L.; Metzler, Kenneth J.; Leicht-Young, Stacey A.; Motzkin, Glenn (2014-09-01). "Vegetation composition along a New England transmission line corridor and its implications for other trophic levels".

1039:(beyond simple provisioning), through government compensation schemes, and through effective regulation and legal frameworks. The only realistic method of conserving forests is to apply and practice sustainable 815:

levels, resulting in decreased nutrient retention. Furthermore, habitat fragmentation alters relationships between biodiversity and ecosystem functioning across multiple scales, affecting both the local loss of

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Fahrig, L. (2018) Forty years of biais in habitat fragmentation research, In: Effective Conservation Science: Data Not Dogma (Edited by Kareiva, Marvier and Silliman), Oxford University Press, United Kingdom

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The pattern-oriented approach is based on land cover and its patterning in correlation with species occurrences. One model of study for landscape patterning is the patch-matrix-corridor model developed by

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Peacock, Mary M.; Smith, Andrew T. (24 November 1997). "The effect of habitat fragmentation on dispersal patterns, mating behavior, and genetic variation in a pika ( Ochotona princeps ) metapopulation".

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Banks, Sam C; Piggott, Maxine P; Stow, Adam J; Taylor, Andrea C (2007). "Sex and sociality in a disconnected world: a review of the impacts of habitat fragmentation on animal social interactions".

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Fischer, Joern & B. Lindenmayer, David. (2007). Landscape modification and habitat fragmentation: a synthesis. Global Ecology and Biogeography. 16. 265-280. 10.1111/j.1466-8238.2007.00287.

3858:"Effects of forest fragmentation on pollination of Mesogyne insignis (Moraceae) in Amani Nature Reserve forests, Tanzania: Effects of forest fragmentation on pollination of Mesogyne insignis" 383:. Studies showed 25% of juveniles travel a distance over 200m compared to 4% of adults. Of these, 95% remain in their new locale, demonstrating that this journey is necessary for survival. 4891:

The technical report from 2006 - the result of a collaboration between the Swiss Federal Office for the Environment (FOEN) and the European Environment Agency (EEA). Accessed: Feb 22, 2016

4869:, an ongoing programme to map the past, current and future impacts of human activities on the natural environment, specifically highlighting larger wilderness areas and their fragmentation 828:. Overall, habitat fragmentation significantly disrupts ecosystem services by altering nutrient retention, biodiversity, and ecosystem functioning at various spatial and temporal scales. 6625: 905:

activities. Moreover, fragmentation can affect the relationship present between animals and plants, such as the relationships regarding seed-dispersal or pollinator-plant relationship.

1031:, and water quality regulation in soybean fields through separate distances by nearby forest fragments which all varied in isolation and size across an agricultural landscape in 575:

fragmented landscapes may be able to adapt to fragmentation. However, there are also many cases where fragmentation reduces adaptation capacity because of small population size.

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being possible vectors of habitat corridors. A recent study has found that green roofs are beneficial in connecting the habitats of arthropods, specifically bees and weevils.

878:, remnant woodlands act like islands of forest in a sea of pastures, fields, subdivisions, shopping malls, etc. These fragments will then begin to undergo the process of 6485: 3731:

Komonen, Atte; Penttila, Reijo; Lindgren, Mariko; Hanski, Ilkka (July 2000). "Forest fragmentation truncates a food chain based on an old-growth forest bracket fungus".

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A few approaches and measures which can be taken in order to conserve forests are methods by which erosion can be minimized, waste is properly disposed, conserve native

344:. This underscores the severe and lasting ecological impacts of fragmentation, which could be highlighted in the sections discussing the consequences of fragmentation. 6733: 520:

between related individuals. Inbreeding does not always result in negative fitness consequences, but when inbreeding is associated with fitness reduction it is called

2829:"Low genetic diversity and strong population structure shaped by anthropogenic habitat fragmentation in a critically endangered primate, Trachypithecus leucocephalus" 6728: 3054:

Legrand, Delphine; Cote, Julien; Fronhofer, Emanuel A.; Holt, Robert D.; Ronce, Ophélie; Schtickzelle, Nicolas; Travis, Justin M. J.; Clobert, Jean (January 2017).

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separate fragments tend to be very small islands isolated from each other by cropland, pasture, pavement, or even barren land. The latter is often the result of

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modifications caused by humans they are led onto artificial structures which emit artificial light which are induced by dry asphalt dry roads for an example.

390:. Microclimatic changes in light, temperature, and wind can alter the ecology around the fragment, and in the interior and exterior portions of the fragment. 7130: 4495: 980:

of Chile fragmentation appear to not affect overall plant diversity much, and tree diversity is indeed higher in fragments than in large continuous forests.

5812: 6962: 803:, impacting nutrient retention, species richness, and local biophysical conditions. Fragmentation-mediated processes cause generalizable responses at the 7180: 5882: 4458: 246:

300 million years ago led to a great loss of amphibian diversity, but simultaneously the drier climate spurred on a burst of diversity among reptiles.

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Crooks, Kevin R.; Burdett, Christopher L.; Theobald, David M.; King, Sarah R. B.; Di Marco, Moreno; Rondinini, Carlo; Boitani, Luigi (2017-07-18).

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Magnago, Luiz Fernando Silva; Rocha, Mariana Ferreira; Meyer, Leila; Martins, Sebastião Venâncio; Meira-Neto, João Augusto Alves (September 2015).

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occurs when individuals of the same species exchange genetic information through reproduction. Populations can maintain genetic diversity through

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can increase. Species that relocate seasonally can do so more safely and effectively when it does not interfere with human development barriers.

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Siry, Jacek P.; Cubbage, Frederick W.; Ahmed, Miyan Rukunuddin (2005-05-01). "Sustainable forest management: global trends and opportunities".

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validity of this claim has been disputed. The ongoing debate of what size fragments are most relevant for conservation is often referred to as

2772:"Severe consequences of habitat fragmentation on genetic diversity of an endangered Australian freshwater fish: A call for assisted gene flow" 6478: 4578: 4433: 4400: 4371: 4238: 2602: 2577: 1066:

has efficiently been able to put into place an approach to sustainable forest management, and they established this in the late 1980s. Their

5897: 5454: 4796: 2674:"Consequences of plant population size and density for plant-pollinator interactions and plant performance: Plant-pollinator interactions" 3811:"Meta-Analysis of the Effects of Forest Fragmentation on Interspecific Interactions: Forest Fragmentation and Interspecific Interactions" 7354: 6085: 208:

impacts which can increase species survival in those environments. Overall, habitat fragmentation results in habitat disintegration and

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Laiolo, Paola; Tella, José L (2005). "Habitat fragmentation affects culture transmission: patterns of song matching in Dupont's lark".

2956:"Habitat Fragmentation Differentially Affects Genetic Variation, Phenotypic Plasticity and Survival in Populations of a Gypsum Endemic" 2475: 7215: 6952: 5838: 5661: 4914: 2713:

Kramer, Andrea T.; Ison, Jennifer L.; Ashley, Mary V.; Howe, Henry F. (August 2008). "The Paradox of Forest Fragmentation Genetics".

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Russell, K. N.; Ikerd, H.; Droege, S. (2005-07-01). "The potential conservation value of unmowed powerline strips for native bees".

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Rametsteiner, Ewald; Simula, Markku (2003-01-01). "Forest certification—an instrument to promote sustainable forest management?".

4533: 7344: 7195: 6721: 6471: 2285: 4496:"Native and exotic plant species diversity in forest fragments and forestry plantations of a coastal landscape of central Chile" 2027: 7270: 7062: 7001: 6555: 5917: 5630: 5497: 5209: 50: 3286:"A Rapid, Strong, and Convergent Genetic Response to Urban Habitat Fragmentation in Four Divergent and Widespread Vertebrates" 2220:"Microclimatic conditions at forest edges have significant impacts on vegetation structure in large Atlantic forest fragments" 893:

sources for animals thus splitting these species apart. Thus, making these animals become much more susceptible to effects of

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to the next, especially for species living in smaller population sizes. Whereas, for species of larger populations have more

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fields (Mitchell et al. 2014). Mitchell et al. (2014), researched on six varying ecosystem factors such as crop production,

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and GRASP projects in 2002. Areas shown in black and red delineate areas of severe and moderate habitat loss, respectively.

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Young, Andrew; Boyle, Tim; Brown, Tony (1996). "The population genetic consequences of habitat fragmentation for plants".

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that alter the conditions of the outer areas of the fragment, greatly reducing the amount of true forest interior habitat.

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found in the previously continuous habitat. In these cases, processes that act upon underlying genetic diversity, such as

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fragmentation is a process by which large and contiguous habitats get divided into smaller, isolated patches of habitats.

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can also occur frequently and measures can also be taken to further prevent forest fires from occurring. For example, in

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Matlack, Glenn R. (1993). "Microenvironment variation within and among forest edge sites in the eastern United States".

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The pattern-oriented approach focuses on land cover defined by human means and activities. This model has stemmed from

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Wildlife passages – De-Fragmentation in the Netherlands – How to evaluate their effectiveness? Accessed: Jan 22, 2009

3889:"Tropical forest fragmentation and nest predation – an experimental study in an Eastern Arc montane forest, Tanzania" 1062:

can provide with, thus businesses which will want more access to the cutting of forests to gain those resources. The

7135: 6743: 6535: 6202: 5922: 5126: 5023: 2103:"Find the weakest link. A comparison between demographic, genetic and demo-genetic metapopulation extinction times" 2087: 1330: 1098: 854: 730: 7175: 7155: 7140: 7110: 7006: 6383: 5995: 5887: 5745: 5730: 5725: 5116: 3627:

Nordén, Jenni; Penttilä, Reijo; Siitonen, Juha; Tomppo, Erkki; Ovaskainen, Otso (May 2013). Thrall, Peter (ed.).

1354:"Genetic effects of anthropogenic habitat fragmentation on remnant animal and plant populations: a meta-analysis" 708: 331:

is by reducing the amount of suitable habitat available for organisms. Habitat fragmentation often involves both

84: 6142: 4875:– Simulations of habitat fragmentation and population genetics online at Monash University's Virtual Laboratory. 4257: 3055: 7303: 7220: 7190: 7170: 6778: 6696: 6681: 6671: 6646: 6641: 6373: 6368: 6338: 5605: 5487: 703:

industries, there are animals which can survive this change but some that cannot. An example includes, varying

112: 92: 4470: 4461:[Fragmentation and regeneration dynamics of the Maulino forest: present status and future prospects] 4163:"Urban Power Line Corridors as Novel Habitats for Grassland and Alien Plant Species in South-Western Finland" 7145: 7047: 6994: 6753: 6676: 6217: 6080: 5990: 5858: 5740: 5710: 5567: 5532: 5252: 5219: 5194: 4606: 3629:"Specialist species of wood-inhabiting fungi struggle while generalists thrive in fragmented boreal forests" 3541: 2876:

Hedrick, Philip W.; Kalinowski, Steven T. (November 2000). "Inbreeding Depression in Conservation Biology".

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resources are lacking in their core habitat, and animals can find new mates in neighbouring regions so that

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In scientific literature, there is some debate whether the term "habitat fragmentation" applies in cases of

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the single forest. However, forest islands in rural landscapes greatly increase their biodiversity. In the

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the inability of individual forest fragments to support viable populations, especially of large vertebrates

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by some barrier are less likely to be repopulated than adjoining fragments. Even small species such as the

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Lampinen, Jussi; Ruokolainen, Kalle; Huhta, Ari-Pekka; Chapman, Maura (Gee) Geraldine (13 November 2015).

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Delaney, Kathleen Semple; Riley, Seth P. D.; Fisher, Robert N.; Fleischer, Robert C. (16 September 2010).

1275: 1260: 960: 596: 372: 850: 7165: 7150: 6971: 6892: 6859: 6818: 6788: 6783: 6748: 6666: 6610: 6550: 6540: 6267: 6212: 6060: 5843: 5800: 5790: 5785: 5542: 5522: 5378: 5368: 5310: 5305: 5141: 4993: 4631: 4459:"Fragmentación y dinámica de regeneración del bosque Maulino: diagnóstico actual y perspectivas futuras" 1798:

Lienert, Judit (July 2004). "Habitat fragmentation effects on fitness of plant populations – a review".

1202: 583:

Some species that have experienced genetic consequences due to habitat fragmentation are listed below:

521: 454:

One solution to the problem of habitat fragmentation is to link the fragments by preserving or planting

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Kinver, Mark. (2013, September 26). "Forest fragmentation triggers 'ecological Armageddon'", BBC News.

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Matesanz, Silvia; Rubio Teso, María Luisa; García-Fernández, Alfredo; Escudero, Adrián (26 May 2017).

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Quammen, David (1997), "The Song of the Dodo: Island Biogeography in an Age of Extinction" (Scribner)

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Defragmentation in Belgium (Flanders) – Connecting nature, connecting people. Accessed: Jan 22, 2009

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at both local and regional scales, influencing biodiversity through interactions with anthropogenic

61:. France is the most deforested country in Europe, with only 15% of the native vegetation remaining. 7067: 7042: 7035: 6957: 6879: 6600: 6590: 6560: 6443: 6418: 6282: 6252: 6197: 6110: 6000: 5985: 5932: 5765: 5700: 5582: 5512: 5043: 4223:

Landscape Ecology in Forest Management and Conservation: Challenges and Solutions for Global Change

1280: 1255: 1144: 1094: 1063: 918: 875: 808: 755: 482: 419: 336: 332: 230: 209: 197: 5646: 2625:"Genetic diversity maintained among fragmented populations of a tree undergoing range contraction" 1121:

Two approaches are typically used to understand habitat fragmentation and its ecological impacts.

1035:. Sustainable forest management can be achieved in several ways including by managing forests for 549:

Habitat fragmentation decreases the size and increases plant populations' spatial isolation. With

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was deemed successful as it has saved over nearly half a billion acres of land around the world.

554: 292: 263: 5912: 3928:"Exploring the influences of different processes of habitat fragmentation on ecosystem services" 3436:"Nowhere to hide: Effects of linear features on predator-prey dynamics in a large mammal system" 2376:

Hanski, Ilkka (May 2015). Triantis, Kostas (ed.). "Habitat fragmentation and species richness".

1352:

Schlaepfer, Daniel R.; Braschler, Brigitte; Rusterholz, Hans-Peter; Baur, Bruno (October 2018).

406:

habitat in many third world countries has experienced fragmentation through the development of

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McIntyre, S.; Barrett, G. W. (1992). "Habitat Variegation, An Alternative to Fragmentation".

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Magrach, Ainhoa; Laurance, William F.; Larrinaga, Asier R.; Santamaria, Luis (October 2014).

3388:"Habitat loss, fragmentation and predator impact: spatial implications for prey conservation" 1781: 1521: 7339: 7011: 6706: 6530: 6297: 6160: 6152: 6070: 5952: 5937: 5873: 5853: 5770: 5760: 5755: 5720: 5552: 5492: 5363: 5164: 5106: 5018: 4978: 4837: 4767: 4712: 4669: 4566: 4513: 4500: 4421: 4332: 4277: 4226: 4192: 4182: 4143: 4107: 4061: 4011: 3995: 3947: 3900: 3869: 3822: 3791: 3748: 3705: 3648: 3578: 3568: 3537: 3528:

Laiolo, Paola; Tella, José L (2007). "Erosion of animal cultures in fragmented landscapes".

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Borrell, James S.; Wang, Nian; Nichols, Richard A.; Buggs, Richard J. A. (15 August 2018).

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of species that do not have at least one fragment capable of supporting a viable population

188:

Additionally, the effects of habitat fragmentation damage the ability for species, such as

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The Fragmented Forest: Island Biogeography Theory and the Preservation of Biotic Diversity

2166: 2162:"High dispersal in a frog species suggests that it is vulnerable to habitat fragmentation" 2002: 1616: 1611: 1240: 969: 879: 617: 603: 284: 280: 96: 4042:"Habitat fragmentation and biodiversity conservation: key findings and future challenges" 3810: 4833: 4763: 4708: 4665: 4328: 4273: 4178: 4139: 4103: 4057: 3991: 3943: 3787: 3744: 3701: 3644: 3491: 3403: 3301: 3239: 3203: 3147: 3074: 2924: 2787: 2726: 2514: 2437: 2389: 2326: 2311:"Quantification of habitat fragmentation reveals extinction risk in terrestrial mammals" 2235: 2178: 2118: 2046: 1960: 1851: 1811: 1744: 1650: 1615: This article incorporates text from this source, which is available under the 1570: 1465: 1430: 1369: 6768: 6413: 6237: 6190: 6120: 6115: 6010: 5877: 5750: 5557: 5547: 5527: 5404: 5330: 5295: 5234: 5111: 5066: 4958: 4570: 4457:

Bustamante, Ramiro O.; Simonetti, Javier A.; Grez, Audrey A.; San Martín, José (2005).

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processes that slowly alter the layout of the physical environment (suspected of being

39: 4841: 4716: 3951: 3752: 2499:"Habitat connectivity shapes urban arthropod communities: the key role of green roofs" 1658: 83:

describes the emergence of discontinuities (fragmentation) in an organism's preferred

7328: 7265: 7255: 7028: 6919: 6907: 6902: 6438: 5414: 5388: 5345: 5335: 5290: 5277: 5257: 5149: 4983: 4938: 4772: 4747: 4588: 4358:

Bierregaard, Richard (2001). Claude Gascon; Thomas E. Lovejoy; Rita Mesquita (eds.).

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Didham, Raphael K (2010-11-15), "Ecological Consequences of Habitat Fragmentation",

4256:

Leimu, Roosa; Vergeer, Philippine; Angeloni, Francesco; Ouborg, N. Joop (May 2010).

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Fahrig, Lenore (November 2003). "Effects of Habitat Fragmentation on Biodiversity".

1489: 1412:"Rainforest collapse triggered Pennsylvanian tetrapod diversification in Euramerica" 1310:

Habitat Fragmentation and Landscape Change: An Ecological and Conservation Synthesis

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Due to the continuous expansion of urban landscapes, current research is looking at

368: 6942: 6525: 6423: 6408: 6065: 6035: 5980: 5863: 5828: 5705: 5204: 4425: 3888: 3842: 3583: 3263: 2750: 2421: 1635:"Outcomes of longterm deciduous forest restoration in southwestern Ontario, Canada" 1634: 1225: 1051: 914: 821: 817: 788: 525: 448: 411: 407: 328: 267: 255: 213: 189: 166: 159: 43: 3926:

Li, Dehuan; Yang, Yixuan; Xia, Fan; Sun, Wei; Li, Xiao; Xie, Yujing (2022-11-01).

4673: 4230: 4187: 4147: 4111: 3686:"Fragmentation disrupts microbial effects on native plant community productivity" 3310: 3211: 2219: 2054: 5715: 5444: 5262: 5224: 5199: 5189: 5154: 5101: 5081: 1405: 1403: 1401: 1399: 1397: 1111: 1016: 935: 779: 610: 387: 259: 139: 4313:"The diverse effects of habitat fragmentation on plant–pollinator interactions" 1210: 6428: 6005: 5970: 5610: 5562: 5507: 5477: 5383: 5300: 5244: 5121: 5071: 4336: 4065: 3904: 2640: 2569: 2243: 1819: 1164: 1097:

region, researchers were able to find over a 20-year period, actively managed

964: 929: 804: 725: 586: 562: 517: 495: 467: 439: 435: 116: 108: 100: 30: 27:

Discontinuities in an organism's environment causing population fragmentation.

4724: 4681: 4344: 4289: 4073: 4007: 3959: 3760: 3717: 3662: 3592: 2897: 2530: 2453: 2344: 2251: 2127: 1867: 1705: 1666: 1586: 1481: 1387: 7082: 6914: 6333: 6287: 6015: 5459: 5429: 5229: 5184: 5159: 5096: 5086: 5061: 5053: 4998: 4312: 4041: 3709: 3653: 3628: 3573: 3556: 3452: 3435: 3156: 3132:"Genetic effects of chronic habitat fragmentation in a wind-pollinated tree" 2972: 2672:

Mustajärvi, Kaisa; Siikamäki, Pirkko; Rytkönen, Saara; Lammi, Antti (2001).

2335: 1945:"Rethinking patch size and isolation effects: the habitat amount hypothesis" 1285: 1235: 1090: 1012: 894: 812: 774: 763: 759: 712: 506: 288: 234: 193: 182: 35: 4732: 4297: 4206: 4025: 3999: 3834: 3461: 3329: 3255: 3175: 3040: 3022: 2991: 2940: 2862: 2813: 2742: 2658: 2538: 2362: 2204: 2186: 2146: 1885: 1859: 1604: 1578: 6463: 4362:

Lessons from Amazonia: The Ecology and Conservation of a Fragmented Forest

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Kiesewetter, Kasey N.; Otano, Leydiana; Afkhami, Michelle E. (June 2023).

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Fahrig, L (2017). "Ecological Responses to Habitat Fragmentation Per Se".

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Furthermore, habitat fragmentation is considered as an invasive threat to

6838: 6565: 6388: 6317: 5848: 5355: 5267: 5214: 5169: 1452:

Fahrig, Lenore (2019). "Habitat fragmentation: A long and tangled tale".

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are able to identify appropriate ponds to lay their eggs with the aid of

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Simberloff, Daniel (1 January 1998). "Small and Declining Populations".

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Templeton, Alan R.; Shaw, Kerry; Routman, Eric; Davis, Scott K. (1990).

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and the local loss of function. Moreover, fragmentation can change the

335:

and the subdivision of previously continuous habitat. Plants and other

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Olotu, Moses I.; Ndangalasi, Henry J.; Nyundo, Bruno A. (March 2012).

3011:

Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences

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Fahrig, L (2003). "Effects of habitat fragmentation on biodiversity".

1473: 1378: 1353: 766:, to a less degree. For example, the mutualistic relationship between 6823: 3092: 1438: 1059: 1032: 995: 991: 58: 3976:"Habitat fragmentation and its lasting impact on Earth's ecosystems" 3607:"polarized Light Pollution: a new kind of ecological photopollution" 3367: 3007:"Effects of fragmentation on plant adaptation to urban environments" 1917: 1900: 1836:"Habitat fragmentation and its lasting impact on Earth's ecosystems" 1697: 1555:"Habitat fragmentation and its lasting impact on Earth's ecosystems" 291:, 90% of the native vegetation has been cleared and over 99% of the 4467:

Historia, biodiversidad y ecología de los bosques costeros de Chile

2497:

Braaker, S.; Ghazoul, J.; Obrist, M. K.; Moretti, M. (April 2014).

921:

that caused the fragmentation in the first place is compounded by:

545:

Genetic consequences of habitat fragmentation for plant populations

2593:

Frankham, Richard; Ballou, Jonathan D.; Briscoe, David A. (2009).

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The presence of forest fragments influences the supply of various

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relationships while affecting antagonistic relationships, such as

695: 585: 353: 29: 4258:"Habitat fragmentation, climate change, and inbreeding in plants" 1410:

Sahney, S.; Benton, M. J.; Falcon-Lang, H. J. (1 December 2010).

131:

The term habitat fragmentation includes five discrete phenomena:

4311:

Xiao, Yian; Li, Xiaohong; Cao, Yusong; Dong, Ming (2016-07-01).

1074: 1047: 148:

Breaking up of one patch of habitat into several smaller patches

6467: 5650: 4903: 4748:"Landscape Modification and Habitat Fragmentation: A synthesis" 4601: 4599: 4597: 1901:"Quantifying Threats to Imperiled Species in the United States" 1729:"Landscape Modification and Habitat Fragmentation: A synthesis" 2476:"Wildlife Crossings: Animals survive with bridges and tunnels" 1081:, and setting aside forestland (provides habitat for critical 835: 754:

analysis has found that habitat fragmentation greatly affects

415: 299:

has been cleared, resulting in extreme habitat fragmentation.

3005:

Dubois, Jonathan; Cheptou, Pierre-Olivier (5 December 2016).

2422:"Habitat Loss and Extinction in the Hotspots of Biodiversity" 145:

Isolation of one habitat fragment from other areas of habitat

115:, which can alter the environment much faster and causes the 2827:

Wang, W; Qiao, Y; Li, S; Pan, W; Yao, M (15 February 2017).

1101:-certified forests experienced substantially lower rates of 516:

Reduced gene flow, and reproductive isolation can result in

524:. Inbreeding becomes of increasing concern as the level of 434:

Habitat fragmentation is often a cause of species becoming

244:

habitat fragmentation of tropical rainforests in Euramerica

4746:

Fischer, Joern; Lindenmayer, David B. (February 7, 2007).

2160:

Funk W.C.; Greene A.E.; Corn P.S.; Allendorf F.W. (2005).

1727:

Fischer, Joern; Lindenmayer, David B. (February 7, 2007).

729:

effects have been shown to result in significantly varied

254:

Habitat fragmentation is frequently caused by humans when

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Campanhola, Clayton; Pandey, Shivaji, eds. (2019-01-01),

327:

One of the major ways that habitat fragmentation affects

3542:

10.1890/1540-9295(2007)5[68:eoacif]2.0.co;2

2597:(2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 913:

Forest fragmentation is one of the greatest threats to

169:, due to its implications of affecting large number of 917:

in forests, especially in the tropics. The problem of

151:

Decrease in the average size of each patch of habitat

4465:. In Smith, C.; Armesto, J.; Valdovinos, C. (eds.). 3056:"Eco-evolutionary dynamics in fragmented landscapes" 1991:

Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics

1770:

Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics

1510:

Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics

746:

Effect on mutualistic and antagonistic relationships

414:. Aquatic species’ habitats have been fragmented by 7243: 7098: 6935: 6878: 6847: 6767: 6634: 6514: 6326: 6226: 6151: 6024: 5961: 5821: 5689: 5591: 5470: 5397: 5354: 5276: 5243: 5140: 5052: 4946: 3434:DeMars, Craig A; Boutin, Stan (September 4, 2017). 1682:"The Genetic Consequences of Habitat Fragmentation" 4388: 4359: 1003:required to discern many strong system responses. 874:, or developed areas. Following the principles of 2028:"Is habitat fragmentation good for biodiversity?" 1117:Approaches to understanding habitat fragmentation 6734:Other effective area-based conservation measures 4494:Becerra, Pablo I.; Simonetti, Javier A. (2020). 889:Forest fragmentation reduces food resources and 6729:Integrated Conservation and Development Project 3557:"Behavioral responses to changing environments" 3381: 3379: 3377: 3136:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 2315:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 2280: 2278: 4632:"Strategies for Sustainable Forest Management" 4469:(in Spanish). pp. 529–539. Archived from 4085: 4083: 2764: 2762: 2760: 2618: 2616: 2614: 1793: 1791: 799:Habitat fragmentation has profound effects on 358:Habitat fragmented by numerous roads near the 6479: 5662: 4915: 4534:"Forest fragmentation threatens biodiversity" 3622: 3620: 3523: 3521: 3519: 3473: 3471: 3429: 3427: 3425: 3423: 3279: 3277: 3275: 3273: 2074: 2072: 1984: 1982: 1980: 1938: 1936: 386:Additionally, habitat fragmentation leads to 8: 4559:"Chapter 23 - Sustainable Forest Management" 4420:, John Wiley & Sons, pp. a0021904, 3349: 3347: 3345: 3343: 3341: 3339: 1633:McLachlan, S.M; Bazely, D.R (October 2003). 1547: 1545: 1543: 1541: 1503: 1501: 1499: 3555:Wong, B. B. M.; Candolin, U. (2015-05-01). 1093:’s culturally and ecologically significant 849:It has been suggested that this section be 34:Predicted fragmentation and destruction of 6486: 6472: 6464: 5883:Latitudinal gradients in species diversity 5669: 5655: 5647: 4922: 4908: 4900: 4262:Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 553:and increased methods of inter-population 537:Small populations are more susceptible to 135:Reduction in the total area of the habitat 99:. Causes of habitat fragmentation include 4771: 4517: 4196: 4186: 4015: 3652: 3582: 3572: 3507: 3451: 3411: 3319: 3309: 3165: 3155: 3130:Jump, A. S.; Penuelas, J. (12 May 2006). 3082: 3030: 2981: 2971: 2852: 2803: 2689: 2648: 2352: 2334: 2194: 2136: 2126: 1968: 1916: 1875: 1752: 1594: 1377: 258:are cleared for human activities such as 5781:Predator–prey (Lotka–Volterra) equations 5420:Tritrophic interactions in plant defense 4797:"Landscape Ecology and Landscape Change" 3530:Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 2878:Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 1782:10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.34.011802.132419 1522:10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.34.011802.132419 972:within them, are often highly isolated. 283:. In the wheat belt of central-western 64: 49: 5813:Random generalized Lotka–Volterra model 3887:Carlson, Allan; Hartman, Göran (2001). 1899:Wilcove, David S.; et al. (1998). 1686:Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden 1322: 1308:Lindenmayer D.B & Fischer J (2013) 897:and making them less likely to perform 5621:Herbivore adaptations to plant defense 1628: 1626: 1046:There is a high industrial demand for 742:that depend on specific environments. 4251: 4249: 2595:Introduction to conservation genetics 2003:10.1146/annurev-ecolsys-110316-022612 7: 5636:Predator avoidance in schooling fish 738:species to thrive at the expense of 119:of many species. More specifically, 6086:Intermediate disturbance hypothesis 4699:. Maintaining Forest Biodiversity. 4697:Journal of Environmental Management 4395:. The University of Chicago Press. 2084:Species diversity in space and time 942:The effect of fragmentation on the 5839:Ecological effects of biodiversity 4571:10.1016/B978-0-12-812134-4.00023-6 782:and increased fruit production of 402:Much of the remaining terrestrial 233:through natural processes such as 25: 6606:Conservation biology of parasites 5175:Generalist and specialist species 4889:Landscape Fragmentation in Europe 4842:10.1046/j.1523-1739.1992.610146.x 3952:10.1016/j.landurbplan.2022.104544 3753:10.1034/j.1600-0706.2000.900112.x 2913:Trends in Ecology & Evolution 7309: 7308: 6722:Tropical rainforest conservation 6626:Vulnerability and susceptibility 5898:Occupancy–abundance relationship 4773:10.1111/j.1466-8238.2007.00287.x 4563:Sustainable Food and Agriculture 4282:10.1111/j.1749-6632.2010.05450.x 3874:10.1111/j.1365-2028.2011.01302.x 3500:10.1111/j.1365-2664.2005.01093.x 3413:10.1046/j.1365-2664.2001.00642.x 2890:10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.31.1.139 2735:10.1111/j.1523-1739.2008.00944.x 2691:10.1046/j.1365-2745.2001.00521.x 2446:10.1046/j.1523-1739.2002.00530.x 1754:10.1111/j.1466-8238.2007.00287.x 1610: 1209: 1195: 1181: 1167: 1058:, and other resources which the 840: 212:which both tie into destructing 7271:NatureServe conservation status 6556:Conservation-induced extinction 5918:Relative abundance distribution 5631:Plant defense against herbivory 5498:Competitive exclusion principle 5210:Mesopredator release hypothesis 4752:Global Ecology and Biogeography 4607:"What is Sustainable Forestry?" 4519:10.4067/S0717-92002020000200125 2562:Conservation Science and Action 1800:Journal for Nature Conservation 1733:Global Ecology and Biogeography 1454:Global Ecology and Biogeography 711:to guide them, however, due to 410:such as roads interfering with 18:Causes of habitat fragmentation 6662:Conservation management system 6546:Conservation-dependent species 6506:Index of conservation articles 5503:Consumer–resource interactions 4426:10.1002/9780470015902.a0021904 4225:, Springer, pp. 273–296, 1130:fragmentation across species. 901:- lowering genetic diversity. 242:period of 1955-1978and also, 111:), and human activity such as 1: 7360:Sustainable forest management 6888:Assisted natural regeneration 6692:Ecoregion conservation status 6349:Biological data visualization 6176:Environmental niche modelling 5903:Population viability analysis 4717:10.1016/S0301-4797(02)00191-3 4418:Encyclopedia of Life Sciences 4128:Forest Ecology and Management 3893:Biodiversity and Conservation 2224:Biodiversity and Conservation 1659:10.1016/s0006-3207(02)00248-3 1007:Sustainable forest management 317:Habitat and biodiversity loss 7276:Special Area of Conservation 6814:Landscape-scale conservation 6809:High conservation value area 6687:Community-based conservation 5834:Density-dependent inhibition 4674:10.1016/j.forpol.2003.09.003 4231:10.1007/978-3-642-12754-0_12 4188:10.1371/journal.pone.0142236 4148:10.1016/j.foreco.2014.04.026 4112:10.1016/j.biocon.2005.01.022 3932:Landscape and Urban Planning 3796:10.1016/0006-3207(93)90004-K 3386:Shneider, Michael F (2001). 3311:10.1371/journal.pone.0012767 3212:10.1016/j.biocon.2008.11.016 2933:10.1016/0169-5347(96)10045-8 2478:. Wilder Eutopia. 2013-05-19 2290:National Wildlife Federation 2055:10.1016/j.biocon.2018.07.022 853:out into another article. ( 795:Effect on ecosystem services 778:. A study has found greater 579:Examples of impacted species 557:due to increased effects of 444:conservation reliant species 7294:List of conservation issues 6702:Evidence-based conservation 6596:Mutualisms and conservation 6303:Liebig's law of the minimum 6138:Resource selection function 5029:Metabolic theory of ecology 4654:Forest Policy and Economics 4565:, Academic Press: 233–236, 4510:Austral University of Chile 3356:Canadian Journal of Zoology 660:Effect on animal behaviours 360:Indiana Dunes National Park 7376: 7355:Environmental conservation 6744:Roadless area conservation 6536:Compassionate conservation 6203:Niche apportionment models 5923:Relative species abundance 5127:Primary nutritional groups 5024:List of feeding behaviours 3862:African Journal of Ecology 3480:Journal of Applied Ecology 3392:Journal of Applied Ecology 2960:Frontiers in Plant Science 2088:Cambridge University Press 320: 138:Decrease of the interior: 7289: 6501: 6452: 6384:Ecosystem based fisheries 5996:Interspecific competition 5888:Minimum viable population 5746:Maximum sustainable yield 5731:Intraspecific competition 5726:Effective population size 5606:Anti-predator adaptations 5117:Photosynthetic efficiency 4873:Monash Virtual Laboratory 4387:Harris, Larry D. (1984). 4366:. Yale University Press. 4337:10.1007/s11258-016-0608-7 4066:10.1007/s10980-015-0312-3 3440:Journal of Animal Ecology 2776:Evolutionary Applications 2641:10.1038/s41437-018-0132-8 2570:10.1002/9781444313499.ch6 2244:10.1007/s10531-015-0961-1 1820:10.1016/j.jnc.2003.07.002 1134:Pattern-oriented approach 1125:Species-oriented approach 1110:, such as e.g. verifying 566:local genetic structure. 7131:Central African Republic 6779:Conservation designation 6697:Environmental protection 6682:Conspicuous conservation 6672:Conservation photography 6647:Conservation development 6642:Conservation agriculture 6374:Ecological stoichiometry 6339:Alternative stable state 3111:fishesofaustralia.net.au 3107:"Macquaria australasica" 2128:10.1186/1471-2148-11-260 2107:BMC Evolutionary Biology 2026:Haddad, Nick M. (2018). 719:Effect on microorganisms 687:Communication behaviours 678:Boreal woodland caribous 502:Gene Flow and Inbreeding 303:Endogenous vs. exogenous 93:population fragmentation 7345:Ecological connectivity 6870:Human–wildlife conflict 6754:Site-based conservation 6677:Conservation psychology 6495:Conservation of species 6218:Ontogenetic niche shift 6081:Ideal free distribution 5991:Ecological facilitation 5741:Malthusian growth model 5711:Consumer-resource model 5568:Paradox of the plankton 5533:Energy systems language 5253:Chemoorganoheterotrophy 5220:Optimal foraging theory 5195:Heterotrophic nutrition 4092:Biological Conservation 3905:10.1023/A:1016649731062 3776:Biological Conservation 3710:10.1111/1365-2745.14097 3654:10.1111/1365-2745.12085 3453:10.1111/1365-2656.12760 3192:Biological Conservation 3157:10.1073/pnas.0510127103 2973:10.3389/fpls.2017.00843 2378:Journal of Biogeography 2336:10.1073/pnas.1705769114 2035:Biological Conservation 1639:Biological Conservation 646:Sceloporus occidentalis 639:Plestiodon skiltonianus 196:from one generation of 105:one of the major causes 6927:Species reintroduction 6586:Latent extinction risk 6364:Ecological forecasting 6308:Marginal value theorem 6106:Landscape epidemiology 6041:Cross-boundary subsidy 5976:Biological interaction 5326:Microbial intelligence 5014:Green world hypothesis 4000:10.1126/sciadv.1500052 3023:10.1098/rstb.2016.0038 2187:10.1098/rsbl.2004.0270 2080:Rosenzweig, Michael L. 1860:10.1126/sciadv.1500052 1579:10.1126/sciadv.1500052 1276:Reproductive isolation 1261:Landscape connectivity 1043:to risk further loss. 597:Macquaria australasica 591: 363: 77: 62: 47: 7299:List of organisations 6953:Hawaiian honeycreeper 6893:Ecosystem restoration 6865:Habitat fragmentation 6860:Fortress conservation 6819:Marine protected area 6789:Conservation easement 6784:Conservation district 6749:Roadside conservation 6667:Conservation movement 6611:Species translocation 6551:Conservation genetics 6541:Conservation behavior 6369:Ecological humanities 6268:Ecological energetics 6213:Niche differentiation 6076:Habitat fragmentation 5844:Ecological extinction 5791:Small population size 5543:Feed conversion ratio 5523:Ecological succession 5455:San Francisco Estuary 5369:Ecological efficiency 5311:Microbial cooperation 3584:10.1093/beheco/aru183 3574:10.1093/beheco/aru183 3248:10.1007/s004420050341 1203:Earth sciences portal 589: 522:inbreeding depression 430:Informed conservation 377:Columbia spotted frog 357: 206:genetic recombination 81:Habitat fragmentation 68: 53: 33: 7350:Conservation biology 7261:Planetary boundaries 7251:Conservation officer 6855:Conservation refugee 6804:Habitat conservation 6794:Conservation reserve 6759:Wetland conservation 6657:Conservation grazing 6652:Conservation finance 6616:Conservation welfare 6581:In-situ conservation 6576:Extinction threshold 6571:Ex-situ conservation 6394:Evolutionary ecology 6359:Ecological footprint 6354:Ecological economics 6278:Ecological threshold 6273:Ecological indicator 6143:Source–sink dynamics 6096:Land change modeling 6091:Insular biogeography 5943:Species distribution 5682:Modelling ecosystems 5341:Microbial metabolism 5180:Intraguild predation 4969:Biogeochemical cycle 4935:Modelling ecosystems 4822:Conservation Biology 3815:Conservation Biology 2715:Conservation Biology 2564:. pp. 116–134. 2426:Conservation Biology 1246:Habitat conservation 1077:species to maintain 1025:pesticide regulation 961:structural diversity 832:Forest fragmentation 669:Predation behaviours 559:random genetic drift 270:and the creation of 204:which can arise and 175:biological invasions 6601:Nature conservation 6591:Marine conservation 6561:Conservation status 6444:Theoretical ecology 6419:Natural environment 6283:Ecosystem diversity 6253:Ecological collapse 6243:Bateman's principle 6198:Limiting similarity 6111:Landscape limnology 5933:Species homogeneity 5771:Population modeling 5766:Population dynamics 5583:Trophic state index 4834:1992ConBi...6..146M 4764:2007GloEB..16..265F 4709:2003JEnvM..67...87R 4666:2005ForPE...7..551S 4611:Rainforest Alliance 4329:2016PlEco.217..857X 4274:2010NYASA1195...84L 4179:2015PLoSO..1042236L 4140:2014ForEM.327..231W 4104:2005BCons.124..133R 4058:2016LaEco..31..219W 3992:2015SciA....1E0052H 3944:2022LUrbP.22704544L 3788:1993BCons..66..185M 3745:2000Oikos..90..119K 3702:2023JEcol.111.1292K 3645:2013JEcol.101..701N 3492:2005JApEc..42.1183L 3404:2001JApEc..38..720S 3302:2010PLoSO...512767D 3240:1997Oecol.112..524P 3204:2009BCons.142.1560D 3148:2006PNAS..103.8096J 3075:2017Ecogr..40....9L 2925:1996TEcoE..11..413Y 2788:2017EvApp..10..531P 2727:2008ConBi..22..878K 2515:2014Ecol...95.1010B 2438:2002ConBi..16..909B 2390:2015JBiog..42..989H 2327:2017PNAS..114.7635C 2236:2015BiCon..24.2305M 2179:2005BiLet...1...13F 2119:2011BMCEE..11..260R 2047:2018BCons.226....9F 1961:2013JBiog..40.1649F 1852:2015SciA....1E0052H 1812:2004JNatC..12...53L 1745:2007GloEB..16..265F 1651:2003BCons.113..159M 1571:2015SciA....1E0052H 1466:2019GloEB..28...33F 1431:2010Geo....38.1079S 1370:2018Ecosp...9E2488S 1281:Restoration ecology 1256:Habitat destruction 1145:island biogeography 1064:rainforest alliance 919:habitat destruction 876:island biogeography 483:island biogeography 379:are reliant on the 333:habitat destruction 231:habitat destruction 6898:Island restoration 6829:Open space reserve 6621:Threatened species 6455:Outline of ecology 6404:Industrial ecology 6399:Functional ecology 6263:Ecological deficit 6208:Niche construction 6171:Ecosystem engineer 5948:Species–area curve 5869:Introduced species 5684:: Other components 5616:Deimatic behaviour 5518:Ecological network 5450:North Pacific Gyre 5435:hydrothermal vents 5374:Ecological pyramid 5321:Microbial food web 5132:Primary production 5077:Foundation species 3827:10.1111/cobi.12304 3690:Journal of Ecology 3633:Journal of Ecology 3561:Behavioral Ecology 3084:10.1111/ecog.02537 3017:(1712): 20160038. 2845:10.1038/hdy.2017.2 2678:Journal of Ecology 2101:Robert, A (2011). 1943:Fahrig, L (2013). 1175:Environment portal 1037:ecosystem services 1027:, carbon storage, 801:ecosystem services 592: 555:genetic divergence 364: 293:tall grass prairie 78: 63: 48: 7322: 7321: 7281:Soil conservation 6834:Wildlife corridor 6717:Forest protection 6712:Forest management 6461: 6460: 6344:Balance of nature 6101:Landscape ecology 5986:Community ecology 5928:Species diversity 5864:Indicator species 5859:Gradient analysis 5736:Logistic function 5644: 5643: 5601:Animal coloration 5578:Trophic mutualism 5316:Microbial ecology 5107:Photoheterotrophs 5092:Myco-heterotrophy 5004:Ecosystem ecology 4989:Carrying capacity 4954:Abiotic component 4580:978-0-12-812134-4 4435:978-0-470-01617-6 4402:978-0-226-31763-2 4373:978-0-300-08483-2 4240:978-3-642-12754-0 4046:Landscape Ecology 3362:(10): 1065–1079. 3142:(21): 8096–8100. 2796:10.1111/eva.12484 2604:978-0-521-70271-3 2579:978-1-4443-1349-9 2523:10.1890/13-0705.1 2398:10.1111/jbi.12478 2321:(29): 7635–7640. 1970:10.1111/jbi.12130 1474:10.1111/geb.12839 1425:(12): 1079–1082. 1379:10.1002/ecs2.2488 1296:Wildlife crossing 1291:Wildlife corridor 1266:Landscape ecology 1231:Extinction vortex 1152:Variegation model 1085:). Additionally, 1079:genetic diversity 1041:forest management 984:McGill University 959:, the increasing 867: 866: 862: 769:Mesogyne insignis 731:microenvironments 625:Ochotona princeps 551:genetic variation 461:genetic diversity 397:biodiversity loss 323:biodiversity loss 264:rural development 202:genetic mutations 16:(Redirected from 7367: 7312: 7311: 7196:Papua New Guinea 7088:Cryopreservation 7053:Gray nurse shark 6707:Flagship species 6531:Captive breeding 6488: 6481: 6474: 6465: 6161:Ecological niche 6133:selection theory 5953:Umbrella species 5938:Species richness 5874:Invasive species 5854:Flagship species 5761:Population cycle 5756:Overexploitation 5721:Ecological yield 5671: 5664: 5657: 5648: 5553:Mesotrophic soil 5493:Climax community 5425:Marine food webs 5364:Biomagnification 5165:Chemoorganotroph 5019:Keystone species 4979:Biotic component 4924: 4917: 4910: 4901: 4854: 4853: 4817: 4811: 4810: 4808: 4806: 4801: 4793: 4787: 4784: 4778: 4777: 4775: 4743: 4737: 4736: 4692: 4686: 4685: 4649: 4643: 4642: 4636: 4628: 4622: 4621: 4619: 4618: 4603: 4592: 4591: 4554: 4548: 4547: 4545: 4544: 4530: 4524: 4523: 4521: 4491: 4485: 4484: 4482: 4481: 4475: 4464: 4454: 4448: 4445: 4439: 4438: 4413: 4407: 4406: 4394: 4384: 4378: 4377: 4365: 4355: 4349: 4348: 4308: 4302: 4301: 4253: 4244: 4243: 4217: 4211: 4210: 4200: 4190: 4173:(11): e0142236. 4158: 4152: 4151: 4122: 4116: 4115: 4087: 4078: 4077: 4036: 4030: 4029: 4019: 3980:Science Advances 3970: 3964: 3963: 3923: 3917: 3916: 3899:(7): 1077–1085. 3884: 3878: 3877: 3853: 3847: 3846: 3821:(5): 1342–1348. 3806: 3800: 3799: 3771: 3765: 3764: 3728: 3722: 3721: 3696:(6): 1292–1307. 3681: 3675: 3674: 3656: 3624: 3615: 3614: 3603: 3597: 3596: 3586: 3576: 3552: 3546: 3545: 3525: 3514: 3513: 3511: 3486:(6): 1183–1193. 3475: 3466: 3465: 3455: 3431: 3418: 3417: 3415: 3383: 3372: 3371: 3351: 3334: 3333: 3323: 3313: 3281: 3268: 3267: 3222: 3216: 3215: 3198:(8): 1560–1569. 3186: 3180: 3179: 3169: 3159: 3127: 3121: 3120: 3118: 3117: 3103: 3097: 3096: 3086: 3060: 3051: 3045: 3044: 3034: 3002: 2996: 2995: 2985: 2975: 2951: 2945: 2944: 2908: 2902: 2901: 2873: 2867: 2866: 2856: 2824: 2818: 2817: 2807: 2766: 2755: 2754: 2710: 2704: 2703: 2693: 2669: 2663: 2662: 2652: 2620: 2609: 2608: 2590: 2584: 2583: 2557: 2551: 2550: 2509:(4): 1010–1021. 2494: 2488: 2487: 2485: 2483: 2472: 2466: 2465: 2416: 2410: 2409: 2373: 2367: 2366: 2356: 2338: 2306: 2300: 2299: 2297: 2296: 2282: 2273: 2270: 2264: 2263: 2230:(9): 2305–2318. 2215: 2209: 2208: 2198: 2157: 2151: 2150: 2140: 2130: 2098: 2092: 2091: 2076: 2067: 2066: 2032: 2022: 2016: 2013: 2007: 2006: 1986: 1975: 1974: 1972: 1955:(9): 1649–1663. 1940: 1931: 1930: 1920: 1896: 1890: 1889: 1879: 1840:Science Advances 1830: 1824: 1823: 1795: 1786: 1785: 1765: 1759: 1758: 1756: 1724: 1718: 1717: 1677: 1671: 1670: 1630: 1621: 1614: 1608: 1598: 1559:Science Advances 1549: 1536: 1532: 1526: 1525: 1505: 1494: 1493: 1449: 1443: 1442: 1439:10.1130/G31182.1 1416: 1407: 1392: 1391: 1381: 1349: 1343: 1342: 1337:. Archived from 1331:"GLOBIO: Africa" 1327: 1251:Habitat corridor 1219: 1214: 1213: 1205: 1200: 1199: 1198: 1191: 1186: 1185: 1184: 1177: 1172: 1171: 1083:wildlife species 858: 844: 843: 836: 653:Chamaea fasciata 632:Uta stansburiana 478:the headings of 420:water diversions 281:tropical forests 179:overexploitation 21: 7375: 7374: 7370: 7369: 7368: 7366: 7365: 7364: 7325: 7324: 7323: 7318: 7285: 7239: 7094: 7012:Indian elephant 6931: 6874: 6843: 6839:30 by 30 target 6770: 6763: 6739:Riparian buffer 6630: 6517: 6510: 6497: 6492: 6462: 6457: 6448: 6434:Systems ecology 6322: 6293:Extinction debt 6258:Ecological debt 6248:Bioluminescence 6229: 6222: 6191:marine habitats 6166:Ecological trap 6147: 6027: 6020: 5963: 5957: 5913:Rapoport's rule 5908:Priority effect 5849:Endemic species 5817: 5776:Population size 5692: 5685: 5675: 5645: 5640: 5593: 5587: 5573:Trophic cascade 5483:Bioaccumulation 5466: 5393: 5350: 5272: 5239: 5136: 5048: 5009:Ecosystem model 4942: 4928: 4863: 4858: 4857: 4819: 4818: 4814: 4804: 4802: 4799: 4795: 4794: 4790: 4785: 4781: 4745: 4744: 4740: 4694: 4693: 4689: 4651: 4650: 4646: 4634: 4630: 4629: 4625: 4616: 4614: 4605: 4604: 4595: 4581: 4556: 4555: 4551: 4542: 4540: 4532: 4531: 4527: 4493: 4492: 4488: 4479: 4477: 4473: 4462: 4456: 4455: 4451: 4446: 4442: 4436: 4415: 4414: 4410: 4403: 4386: 4385: 4381: 4374: 4357: 4356: 4352: 4310: 4309: 4305: 4255: 4254: 4247: 4241: 4219: 4218: 4214: 4160: 4159: 4155: 4124: 4123: 4119: 4089: 4088: 4081: 4038: 4037: 4033: 3986:(2): e1500052. 3972: 3971: 3967: 3925: 3924: 3920: 3886: 3885: 3881: 3855: 3854: 3850: 3808: 3807: 3803: 3773: 3772: 3768: 3730: 3729: 3725: 3683: 3682: 3678: 3626: 3625: 3618: 3605: 3604: 3600: 3554: 3553: 3549: 3527: 3526: 3517: 3477: 3476: 3469: 3433: 3432: 3421: 3385: 3384: 3375: 3368:10.1139/Z07-094 3353: 3352: 3337: 3283: 3282: 3271: 3224: 3223: 3219: 3188: 3187: 3183: 3129: 3128: 3124: 3115: 3113: 3105: 3104: 3100: 3058: 3053: 3052: 3048: 3004: 3003: 2999: 2953: 2952: 2948: 2919:(10): 413–418. 2910: 2909: 2905: 2875: 2874: 2870: 2826: 2825: 2821: 2768: 2767: 2758: 2712: 2711: 2707: 2671: 2670: 2666: 2622: 2621: 2612: 2605: 2592: 2591: 2587: 2580: 2559: 2558: 2554: 2496: 2495: 2491: 2481: 2479: 2474: 2473: 2469: 2418: 2417: 2413: 2375: 2374: 2370: 2308: 2307: 2303: 2294: 2292: 2284: 2283: 2276: 2271: 2267: 2217: 2216: 2212: 2159: 2158: 2154: 2100: 2099: 2095: 2078: 2077: 2070: 2030: 2024: 2023: 2019: 2014: 2010: 1988: 1987: 1978: 1942: 1941: 1934: 1918:10.2307/1313420 1898: 1897: 1893: 1846:(2): e1500052. 1832: 1831: 1827: 1797: 1796: 1789: 1767: 1766: 1762: 1726: 1725: 1721: 1698:10.2307/2399621 1679: 1678: 1674: 1632: 1631: 1624: 1565:(2): e1500052. 1551: 1550: 1539: 1533: 1529: 1507: 1506: 1497: 1451: 1450: 1446: 1414: 1409: 1408: 1395: 1351: 1350: 1346: 1341:on 30 Oct 2005. 1329: 1328: 1324: 1319: 1305: 1300: 1241:Genetic erosion 1215: 1208: 1201: 1196: 1194: 1187: 1182: 1180: 1173: 1166: 1163: 1154: 1136: 1127: 1119: 1009: 911: 880:ecosystem decay 863: 860:(November 2022) 845: 841: 834: 797: 748: 721: 709:polarized light 705:aquatic insects 689: 680: 671: 662: 618:Rhinella ornata 604:Fagus sylvatica 590:Macquarie perch 581: 572: 547: 535: 504: 491: 480:metapopulations 432: 408:urban expansion 347: 342:nutrient cycles 325: 319: 314: 305: 285:New South Wales 252: 227: 222: 129: 113:land conversion 97:ecosystem decay 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 7373: 7371: 7363: 7362: 7357: 7352: 7347: 7342: 7337: 7327: 7326: 7320: 7319: 7317: 7316: 7306: 7304:List of people 7301: 7296: 7290: 7287: 7286: 7284: 7283: 7278: 7273: 7268: 7263: 7258: 7253: 7247: 7245: 7241: 7240: 7238: 7237: 7236: 7235: 7225: 7224: 7223: 7216:United Kingdom 7213: 7208: 7203: 7198: 7193: 7188: 7183: 7178: 7173: 7168: 7163: 7158: 7153: 7148: 7143: 7138: 7133: 7128: 7123: 7118: 7113: 7108: 7102: 7100: 7096: 7095: 7093: 7092: 7091: 7090: 7085: 7077: 7076: 7075: 7070: 7065: 7063:Painted turtle 7060: 7055: 7050: 7040: 7039: 7038: 7033: 7032: 7031: 7021: 7016: 7015: 7014: 7004: 6999: 6998: 6997: 6987: 6982: 6980:American bison 6974: 6969: 6968: 6967: 6966: 6965: 6955: 6945: 6939: 6937: 6933: 6932: 6930: 6929: 6924: 6923: 6922: 6912: 6911: 6910: 6900: 6895: 6890: 6884: 6882: 6876: 6875: 6873: 6872: 6867: 6862: 6857: 6851: 6849: 6845: 6844: 6842: 6841: 6836: 6831: 6826: 6821: 6816: 6811: 6806: 6801: 6796: 6791: 6786: 6781: 6775: 6773: 6765: 6764: 6762: 6761: 6756: 6751: 6746: 6741: 6736: 6731: 6726: 6725: 6724: 6719: 6709: 6704: 6699: 6694: 6689: 6684: 6679: 6674: 6669: 6664: 6659: 6654: 6649: 6644: 6638: 6636: 6632: 6631: 6629: 6628: 6623: 6618: 6613: 6608: 6603: 6598: 6593: 6588: 6583: 6578: 6573: 6568: 6563: 6558: 6553: 6548: 6543: 6538: 6533: 6528: 6522: 6520: 6512: 6511: 6509: 6508: 6502: 6499: 6498: 6493: 6491: 6490: 6483: 6476: 6468: 6459: 6458: 6453: 6450: 6449: 6447: 6446: 6441: 6436: 6431: 6426: 6421: 6416: 6414:Microecosystem 6411: 6406: 6401: 6396: 6391: 6386: 6381: 6376: 6371: 6366: 6361: 6356: 6351: 6346: 6341: 6336: 6330: 6328: 6324: 6323: 6321: 6320: 6315: 6313:Thorson's rule 6310: 6305: 6300: 6295: 6290: 6285: 6280: 6275: 6270: 6265: 6260: 6255: 6250: 6245: 6240: 6238:Assembly rules 6234: 6232: 6224: 6223: 6221: 6220: 6215: 6210: 6205: 6200: 6195: 6194: 6193: 6183: 6178: 6173: 6168: 6163: 6157: 6155: 6149: 6148: 6146: 6145: 6140: 6135: 6123: 6121:Patch dynamics 6118: 6116:Metapopulation 6113: 6108: 6103: 6098: 6093: 6088: 6083: 6078: 6073: 6068: 6063: 6058: 6053: 6048: 6043: 6038: 6032: 6030: 6022: 6021: 6019: 6018: 6013: 6011:Storage effect 6008: 6003: 5998: 5993: 5988: 5983: 5978: 5973: 5967: 5965: 5959: 5958: 5956: 5955: 5950: 5945: 5940: 5935: 5930: 5925: 5920: 5915: 5910: 5905: 5900: 5895: 5893:Neutral theory 5890: 5885: 5880: 5878:Native species 5871: 5866: 5861: 5856: 5851: 5846: 5841: 5836: 5831: 5825: 5823: 5819: 5818: 5816: 5815: 5810: 5809: 5808: 5803: 5793: 5788: 5783: 5778: 5773: 5768: 5763: 5758: 5753: 5751:Overpopulation 5748: 5743: 5738: 5733: 5728: 5723: 5718: 5713: 5708: 5703: 5697: 5695: 5687: 5686: 5676: 5674: 5673: 5666: 5659: 5651: 5642: 5641: 5639: 5638: 5633: 5628: 5623: 5618: 5613: 5608: 5603: 5597: 5595: 5589: 5588: 5586: 5585: 5580: 5575: 5570: 5565: 5560: 5558:Nutrient cycle 5555: 5550: 5548:Feeding frenzy 5545: 5540: 5535: 5530: 5528:Energy quality 5525: 5520: 5515: 5510: 5505: 5500: 5495: 5490: 5488:Cascade effect 5485: 5480: 5474: 5472: 5468: 5467: 5465: 5464: 5463: 5462: 5457: 5452: 5447: 5442: 5437: 5432: 5422: 5417: 5412: 5407: 5401: 5399: 5395: 5394: 5392: 5391: 5386: 5381: 5376: 5371: 5366: 5360: 5358: 5352: 5351: 5349: 5348: 5343: 5338: 5333: 5331:Microbial loop 5328: 5323: 5318: 5313: 5308: 5303: 5298: 5296:Lithoautotroph 5293: 5288: 5282: 5280: 5278:Microorganisms 5274: 5273: 5271: 5270: 5265: 5260: 5255: 5249: 5247: 5241: 5240: 5238: 5237: 5235:Prey switching 5232: 5227: 5222: 5217: 5212: 5207: 5202: 5197: 5192: 5187: 5182: 5177: 5172: 5167: 5162: 5157: 5152: 5146: 5144: 5138: 5137: 5135: 5134: 5129: 5124: 5119: 5114: 5112:Photosynthesis 5109: 5104: 5099: 5094: 5089: 5084: 5079: 5074: 5069: 5067:Chemosynthesis 5064: 5058: 5056: 5050: 5049: 5047: 5046: 5041: 5036: 5031: 5026: 5021: 5016: 5011: 5006: 5001: 4996: 4991: 4986: 4981: 4976: 4971: 4966: 4961: 4959:Abiotic stress 4956: 4950: 4948: 4944: 4943: 4929: 4927: 4926: 4919: 4912: 4904: 4898: 4897: 4892: 4886: 4881: 4876: 4870: 4862: 4861:External links 4859: 4856: 4855: 4828:(1): 146–147. 4812: 4788: 4779: 4758:(3): 265–280. 4738: 4687: 4660:(4): 551–561. 4644: 4623: 4613:. 28 July 2016 4593: 4579: 4549: 4525: 4486: 4449: 4440: 4434: 4408: 4401: 4379: 4372: 4350: 4323:(7): 857–868. 4303: 4245: 4239: 4212: 4153: 4117: 4098:(1): 133–148. 4079: 4052:(2): 219–227. 4031: 3965: 3918: 3879: 3868:(1): 109–116. 3848: 3801: 3782:(3): 185–194. 3766: 3739:(1): 119–126. 3723: 3676: 3639:(3): 701–712. 3616: 3598: 3567:(3): 665–673. 3547: 3515: 3467: 3446:(1): 274–284. 3419: 3398:(4): 720–735. 3373: 3335: 3269: 3234:(4): 524–533. 3217: 3181: 3122: 3098: 3046: 2997: 2946: 2903: 2884:(1): 139–162. 2868: 2839:(6): 542–553. 2819: 2782:(6): 531–550. 2756: 2721:(4): 878–885. 2705: 2664: 2635:(4): 304–318. 2610: 2603: 2585: 2578: 2552: 2489: 2467: 2432:(4): 909–923. 2411: 2384:(5): 989–993. 2368: 2301: 2286:"Habitat Loss" 2274: 2265: 2210: 2152: 2093: 2068: 2017: 2008: 1976: 1932: 1911:(8): 607–615. 1891: 1825: 1787: 1776:(1): 487–515. 1760: 1739:(3): 265–280. 1719: 1672: 1645:(2): 159–169. 1622: 1537: 1527: 1495: 1444: 1393: 1344: 1321: 1320: 1318: 1315: 1314: 1313: 1312:(Island Press) 1304: 1301: 1299: 1298: 1293: 1288: 1283: 1278: 1273: 1271:Patch dynamics 1268: 1263: 1258: 1253: 1248: 1243: 1238: 1233: 1228: 1222: 1221: 1220: 1217:Biology portal 1206: 1192: 1189:Ecology portal 1178: 1162: 1159: 1153: 1150: 1141:Richard Forman 1135: 1132: 1126: 1123: 1118: 1115: 1108:sustainability 1033:Quebec, Canada 1029:soil fertility 1008: 1005: 978:Maulino forest 955:or allowed to 940: 939: 933: 926: 910: 907: 865: 864: 848: 846: 839: 833: 830: 826:climate change 796: 793: 747: 744: 720: 717: 701:pulp and paper 688: 685: 679: 676: 670: 667: 661: 658: 657: 656: 649: 642: 635: 628: 621: 614: 607: 600: 580: 577: 571: 568: 546: 543: 534: 531: 503: 500: 490: 487: 431: 428: 369:asynchronously 321:Main article: 318: 315: 313: 310: 304: 301: 277:slash and burn 251: 248: 239:climate change 226: 225:Natural causes 223: 221: 218: 153: 152: 149: 146: 143: 136: 128: 125: 40:Central Africa 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 7372: 7361: 7358: 7356: 7353: 7351: 7348: 7346: 7343: 7341: 7338: 7336: 7333: 7332: 7330: 7315: 7307: 7305: 7302: 7300: 7297: 7295: 7292: 7291: 7288: 7282: 7279: 7277: 7274: 7272: 7269: 7267: 7266:IUCN Red List 7264: 7262: 7259: 7257: 7256:De-extinction 7254: 7252: 7249: 7248: 7246: 7242: 7234: 7231: 7230: 7229: 7228:United States 7226: 7222: 7219: 7218: 7217: 7214: 7212: 7209: 7207: 7204: 7202: 7199: 7197: 7194: 7192: 7189: 7187: 7184: 7182: 7179: 7177: 7174: 7172: 7169: 7167: 7164: 7162: 7159: 7157: 7154: 7152: 7149: 7147: 7144: 7142: 7139: 7137: 7134: 7132: 7129: 7127: 7124: 7122: 7119: 7117: 7114: 7112: 7109: 7107: 7104: 7103: 7101: 7097: 7089: 7086: 7084: 7081: 7080: 7078: 7074: 7071: 7069: 7066: 7064: 7061: 7059: 7056: 7054: 7051: 7049: 7046: 7045: 7044: 7041: 7037: 7034: 7030: 7027: 7026: 7025: 7022: 7020: 7017: 7013: 7010: 7009: 7008: 7005: 7003: 7000: 6996: 6993: 6992: 6991: 6988: 6986: 6983: 6981: 6978: 6977: 6975: 6973: 6970: 6964: 6961: 6960: 6959: 6956: 6954: 6951: 6950: 6949: 6946: 6944: 6941: 6940: 6938: 6934: 6928: 6925: 6921: 6918: 6917: 6916: 6913: 6909: 6908:afforestation 6906: 6905: 6904: 6903:Reforestation 6901: 6899: 6896: 6894: 6891: 6889: 6886: 6885: 6883: 6881: 6877: 6871: 6868: 6866: 6863: 6861: 6858: 6856: 6853: 6852: 6850: 6846: 6840: 6837: 6835: 6832: 6830: 6827: 6825: 6822: 6820: 6817: 6815: 6812: 6810: 6807: 6805: 6802: 6800: 6797: 6795: 6792: 6790: 6787: 6785: 6782: 6780: 6777: 6776: 6774: 6772: 6766: 6760: 6757: 6755: 6752: 6750: 6747: 6745: 6742: 6740: 6737: 6735: 6732: 6730: 6727: 6723: 6720: 6718: 6715: 6714: 6713: 6710: 6708: 6705: 6703: 6700: 6698: 6695: 6693: 6690: 6688: 6685: 6683: 6680: 6678: 6675: 6673: 6670: 6668: 6665: 6663: 6660: 6658: 6655: 6653: 6650: 6648: 6645: 6643: 6640: 6639: 6637: 6633: 6627: 6624: 6622: 6619: 6617: 6614: 6612: 6609: 6607: 6604: 6602: 6599: 6597: 6594: 6592: 6589: 6587: 6584: 6582: 6579: 6577: 6574: 6572: 6569: 6567: 6564: 6562: 6559: 6557: 6554: 6552: 6549: 6547: 6544: 6542: 6539: 6537: 6534: 6532: 6529: 6527: 6524: 6523: 6521: 6519: 6513: 6507: 6504: 6503: 6500: 6496: 6489: 6484: 6482: 6477: 6475: 6470: 6469: 6466: 6456: 6451: 6445: 6442: 6440: 6439:Urban ecology 6437: 6435: 6432: 6430: 6427: 6425: 6422: 6420: 6417: 6415: 6412: 6410: 6407: 6405: 6402: 6400: 6397: 6395: 6392: 6390: 6387: 6385: 6382: 6380: 6377: 6375: 6372: 6370: 6367: 6365: 6362: 6360: 6357: 6355: 6352: 6350: 6347: 6345: 6342: 6340: 6337: 6335: 6332: 6331: 6329: 6325: 6319: 6316: 6314: 6311: 6309: 6306: 6304: 6301: 6299: 6298:Kleiber's law 6296: 6294: 6291: 6289: 6286: 6284: 6281: 6279: 6276: 6274: 6271: 6269: 6266: 6264: 6261: 6259: 6256: 6254: 6251: 6249: 6246: 6244: 6241: 6239: 6236: 6235: 6233: 6231: 6225: 6219: 6216: 6214: 6211: 6209: 6206: 6204: 6201: 6199: 6196: 6192: 6189: 6188: 6187: 6184: 6182: 6179: 6177: 6174: 6172: 6169: 6167: 6164: 6162: 6159: 6158: 6156: 6154: 6150: 6144: 6141: 6139: 6136: 6134: 6132: 6128: 6124: 6122: 6119: 6117: 6114: 6112: 6109: 6107: 6104: 6102: 6099: 6097: 6094: 6092: 6089: 6087: 6084: 6082: 6079: 6077: 6074: 6072: 6071:Foster's rule 6069: 6067: 6064: 6062: 6059: 6057: 6054: 6052: 6049: 6047: 6044: 6042: 6039: 6037: 6034: 6033: 6031: 6029: 6023: 6017: 6014: 6012: 6009: 6007: 6004: 6002: 5999: 5997: 5994: 5992: 5989: 5987: 5984: 5982: 5979: 5977: 5974: 5972: 5969: 5968: 5966: 5960: 5954: 5951: 5949: 5946: 5944: 5941: 5939: 5936: 5934: 5931: 5929: 5926: 5924: 5921: 5919: 5916: 5914: 5911: 5909: 5906: 5904: 5901: 5899: 5896: 5894: 5891: 5889: 5886: 5884: 5881: 5879: 5875: 5872: 5870: 5867: 5865: 5862: 5860: 5857: 5855: 5852: 5850: 5847: 5845: 5842: 5840: 5837: 5835: 5832: 5830: 5827: 5826: 5824: 5820: 5814: 5811: 5807: 5804: 5802: 5799: 5798: 5797: 5794: 5792: 5789: 5787: 5784: 5782: 5779: 5777: 5774: 5772: 5769: 5767: 5764: 5762: 5759: 5757: 5754: 5752: 5749: 5747: 5744: 5742: 5739: 5737: 5734: 5732: 5729: 5727: 5724: 5722: 5719: 5717: 5714: 5712: 5709: 5707: 5704: 5702: 5699: 5698: 5696: 5694: 5688: 5683: 5679: 5672: 5667: 5665: 5660: 5658: 5653: 5652: 5649: 5637: 5634: 5632: 5629: 5627: 5624: 5622: 5619: 5617: 5614: 5612: 5609: 5607: 5604: 5602: 5599: 5598: 5596: 5590: 5584: 5581: 5579: 5576: 5574: 5571: 5569: 5566: 5564: 5561: 5559: 5556: 5554: 5551: 5549: 5546: 5544: 5541: 5539: 5536: 5534: 5531: 5529: 5526: 5524: 5521: 5519: 5516: 5514: 5511: 5509: 5506: 5504: 5501: 5499: 5496: 5494: 5491: 5489: 5486: 5484: 5481: 5479: 5476: 5475: 5473: 5469: 5461: 5458: 5456: 5453: 5451: 5448: 5446: 5443: 5441: 5438: 5436: 5433: 5431: 5428: 5427: 5426: 5423: 5421: 5418: 5416: 5413: 5411: 5408: 5406: 5403: 5402: 5400: 5396: 5390: 5389:Trophic level 5387: 5385: 5382: 5380: 5377: 5375: 5372: 5370: 5367: 5365: 5362: 5361: 5359: 5357: 5353: 5347: 5346:Phage ecology 5344: 5342: 5339: 5337: 5336:Microbial mat 5334: 5332: 5329: 5327: 5324: 5322: 5319: 5317: 5314: 5312: 5309: 5307: 5304: 5302: 5299: 5297: 5294: 5292: 5291:Bacteriophage 5289: 5287: 5284: 5283: 5281: 5279: 5275: 5269: 5266: 5264: 5261: 5259: 5258:Decomposition 5256: 5254: 5251: 5250: 5248: 5246: 5242: 5236: 5233: 5231: 5228: 5226: 5223: 5221: 5218: 5216: 5213: 5211: 5208: 5206: 5205:Mesopredators 5203: 5201: 5198: 5196: 5193: 5191: 5188: 5186: 5183: 5181: 5178: 5176: 5173: 5171: 5168: 5166: 5163: 5161: 5158: 5156: 5153: 5151: 5150:Apex predator 5148: 5147: 5145: 5143: 5139: 5133: 5130: 5128: 5125: 5123: 5120: 5118: 5115: 5113: 5110: 5108: 5105: 5103: 5100: 5098: 5095: 5093: 5090: 5088: 5085: 5083: 5080: 5078: 5075: 5073: 5070: 5068: 5065: 5063: 5060: 5059: 5057: 5055: 5051: 5045: 5042: 5040: 5037: 5035: 5032: 5030: 5027: 5025: 5022: 5020: 5017: 5015: 5012: 5010: 5007: 5005: 5002: 5000: 4997: 4995: 4992: 4990: 4987: 4985: 4984:Biotic stress 4982: 4980: 4977: 4975: 4972: 4970: 4967: 4965: 4962: 4960: 4957: 4955: 4952: 4951: 4949: 4945: 4940: 4936: 4932: 4925: 4920: 4918: 4913: 4911: 4906: 4905: 4902: 4896: 4893: 4890: 4887: 4885: 4882: 4880: 4877: 4874: 4871: 4868: 4865: 4864: 4860: 4851: 4847: 4843: 4839: 4835: 4831: 4827: 4823: 4816: 4813: 4798: 4792: 4789: 4783: 4780: 4774: 4769: 4765: 4761: 4757: 4753: 4749: 4742: 4739: 4734: 4730: 4726: 4722: 4718: 4714: 4710: 4706: 4702: 4698: 4691: 4688: 4683: 4679: 4675: 4671: 4667: 4663: 4659: 4655: 4648: 4645: 4640: 4633: 4627: 4624: 4612: 4608: 4602: 4600: 4598: 4594: 4590: 4586: 4582: 4576: 4572: 4568: 4564: 4560: 4553: 4550: 4539: 4535: 4529: 4526: 4520: 4515: 4511: 4507: 4503: 4502: 4497: 4490: 4487: 4476:on 2022-06-22 4472: 4468: 4460: 4453: 4450: 4444: 4441: 4437: 4431: 4427: 4423: 4419: 4412: 4409: 4404: 4398: 4393: 4392: 4383: 4380: 4375: 4369: 4364: 4363: 4354: 4351: 4346: 4342: 4338: 4334: 4330: 4326: 4322: 4318: 4317:Plant Ecology 4314: 4307: 4304: 4299: 4295: 4291: 4287: 4283: 4279: 4275: 4271: 4267: 4263: 4259: 4252: 4250: 4246: 4242: 4236: 4232: 4228: 4224: 4216: 4213: 4208: 4204: 4199: 4194: 4189: 4184: 4180: 4176: 4172: 4168: 4164: 4157: 4154: 4149: 4145: 4141: 4137: 4133: 4129: 4121: 4118: 4113: 4109: 4105: 4101: 4097: 4093: 4086: 4084: 4080: 4075: 4071: 4067: 4063: 4059: 4055: 4051: 4047: 4043: 4035: 4032: 4027: 4023: 4018: 4013: 4009: 4005: 4001: 3997: 3993: 3989: 3985: 3981: 3977: 3969: 3966: 3961: 3957: 3953: 3949: 3945: 3941: 3937: 3933: 3929: 3922: 3919: 3914: 3910: 3906: 3902: 3898: 3894: 3890: 3883: 3880: 3875: 3871: 3867: 3863: 3859: 3852: 3849: 3844: 3840: 3836: 3832: 3828: 3824: 3820: 3816: 3812: 3805: 3802: 3797: 3793: 3789: 3785: 3781: 3777: 3770: 3767: 3762: 3758: 3754: 3750: 3746: 3742: 3738: 3734: 3727: 3724: 3719: 3715: 3711: 3707: 3703: 3699: 3695: 3691: 3687: 3680: 3677: 3672: 3668: 3664: 3660: 3655: 3650: 3646: 3642: 3638: 3634: 3630: 3623: 3621: 3617: 3612: 3611:Research Gate 3608: 3602: 3599: 3594: 3590: 3585: 3580: 3575: 3570: 3566: 3562: 3558: 3551: 3548: 3543: 3539: 3535: 3531: 3524: 3522: 3520: 3516: 3510: 3505: 3501: 3497: 3493: 3489: 3485: 3481: 3474: 3472: 3468: 3463: 3459: 3454: 3449: 3445: 3441: 3437: 3430: 3428: 3426: 3424: 3420: 3414: 3409: 3405: 3401: 3397: 3393: 3389: 3382: 3380: 3378: 3374: 3369: 3365: 3361: 3357: 3350: 3348: 3346: 3344: 3342: 3340: 3336: 3331: 3327: 3322: 3317: 3312: 3307: 3303: 3299: 3296:(9): e12767. 3295: 3291: 3287: 3280: 3278: 3276: 3274: 3270: 3265: 3261: 3257: 3253: 3249: 3245: 3241: 3237: 3233: 3229: 3221: 3218: 3213: 3209: 3205: 3201: 3197: 3193: 3185: 3182: 3177: 3173: 3168: 3163: 3158: 3153: 3149: 3145: 3141: 3137: 3133: 3126: 3123: 3112: 3108: 3102: 3099: 3094: 3090: 3085: 3080: 3076: 3072: 3068: 3064: 3057: 3050: 3047: 3042: 3038: 3033: 3028: 3024: 3020: 3016: 3012: 3008: 3001: 2998: 2993: 2989: 2984: 2979: 2974: 2969: 2965: 2961: 2957: 2950: 2947: 2942: 2938: 2934: 2930: 2926: 2922: 2918: 2914: 2907: 2904: 2899: 2895: 2891: 2887: 2883: 2879: 2872: 2869: 2864: 2860: 2855: 2850: 2846: 2842: 2838: 2834: 2830: 2823: 2820: 2815: 2811: 2806: 2801: 2797: 2793: 2789: 2785: 2781: 2777: 2773: 2765: 2763: 2761: 2757: 2752: 2748: 2744: 2740: 2736: 2732: 2728: 2724: 2720: 2716: 2709: 2706: 2701: 2697: 2692: 2687: 2683: 2679: 2675: 2668: 2665: 2660: 2656: 2651: 2646: 2642: 2638: 2634: 2630: 2626: 2619: 2617: 2615: 2611: 2606: 2600: 2596: 2589: 2586: 2581: 2575: 2571: 2567: 2563: 2556: 2553: 2548: 2544: 2540: 2536: 2532: 2528: 2524: 2520: 2516: 2512: 2508: 2504: 2500: 2493: 2490: 2477: 2471: 2468: 2463: 2459: 2455: 2451: 2447: 2443: 2439: 2435: 2431: 2427: 2423: 2415: 2412: 2407: 2403: 2399: 2395: 2391: 2387: 2383: 2379: 2372: 2369: 2364: 2360: 2355: 2350: 2346: 2342: 2337: 2332: 2328: 2324: 2320: 2316: 2312: 2305: 2302: 2291: 2287: 2281: 2279: 2275: 2269: 2266: 2261: 2257: 2253: 2249: 2245: 2241: 2237: 2233: 2229: 2225: 2221: 2214: 2211: 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