1027:
with cyclin levels. The enzymatic activities of cyclin–Cdk complexes also tend to rise and fall in parallel with cyclin levels, although in some cases Cdk inhibitor proteins or phosphorylation introduce a delay between the formation and activation of cyclin–Cdk complexes. Formation of active G1/S–Cdk complexes commits the cell to a new division cycle at the Start checkpoint in late G1. G1/S–Cdks then activate the S–Cdk complexes that initiate DNA replication at the beginning of S phase. M–Cdk activation occurs after the completion of S phase, resulting in progression through the G2/M checkpoint and assembly of the mitotic spindle. APC activation then triggers sister-chromatid separation at the metaphase-to-anaphase transition. APC activity also causes the destruction of S and M cyclins and thus the inactivation of Cdks, which promotes the completion of mitosis and cytokinesis. APC activity is maintained in G1 until G1/S–Cdk activity rises again and commits the cell to the next cycle. This scheme serves only as a general guide and does not apply to all cell types.
1707:
1297:. This observation based on the structural analysis of Rb phosphorylation supports that Rb is phosphorylated in a different level through multiple Cyclin-Cdk complexes. This also makes feasible the current model of a simultaneous switch-like inactivation of all mono-phosphorylated Rb isoforms through one type of Rb hyper-phosphorylation mechanism. In addition, mutational analysis of the cyclin D- Cdk 4/6 specific Rb C-terminal helix shows that disruptions of cyclin D-Cdk 4/6 binding to Rb prevents Rb phosphorylation, arrests cells in G1, and bolsters Rb's functions in tumor suppressor. This cyclin-Cdk driven cell cycle transitional mechanism governs a cell committed to the cell cycle that allows cell proliferation. A cancerous cell growth often accompanies with deregulation of Cyclin D-Cdk 4/6 activity.
1285:. The partial phosphorylation of Rb de-represses the Rb-mediated suppression of E2F target gene expression, begins the expression of cyclin E. The molecular mechanism that causes the cell switched to cyclin E activation is currently not known, but as cyclin E levels rise, the active cyclin E-CDK2 complex is formed, bringing Rb to be inactivated by hyper-phosphorylation. Hyperphosphorylated Rb is completely dissociated from E2F, enabling further expression of a wide range of E2F target genes are required for driving cells to proceed into S phase . Recently, it has been identified that cyclin D-Cdk4/6 binds to a C-terminal alpha-helix region of Rb that is only distinguishable to cyclin D rather than other cyclins,
1348:, and subsequently, its deactivation causes the cell to exit mitosis. A quantitative study of E2F transcriptional dynamics at the single-cell level by using engineered fluorescent reporter cells provided a quantitative framework for understanding the control logic of cell cycle entry, challenging the canonical textbook model. Genes that regulate the amplitude of E2F accumulation, such as Myc, determine the commitment in cell cycle and S phase entry. G1 cyclin-CDK activities are not the driver of cell cycle entry. Instead, they primarily tune the timing of E2F increase, thereby modulating the pace of cell cycle progression.
1023:
83:
1558:. However, 833 of the genes assayed changed behavior between the wild type and mutant cells, indicating that these genes are likely directly or indirectly regulated by the CDK-cyclin machinery. Some genes that continued to be expressed on time in the mutant cells were also expressed at different levels in the mutant and wild type cells. These findings suggest that while the transcriptional network may oscillate independently of the CDK-cyclin oscillator, they are coupled in a manner that requires both to ensure the proper timing of cell cycle events. Other work indicates that
2020:
86:
90:
89:
85:
84:
91:
607:
88:
1532:
factors that bind to the promoters of yeast genes, and correlating these findings with temporal expression patterns have allowed the identification of transcription factors that drive phase-specific gene expression. The expression profiles of these transcription factors are driven by the transcription factors that peak in the prior phase, and computational models have shown that a CDK-autonomous network of these transcription factors is sufficient to produce steady-state oscillations in gene expression).
1362:
1656:/M checkpoint is where the cell ensures that it has enough cytoplasm and phospholipids for two daughter cells. But sometimes more importantly, it checks to see if it is the right time to replicate. There are some situations where many cells need to all replicate simultaneously (for example, a growing embryo should have a symmetric cell distribution until it reaches the mid-blastula transition). This is done by controlling the G
873:
6465:
504:
57:
1045:
1951:
Controlling the copy number of genomic RNA also allowed RNA concentration to be determined through synthesis rates and RNA half-lives, instead of competition. Separating the duplication of genomic RNAs from the generation of functional RNAs allowed for much greater duplication fidelity of genomic RNAs without compromising the production of functional RNAs. Finally, the replacement of genomic RNA with
496:
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292:
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almost consecutively. Because these cells have lost their checkpoints, any DNA mutations that may have occurred are disregarded and passed on to the daughter cells. This is one reason why cancer cells have a tendency to exponentially acquire mutations. Aside from cancer cells, many fully differentiated cell types no longer replicate so they leave the cell cycle and stay in G
65:
1947:. All RNA concentrations depended on the concentrations of other RNAs that might be helping or hindering the gathering of resources. In this environment, growth was simply the continuous production of RNAs. These pre-cellular structures would have had to contend with parasitic RNAs, issues of inheritance, and copy-number control of specific RNAs.
5833:
1058:
1955:, which is a more stable molecule, allowed for larger genomes. The transition from self-catalysis enzyme synthesis to genome-directed enzyme synthesis was a critical step in cell evolution, and had lasting implications on the cell cycle, which must regulate functional synthesis and genomic duplication in very different ways.
87:
2072:
as a whole. Plants also share a number of conserved network features with opisthokonts, and many plant regulators have direct animal homologs. For example, plants also need to suppress Rb for E2F translation in the network. These conserved elements of the plant and animal cell cycles may be ancestral
1134:
that activates or inactivates target proteins to orchestrate coordinated entry into the next phase of the cell cycle. Different cyclin-CDK combinations determine the downstream proteins targeted. CDKs are constitutively expressed in cells whereas cyclins are synthesised at specific stages of the cell
1026:
Levels of the three major cyclin types oscillate during the cell cycle (top), providing the basis for oscillations in the cyclin–Cdk complexes that drive cell-cycle events (bottom). In general, Cdk levels are constant and in large excess over cyclin levels; thus, cyclin–Cdk complexes form in parallel
1667:
While these are the three "main" checkpoints, not all cells have to pass through each of these checkpoints in this order to replicate. Many types of cancer are caused by mutations that allow the cells to speed through the various checkpoints or even skip them altogether. Going from S to M to S phase
1278:
generates functional distinct forms of Rb. All different mono-phosphorylated Rb isoforms inhibit E2F transcriptional program and are able to arrest cells in G1-phase. Importantly, different mono-phosphorylated forms of Rb have distinct transcriptional outputs that are extended beyond E2F regulation.
1248:
family members (e.g., p16), limiting kinase activity. Meanwhile, CDK2 complexes are inhibited by the CIP/KIP proteins such as p21 and p27, When it is time for a cell to enter the cell cycle, which is triggered by a mitogenic stimuli, levels of cyclin D increase. In response to this trigger, cyclin D
1477:
Many human cancers possess the hyper-activated Cdk 4/6 activities. Given the observations of cyclin D-Cdk 4/6 functions, inhibition of Cdk 4/6 should result in preventing a malignant tumor from proliferating. Consequently, scientists have tried to invent the synthetic Cdk4/6 inhibitor as Cdk4/6 has
1031:
Regulation of the cell cycle involves processes crucial to the survival of a cell, including the detection and repair of genetic damage as well as the prevention of uncontrolled cell division. The molecular events that control the cell cycle are ordered and directional; that is, each process occurs
582:
Interphase represents the phase between two successive M phases. Interphase is a series of changes that takes place in a newly formed cell and its nucleus before it becomes capable of division again. It is also called preparatory phase or intermitosis. Typically interphase lasts for at least 91% of
1663:
The metaphase checkpoint is a fairly minor checkpoint, in that once a cell is in metaphase, it has committed to undergoing mitosis. However that's not to say it isn't important. In this checkpoint, the cell checks to ensure that the spindle has formed and that all of the chromosomes are aligned at
1277:
binding affinity. Rb has been found to associate with hundreds of different proteins and the idea that different mono-phosphorylated Rb isoforms have different protein partners was very appealing. A recent report confirmed that mono-phosphorylation controls Rb's association with other proteins and
189:
is divided into the B, C, and D periods. The B period extends from the end of cell division to the beginning of DNA replication. DNA replication occurs during the C period. The D period refers to the stage between the end of DNA replication and the splitting of the bacterial cell into two daughter
1593:
under conditions that prevent DNA replication initiation without delaying cell cycle progression showed that origin licensing decreases the expression of genes with origins near their 3' ends, revealing that downstream origins can regulate the expression of upstream genes. This confirms previous
1950:
Partitioning "genomic" RNA from "functional" RNA helped solve these problems. The fusion of multiple RNAs into a genome gave a template from which functional RNAs were cleaved. Now, parasitic RNAs would have to incorporate themselves into the genome, a much greater barrier, in order to survive.
1679:
Checkpoint regulation plays an important role in an organism's development. In sexual reproduction, when egg fertilization occurs, when the sperm binds to the egg, it releases signalling factors that notify the egg that it has been fertilized. Among other things, this induces the now fertilized
1531:
that are also periodically expressed. One screen of single-gene knockouts identified 48 transcription factors (about 20% of all non-essential transcription factors) that show cell cycle progression defects. Genome-wide studies using high throughput technologies have identified the transcription
1264:
In the last few decades, a model has been widely accepted whereby pRB proteins are inactivated by cyclin D-Cdk4/6-mediated phosphorylation. Rb has 14+ potential phosphorylation sites. Cyclin D-Cdk 4/6 progressively phosphorylates Rb to hyperphosphorylated state, which triggers dissociation of
1523:
have identified 800–1200 genes that change expression over the course of the cell cycle. They are transcribed at high levels at specific points in the cell cycle, and remain at lower levels throughout the rest of the cycle. While the set of identified genes differs between studies due to the
1983:) controls the cell cycle. However, in animals, whole families of CDKs have evolved. Cdk1 controls entry to mitosis and Cdk2, Cdk4, and Cdk6 regulate entry into S phase. Despite the evolution of the CDK family in animals, these proteins have related or redundant functions. For example,
1272:
However, scientific observations from a recent study show that Rb is present in three types of isoforms: (1) un-phosphorylated Rb in G0 state; (2) mono-phosphorylated Rb, also referred to as "hypo-phosphorylated' or 'partially' phosphorylated Rb in early G1 state; and (3) inactive
2060:
to be expressed. Both Rb and Whi5 inhibit transcript through the recruitment of histone deacetylase proteins to promoters. Both proteins additionally have multiple CDK phosphorylation sites through which they are inhibited. However, these proteins share no sequence similarity.
1594:
predictions from mathematical modeling of a global causal coordination between DNA replication origin activity and mRNA expression, and shows that mathematical modeling of DNA microarray data can be used to correctly predict previously unknown biological modes of regulation.
1838:
etc. mutate, they may cause the cell to multiply uncontrollably, forming a tumor. Although the duration of cell cycle in tumor cells is equal to or longer than that of normal cell cycle, the proportion of cells that are in active cell division (versus quiescent cells in
1869:
The fastest cycling mammalian cells in culture, crypt cells in the intestinal epithelium, have a cycle time as short as 9 to 10 hours. Stem cells in resting mouse skin may have a cycle time of more than 200 hours. Most of this difference is due to the varying length of
279:
and cell membrane divides forming two daughter cells. Activation of each phase is dependent on the proper progression and completion of the previous one. Cells that have temporarily or reversibly stopped dividing are said to have entered a state of quiescence called
842:). It is a relatively short period of the cell cycle. M phase is complex and highly regulated. The sequence of events is divided into phases, corresponding to the completion of one set of activities and the start of the next. These phases are sequentially known as:
2032:
is the point at which the cell commits to division through the cell cycle. Complex regulatory networks lead to the G1/S transition decision. Across opisthokonts, there are both highly diverged protein sequences as well as strikingly similar network topologies.
1889:. The pattern of resistance and sensitivity correlates with the level of sulfhydryl compounds in the cell. Sulfhydryls are natural substances that protect cells from radiation damage and tend to be at their highest levels in S and at their lowest near mitosis.
985:
Because cytokinesis usually occurs in conjunction with mitosis, "mitosis" is often used interchangeably with "M phase". However, there are many cells where mitosis and cytokinesis occur separately, forming single cells with multiple nuclei in a process called
1616:. The cell cannot proceed to the next phase until checkpoint requirements have been met. Checkpoints typically consist of a network of regulatory proteins that monitor and dictate the progression of the cell through the different stages of the cell cycle.
234:
of a new cell cycle. Although the various stages of interphase are not usually morphologically distinguishable, each phase of the cell cycle has a distinct set of specialized biochemical processes that prepare the cell for initiation of the cell division.
193:
In single-celled organisms, a single cell-division cycle is how the organism reproduces to ensure its survival. In multicellular organisms such as plants and animals, a series of cell-division cycles is how the organism develops from a single-celled
1170:. However, results from a recent study of E2F transcriptional dynamics at the single-cell level argue that the role of G1 cyclin-CDK activities, in particular cyclin D-CDK4/6, is to tune the timing rather than the commitment of cell cycle entry.
1638:/M checkpoint and the metaphase (mitotic) checkpoint. Another checkpoint is the Go checkpoint, in which the cells are checked for maturity. If the cells fail to pass this checkpoint by not being ready yet, they will be discarded from dividing.
969:
into two cells containing roughly equal shares of these cellular components. Cytokinesis occurs differently in plant and animal cells. While the cell membrane forms a groove that gradually deepens to separate the cytoplasm in animal cells, a
1940:, are duplicated just once during the cell cycle. A central component of the cell cycle is its ability to coordinate the continuous and periodic duplications of different cellular elements, which evolved with the formation of the genome.
1100:
among all eukaryotes, but in general, more complex organisms have more elaborate cell cycle control systems that incorporate more individual components. Many of the relevant genes were first identified by studying yeast, especially
799:
phase occurs after DNA replication and is a period of protein synthesis and rapid cell growth to prepare the cell for mitosis. During this phase microtubules begin to reorganize to form a spindle (preprophase). Before proceeding to
2010:
pattern of CDK1-type kinases as essential regulators controlling the cell cycle. Plants also have a unique group of B-type CDKs, whose functions may range from development-specific functions to major players in mitotic regulation.
816:. If the DNA is damaged, p53 will either repair the DNA or trigger the apoptosis of the cell. If p53 is dysfunctional or mutated, cells with damaged DNA may continue through the cell cycle, leading to the development of cancer.
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666:
is highly variable, even among different cells of the same species. In this phase, the cell increases its supply of proteins, increases the number of organelles (such as mitochondria, ribosomes), and grows in size. In
1189:
will be replicated once and only once. The reason for prevention of gaps in replication is fairly clear, because daughter cells that are missing all or part of crucial genes will die. However, for reasons related to
1649:. This is where the cell checks whether it has enough raw materials to fully replicate its DNA (nucleotide bases, DNA synthase, chromatin, etc.). An unhealthy or malnourished cell will get stuck at this checkpoint.
1547:). Of the 1,271 genes assayed, 882 continued to be expressed in the cyclin-deficient cells at the same time as in the wild type cells, despite the fact that the cyclin-deficient cells arrest at the border between
2023:
Overviews of the G1/S transition control networks in plants, animals, and yeast. All three show striking network topology similarities, even though individual proteins in the network have very little sequence
1611:
are used by the cell to monitor and regulate the progress of the cell cycle. Checkpoints prevent cell cycle progression at specific points, allowing verification of necessary phase processes and repair of
1502:(HER2-) breast cancer. For example, palbociclib is an orally active CDK4/6 inhibitor which has demonstrated improved outcomes for ER-positive/HER2-negative advanced breast cancer. The main side effect is
161:
that includes mitosis and cytokinesis. During interphase, the cell grows, accumulating nutrients needed for mitosis, and replicates its DNA and some of its organelles. During the M phase, the replicated
1866:
phase (due to increased availability of nutrients, oxygen, growth factors etc.). Radiation or chemotherapy following the debulking procedure kills these cells which have newly entered the cell cycle.
2040:
are double-negative feedback loops and positive feedback loops in both yeast and animals. Additional regulation of the regulatory network for the G1/S checkpoint in yeast and animals includes the
3463:
Bilgin B, Sendur MA, Şener Dede D, Akıncı MB, Yalçın B (September 2017). "A current and comprehensive review of cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitors for the treatment of metastatic breast cancer".
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in eukaryotes. While yeast share a conserved network topology with plants and animals, the highly diverged nature of yeast regulators suggests possible rapid evolution along the yeast lineage.
1185:. The phosphorylation serves two purposes: to activate each already-assembled pre-replication complex, and to prevent new complexes from forming. This ensures that every portion of the cell's
662:). It is also called the growth phase. During this phase, the biosynthetic activities of the cell, which are considerably slowed down during M phase, resume at a high rate. The duration of G
4886:
Ortega S, Prieto I, Odajima J, Martín A, Dubus P, Sotillo R, et al. (September 2003). "Cyclin-dependent kinase 2 is essential for meiosis but not for mitotic cell division in mice".
1569:
While oscillatory transcription plays a key role in the progression of the yeast cell cycle, the CDK-cyclin machinery operates independently in the early embryonic cell cycle. Before the
1517:
Current evidence suggests that a semi-autonomous transcriptional network acts in concert with the CDK-cyclin machinery to regulate the cell cycle. Several gene expression studies in
1843:
phase) in tumors is much higher than that in normal tissue. Thus there is a net increase in cell number as the number of cells that die by apoptosis or senescence remains the same.
1130:; cyclins have no catalytic activity and CDKs are inactive in the absence of a partner cyclin. When activated by a bound cyclin, CDKs perform a common biochemical reaction called
1706:
521:
is a resting phase where the cell has left the cycle and has stopped dividing. The cell cycle starts with this phase. Non-proliferative (non-dividing) cells in multicellular
166:, organelles, and cytoplasm separate into two new daughter cells. To ensure the proper replication of cellular components and division, there are control mechanisms known as
1846:
The cells which are actively undergoing cell cycle are targeted in cancer therapy as the DNA is relatively exposed during cell division and hence susceptible to damage by
4037:. Miami Nature Biotechnology Winter Symposium. Cell Cycle, Chromosomes and Cancer. Vol. 15. Miami Beach, FL: University of Miami School of Medicine. Archived from
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until their death. Thus removing the need for cellular checkpoints. An alternative model of the cell cycle response to DNA damage has also been proposed, known as the
5867:
1535:
Experimental evidence also suggests that gene expression can oscillate with the period seen in dividing wild-type cells independently of the CDK machinery. Orlando
982:
of the parent cell into two daughter cells, genetically identical to each other and to their parent cell. This accounts for approximately 10% of the cell cycle.
5941:
2966:"Rb inactivation in cell cycle and cancer: the puzzle of highly regulated activating phosphorylation of CDK4 versus constitutively active CDK-activating kinase"
3754:
Lee TI, Rinaldi NJ, Robert F, Odom DT, Bar-Joseph Z, Gerber GK, et al. (October 2002). "Transcriptional regulatory networks in
Saccharomyces cerevisiae".
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to measure the expression of a set of 1,271 genes that they identified as periodic in both wild type cells and cells lacking all S-phase and mitotic cyclins (
3552:"The Forkhead transcription factor Hcm1 regulates chromosome segregation genes and fills the S-phase gap in the transcriptional circuitry of the cell cycle"
1509:
Cdk4/6 targeted therapy will only treat cancer types where Rb is expressed. Cancer cells with loss of Rb have primary resistance to Cdk4/6 inhibitors.
6233:
6127:
4065:"Integrative analysis of genome-scale data by using pseudoinverse projection predicts novel correlation between DNA replication and RNA transcription"
4975:
Santamaría D, Barrière C, Cerqueira A, Hunt S, Tardy C, Newton K, et al. (August 2007). "Cdk1 is sufficient to drive the mammalian cell cycle".
1928:
The cell cycle must duplicate all cellular constituents and equally partition them into two daughter cells. Many constituents, such as proteins and
1304:
responsive genes, effectively "blocking" them from transcription), activating E2F. Activation of E2F results in transcription of various genes like
564:. Cellular senescence may make a cell's progeny nonviable; it is often a biochemical alternative to the self-destruction of such a damaged cell by
4028:
Alter O, Golub GH, Brown PO, Botstein D (February 2004). Deutscher MP, Black S, Boehmer PE, D'Urso G, Fletcher TM, Huijing F, et al. (eds.).
5554:"The E2F functional analogue SBF recruits the Rpd3(L) HDAC, via Whi5 and Stb1, and the FACT chromatin reorganizer, to yeast G1 cyclin promoters"
4794:
Satyanarayana A, Kaldis P (August 2009). "Mammalian cell-cycle regulation: several Cdks, numerous cyclins and diverse compensatory mechanisms".
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is formed to separate it in plant cells. The position of the cell plate is determined by the position of a preprophase band of microtubules and
1495:
813:
4031:
Novel Genome-Scale
Correlation between DNA Replication and RNA Transcription During the Cell Cycle in Yeast is Predicted by Data-Driven Models
1630:
There are several checkpoints to ensure that damaged or incomplete DNA is not passed on to daughter cells. Three main checkpoints exist: the G
1273:
hyper-phosphorylated Rb in late G1 state. In early G1 cells, mono-phosphorylated Rb exists as 14 different isoforms, one of each has distinct
5814:
5795:
5774:
5755:
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3523:
3329:
2940:
2722:
2485:
2223:
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computational methods and criteria used to identify them, each study indicates that a large portion of yeast genes are temporally regulated.
1093:
3903:
Ubersax JA, Woodbury EL, Quang PN, Paraz M, Blethrow JD, Shah K, et al. (October 2003). "Targets of the cyclin-dependent kinase Cdk1".
6173:
1698:/M checkpoints. In addition to p53, checkpoint regulators are being heavily researched for their roles in cancer growth and proliferation.
998:, but is found in various groups. Even in animals, cytokinesis and mitosis may occur independently, for instance during certain stages of
271:(mitosis and cytokinesis). M phase is itself composed of two tightly coupled processes: mitosis, in which the cell's nucleus divides, and
5322:
Ferrell JE (April 2002). "Self-perpetuating states in signal transduction: positive feedback, double-negative feedback and bistability".
1623:
are converted to about 50 endogenous DNA double-strand breaks per cell per cell cycle. Although such double-strand breaks are usually
5934:
5910:
5513:"Cdk phosphorylation triggers sequential intramolecular interactions that progressively block Rb functions as cells move through G1"
3135:
2141:
2440:
2036:
Entry into S-phase in both yeast and animals is controlled by the levels of two opposing regulators. The networks regulating these
1710:
Fluorescent proteins visualize the cell cycle progression. IFP2.0-hGem(1/110) fluorescence is shown in green and highlights the S/G
1261:) to pRb. The un-phosphorylated Rb tumour suppressor functions in inducing cell cycle exit and maintaining G0 arrest (senescence).
122:, and subsequently the partitioning of its cytoplasm, chromosomes and other components into two daughter cells in a process called
5842:
4029:
1620:
3345:
1281:
In general, the binding of pRb to E2F inhibits the E2F target gene expression of certain G1/S and S transition genes including
2798:
Mahmoudi M, Azadmanesh K, Shokrgozar MA, Journeay WS, Laurent S (May 2011). "Effect of nanoparticles on the cell life cycle".
2655:"Comprehensive identification of cell cycle-regulated genes of the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae by microarray hybridization"
545:
phase semi-permanently and are considered post-mitotic, e.g., some liver, kidney, and stomach cells. Many cells do not enter G
4296:"Lack of checkpoint control at the metaphase/anaphase transition: a mechanism of meiotic nondisjunction in mammalian females"
2298:
Wu RS, Bonner WM (December 1981). "Separation of basal histone synthesis from S-phase histone synthesis in dividing cells".
1022:
4124:"A tensor higher-order singular value decomposition for integrative analysis of DNA microarray data from different studies"
1937:
6431:
5864:
4653:"Phylogeny from function: evidence from the molecular fossil record that tRNA originated in replication, not translation"
1162:
cyclin-CDK complexes also promote the degradation of molecules that function as S phase inhibitors by targeting them for
911:
cells, but occurs in different ways in different species. For example, animal cells undergo an "open" mitosis, where the
6490:
5927:
1577:
transcription does not occur and all needed proteins, such as the B-type cyclins, are translated from maternally loaded
1566:
may alter the localization or activity of the transcription factors in order to tightly control timing of target genes.
651:
The first phase within interphase, from the end of the previous M phase until the beginning of DNA synthesis, is called
1730:
Pioneering work by
Atsushi Miyawaki and coworkers developed the fluorescent ubiquitination-based cell cycle indicator (
1627:
with high fidelity, errors in their repair are considered to contribute significantly to the rate of cancer in humans.
114:
that causes it to divide into two daughter cells. These events include the growth of the cell, duplication of its DNA (
6445:
6243:
1915:, a less accurate and more mutagenic process for repairing double strand breaks, is active throughout the cell cycle.
1751:
1499:
1439:(which, in turn, is triggered by DNA damage e.g. due to radiation). p27 is activated by Transforming Growth Factor β (
560:
cells. Cellular senescence occurs in response to DNA damage and external stress and usually constitutes an arrest in G
5886:
5642:
Zhao X, Harashima H, Dissmeyer N, Pusch S, Weimer AK, Bramsiepe J, et al. (2 August 2012). Palanivelu R (ed.).
4482:
Baserga R (June 1965). "The
Relationship of the Cell Cycle to Tumor Growth and Control of Cell Division: A Review".
2019:
872:
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could also be useful for the arrest of cell cycle and therefore be useful as antineoplastic and anticancer agents.
1214:
594:, followed by the cycle of mitosis and cytokinesis. The cell's nuclear DNA contents are duplicated during S phase.
1858:, a significant mass of the tumor is removed which pushes a significant number of the remaining tumor cells from G
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1979:
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1739:
1321:
1250:
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1237:
5115:"B1-type cyclin-dependent kinases are essential for the formation of stomatal complexes in Arabidopsis thaliana"
1815:
1232:
is the first cyclin produced in the cells that enter the cell cycle, in response to extracellular signals (e.g.
1973:
1892:
1519:
1491:
1401:
rame) family, prevent the progression of the cell cycle. Because these genes are instrumental in prevention of
1103:
927:
766:
689:
606:
538:
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phases and most resistant in late S phase. For cells with a longer cell cycle time and a significantly long G
1221:. APC also targets the mitotic cyclins for degradation, ensuring that telophase and cytokinesis can proceed.
6034:
1968:
1174:
1097:
1077:
999:
4929:
Aleem E, Kiyokawa H, Kaldis P (August 2005). "Cdc2-cyclin E complexes regulate the G1/S phase transition".
3007:"The retinoblastoma family of proteins and their regulatory functions in the mammalian cell division cycle"
2102:
2053:
1991:
knockouts are lethal, which suggests an ancestral CDK1-type kinase ultimately controlling the cell cycle.
1831:
1570:
1258:
1253:/6, forming the active cyclin D-CDK4/6 complex. Cyclin D-CDK4/6 complexes in turn mono-phosphorylates the
215:
2550:
Lilly MA, Duronio RJ (April 2005). "New insights into cell cycle control from the
Drosophila endocycle".
2392:"Evidence for an essentially constant duration of DNA synthesis in renewing epithelia of the adult mouse"
6366:
6117:
5078:
Harashima H, Dissmeyer N, Schnittger A (July 2013). "Cell cycle control across the eukaryotic kingdom".
2636:
1608:
1603:
1182:
716:
708:
476:
446:
396:
167:
4511:"DNA repair by nonhomologous end joining and homologous recombination during cell cycle in human cells"
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Champeris
Tsaniras S, Kanellakis N, Symeonidou IE, Nikolopoulou P, Lygerou Z, Taraviras S (June 2014).
3506:
Schmidt M, Sebastian M (August 2018). "Palbociclib—The First of a New Class of Cell Cycle
Inhibitors".
2593:
Nigg EA (June 1995). "Cyclin-dependent protein kinases: key regulators of the eukaryotic cell cycle".
1478:
been characterized to be a therapeutic target for anti-tumor effectiveness. Three Cdk4/6 inhibitors –
5359:"Double-negative feedback between S-phase cyclin-CDK and CKI generates abruptness in the G1/S switch"
5278:
4984:
4664:
4609:
4248:
4190:
4135:
4076:
3981:"Global effects of DNA replication and DNA replication origin activity on eukaryotic gene expression"
3912:
3763:
3617:
2754:
2252:
2037:
1995:
1528:
1151:
921:
770:
39:
170:
after each of the key steps of the cycle that determine if the cell can progress to the next phase.
6485:
3119:
3113:
2107:
2092:
1811:
1799:
1779:
1759:
1743:
557:
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and may remain quiescent for long periods of time, possibly indefinitely (as is often the case for
3805:
Simon I, Barnett J, Hannett N, Harbison CT, Rinaldi NJ, Volkert TL, et al. (September 2001).
6379:
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4911:
4819:
4633:
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4214:
3936:
3836:
3787:
3488:
3445:
3265:"Cyclin D-Cdk4,6 Drives Cell-Cycle Progression via the Retinoblastoma Protein's C-Terminal Helix"
2618:
2575:
2323:
1081:
5859:
5784:
Krieger M, Scott MP, Matsudaira PT, Lodish HF, Darnell JE, Zipursky L, Kaiser C, Berk A (2004).
5166:"Requirement of B2-type cyclin-dependent kinases for meristem integrity in Arabidopsis thaliana"
4343:
Sakaue-Sawano A, Kurokawa H, Morimura T, Hanyu A, Hama H, Osawa H, et al. (February 2008).
3321:
3313:
2343:"Coupling of DNA synthesis and histone synthesis in S phase independent of cyclin/cdk2 activity"
1194:
effects, possession of extra copies of certain genes is also deleterious to the daughter cells.
1096:
for their discovery of these central molecules. Many of the genes encoding cyclins and CDKs are
5897:
5460:
Narasimha AM, Kaulich M, Shapiro GS, Choi YJ, Sicinski P, Dowdy SF (June 2014). Davis R (ed.).
4443:"Licensing of DNA replication, cancer, pluripotency and differentiation: an interlinked world?"
3420:
O'Leary B, Finn RS, Turner NC (July 2016). "Treating cancer with selective CDK4/6 inhibitors".
1731:
1361:
6374:
5810:
5791:
5770:
5751:
5724:
5675:
5624:
5603:"Cln3 activates G1-specific transcription via phosphorylation of the SBF bound repressor Whi5"
5583:
5534:
5493:
5439:
5390:
5339:
5304:
5247:
5195:
5146:
5095:
5049:
5000:
4946:
4903:
4868:
4811:
4776:
4727:
4692:
4625:
4582:
4540:
4491:
4464:
4423:
4366:
4325:
4276:
4237:"Endogenous DNA double-strand breaks: production, fidelity of repair, and induction of cancer"
4206:
4163:
4104:
4010:
3959:
3928:
3885:
3828:
3779:
3736:
3684:
3643:
3581:
3529:
3519:
3480:
3437:
3402:
3325:
3294:
3242:
3190:
3141:
3131:
3094:
3038:
2987:
2946:
2936:
2913:
2864:
2815:
2780:
2741:
Dong P, Maddali MV, Srimani JK, Thélot F, Nevins JR, Mathey-Prevot B, You L (September 2014).
2718:
2684:
2610:
2567:
2532:
2481:
2421:
2372:
2315:
2280:
2219:
2188:
2137:
2029:
1646:
901:
712:
186:
31:
4837:
Barrière C, Santamaría D, Cerqueira A, Galán J, Martín A, Ortega S, et al. (June 2007).
4710:
Morgan DO (November 1997). "Cyclin-dependent kinases: engines, clocks, and microprocessors".
2653:
Spellman PT, Sherlock G, Zhang MQ, Iyer VR, Anders K, Eisen MB, et al. (December 1998).
2477:
2471:
5714:
5706:
5665:
5655:
5644:"A general G1/S-phase cell-cycle control module in the flowering plant Arabidopsis thaliana"
5614:
5573:
5565:
5524:
5483:
5473:
5429:
5421:
5380:
5370:
5331:
5294:
5286:
5237:
5229:
5185:
5177:
5136:
5126:
5087:
5039:
4992:
4938:
4895:
4858:
4850:
4803:
4766:
4758:
4719:
4682:
4672:
4617:
4574:
4530:
4522:
4454:
4413:
4405:
4356:
4315:
4307:
4266:
4256:
4198:
4153:
4143:
4094:
4084:
4000:
3992:
3920:
3875:
3867:
3818:
3771:
3726:
3718:
3674:
3633:
3625:
3571:
3563:
3511:
3472:
3429:
3392:
3384:
3284:
3276:
3232:
3224:
3180:
3172:
3123:
3084:
3074:
3028:
3018:
2977:
2903:
2895:
2854:
2846:
2807:
2770:
2762:
2674:
2666:
2602:
2559:
2522:
2514:
2411:
2403:
2362:
2354:
2307:
2270:
2260:
2178:
2170:
2044:/de-phosphorylation of CDK-cyclin complexes. The sum of these regulatory networks creates a
1406:
1341:
1317:
1210:
1191:
912:
130:
5693:
Weimer AK, Nowack MK, Bouyer D, Zhao X, Harashima H, Naseer S, et al. (October 2012).
5113:
Boudolf V, Barrôco R, Engler J, Verkest A, Beeckman T, Naudts M, et al. (April 2004).
4745:
Malumbres M, Harlow E, Hunt T, Hunter T, Lahti JM, Manning G, et al. (November 2009).
1300:
The hyperphosphorylated Rb dissociates from the E2F/DP1/Rb complex (which was bound to the
1166:. Once a protein has been ubiquitinated, it is targeted for proteolytic degradation by the
5914:
5871:
5026:
Nowack MK, Harashima H, Dissmeyer N, Zhao X, Bouyer D, Weimer AK, et al. (May 2012).
3663:"Comparison of computational methods for the identification of cell cycle-regulated genes"
2448:
2041:
1559:
1269:
complexes, thereby inducing G1/S cell cycle gene expression and progression into S phase.
1206:
1155:
1131:
1085:
987:
423:
115:
5907:
3604:
Orlando DA, Lin CY, Bernard A, Wang JY, Socolar JE, Iversen ES, et al. (June 2008).
3263:
Topacio BR, Zatulovskiy E, Cristea S, Xie S, Tambo CS, Rubin SM, et al. (May 2019).
2743:"Division of labour between Myc and G1 cyclins in cell cycle commitment and pace control"
1217:(APC), which promotes degradation of structural proteins associated with the chromosomal
5892:
5282:
5222:
Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences
4988:
4668:
4613:
4567:
Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences
4252:
4194:
4139:
4080:
3916:
3767:
3621:
2758:
2256:
6469:
6457:
5852:
5719:
5694:
5670:
5643:
5578:
5553:
5488:
5461:
5434:
5409:
5385:
5358:
5299:
5266:
5242:
5217:
5190:
5165:
5164:
Andersen SU, Buechel S, Zhao Z, Ljung K, Novák O, Busch W, et al. (January 2008).
4863:
4838:
4771:
4746:
4621:
4535:
4510:
4418:
4393:
4320:
4295:
4158:
4123:
4005:
3980:
3731:
3706:
3638:
3605:
3576:
3551:
3397:
3372:
3289:
3264:
3237:
3212:
3211:
Sanidas I, Morris R, Fella KA, Rumde PH, Boukhali M, Tai EC, et al. (March 2019).
3185:
3160:
3089:
3062:
3033:
3006:
2908:
2883:
2859:
2834:
2775:
2742:
2527:
2502:
2416:
2391:
2183:
2158:
2082:
1755:
1313:
1254:
1236:). Cyclin D levels stay low in resting cells that are not proliferating. Additionally,
1163:
195:
111:
56:
5750:. London: Published by New Science Press in association with Oxford University Press.
5529:
5512:
5335:
5141:
5114:
4271:
4236:
4099:
4064:
4038:
3880:
3855:
3823:
3806:
3127:
2964:
Paternot S, Bockstaele L, Bisteau X, Kooken H, Coulonval K, Roger PP (February 2010).
2367:
2342:
2275:
2240:
6479:
6313:
5785:
4723:
4687:
4652:
4392:
Rodriguez EA, Tran GN, Gross LA, Crisp JL, Shu X, Lin JY, Tsien RY (September 2016).
4181:
Elledge SJ (December 1996). "Cell cycle checkpoints: preventing an identity crisis".
3492:
3349:
2679:
2654:
2358:
2311:
2052:
must be suppressed by Cln3 phosphorylation for SBF to be expressed, while in animals
2048:
and bistable scheme, despite the specific proteins being highly diverged. For yeast,
1795:
1233:
1150:
complexes become active to prepare the cell for S phase, promoting the expression of
1126:
Cyclins form the regulatory subunits and CDKs the catalytic subunits of an activated
1089:
979:
966:
750:
627:
459:
123:
49:
30:
This article is about the eukaryotic cell cycle. For the prokaryotic cell cycle, see
17:
4958:
4915:
4637:
4600:
Cavalier-Smith T (July 1987). "The origin of eukaryotic and archaebacterial cells".
4378:
4218:
3679:
3662:
3449:
3346:"Presentation on CDC25 PHOSPHATASES: A Potential Target for Novel Anticancer Agents"
2622:
2579:
2327:
1963:
Cell-cycle progression is controlled by the oscillating concentrations of different
503:
6464:
6335:
5012:
4823:
3940:
3840:
3791:
3661:
de
Lichtenberg U, Jensen LJ, Fausbøll A, Jensen TS, Bork P, Brunak S (April 2005).
3606:"Global control of cell-cycle transcription by coupled CDK and network oscillators"
1851:
1847:
1735:
1044:
936:
889:
851:
835:
227:
134:
4202:
3979:
Omberg L, Meyerson JR, Kobayashi K, Drury LS, Diffley JF, Alter O (October 2009).
3476:
1197:
Mitotic cyclin-CDK complexes, which are synthesized but inactivated during S and G
892:
into two identical sets in two nuclei. During the process of mitosis the pairs of
5765:
Alberts B, Johnson A, Lewis J, Raff M, Roberts K, Walter P (2008). "Chapter 17".
5660:
5425:
5410:"Commitment to a cellular transition precedes genome-wide transcriptional change"
5044:
5027:
4854:
4459:
4442:
3515:
3388:
3280:
3228:
2136:(Fifth ed.). New York London: W. W. Norton & Company. pp. 624–625.
761:. Thus, during this phase, the amount of DNA in the cell has doubled, though the
6356:
6325:
3856:"Cell cycle-regulated phosphorylation of Swi6 controls its nuclear localization"
3722:
3061:
Narasimha AM, Kaulich M, Shapiro GS, Choi YJ, Sicinski P, Dowdy SF (June 2014).
2007:
1807:
1503:
1487:
1479:
1218:
1127:
954:
948:
897:
893:
839:
272:
6452:
5619:
5602:
4657:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
4361:
4344:
4241:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
4128:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
4069:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
2245:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
1830:
formation. As mentioned above, when some genes like the cell cycle inhibitors,
1750:) was fused to hCdt1(30/120). Note, these fusions are fragments that contain a
1435:
phase by binding to and inactivating cyclin-CDK complexes. p21 is activated by
495:
34:. For the separation of chromosomes that occurs as part of the cell cycle, see
6277:
5805:
Watson JD, Baker TA, Bell SP, Gann A, Levine M, Losick R (2004). "Chapter 7".
5601:
de Bruin RA, McDonald WH, Kalashnikova TI, Yates J, Wittenberg C (June 2004).
5091:
4394:"A far-red fluorescent protein evolved from a cyanobacterial phycobiliprotein"
3433:
2850:
2341:
Nelson DM, Ye X, Hall C, Santos H, Ma T, Kao GD, et al. (November 2002).
2207:
2132:
Alberts B, Hopkin K, Johnson A, Morgan D, Raff M, Roberts K, Walter P (2019).
2045:
1896:
1624:
1613:
1540:
1490:– currently received FDA approval for clinical use to treat advanced-stage or
1483:
1451:
1428:
1424:
1167:
1147:
1051:
995:
971:
885:
881:
754:
622:
phase of the cell cycle. At top center it also shows the chromosome 3 pair in
577:
549:
and continue to divide throughout an organism's life, e.g., epithelial cells.
376:
296:
264:
231:
207:
174:
163:
154:
5375:
4345:"Visualizing spatiotemporal dynamics of multicellular cell-cycle progression"
1684:, state back into the cell cycle and on to mitotic replication and division.
1645:/S transition is a rate-limiting step in the cell cycle and is also known as
1154:
that in turn promote the expression of S cyclins and of enzymes required for
6400:
6350:
6340:
6023:
6019:
6009:
6005:
6001:
5991:
5987:
5977:
5973:
5695:"Retinoblastoma related1 regulates asymmetric cell divisions in Arabidopsis"
4677:
4261:
4148:
4089:
3775:
3707:"A systematic screen for transcriptional regulators of the yeast cell cycle"
2950:
2069:
1987:
triple knockout mice cells can still progress through the basic cell cycle.
1855:
1562:, a post-translational modification, of cell cycle transcription factors by
1366:
1003:
962:
958:
908:
866:
856:
758:
638:
623:
611:
565:
522:
454:
ensures that everything is ready to enter the M (mitosis) phase and divide.
291:
276:
119:
64:
5728:
5710:
5679:
5628:
5587:
5569:
5538:
5497:
5443:
5394:
5343:
5308:
5251:
5233:
5199:
5181:
5150:
5099:
5053:
5004:
4950:
4907:
4872:
4815:
4780:
4578:
4544:
4495:
4468:
4427:
4370:
4311:
4280:
4167:
4108:
4014:
3932:
3832:
3783:
3740:
3688:
3647:
3585:
3533:
3484:
3441:
3406:
3298:
3246:
3194:
3176:
3145:
3098:
3042:
3023:
2991:
2917:
2868:
2819:
2784:
2606:
2571:
2563:
2536:
2425:
2376:
2265:
2192:
1205:
by stimulating downstream proteins involved in chromosome condensation and
6440:
4731:
4696:
4629:
4586:
4329:
4210:
3889:
3871:
2688:
2670:
2614:
2319:
2284:
1002:
embryonic development. Errors in mitosis can result in cell death through
6405:
6345:
6330:
6299:
6285:
6015:
5997:
5983:
5969:
4807:
4762:
4526:
3807:"Serial regulation of transcriptional regulators in the yeast cell cycle"
2982:
2965:
2714:
2212:
1929:
1900:
1548:
1440:
1345:
1337:
1309:
1305:
1294:
1290:
1286:
1282:
1229:
1064:
1007:
861:
846:
790:
682:
652:
646:
553:
512:
431:
381:
358:
332:
320:
312:
281:
256:
244:
178:
75:
5478:
5290:
4996:
3996:
3924:
3629:
3567:
3079:
2518:
2407:
2174:
935:) undergo a "closed" mitosis, where chromosomes divide within an intact
6414:
6321:
6294:
5953:
5511:
Harbour JW, Luo RX, Dei Santi A, Postigo AA, Dean DC (September 1999).
5131:
4409:
2766:
1943:
The pre-cellular environment contained functional and self-replicating
1933:
1904:
1555:
1202:
825:
801:
774:
746:
740:
676:
631:
464:
413:
324:
304:
300:
268:
252:
219:
182:
158:
150:
35:
5919:
5218:"Evolution of networks and sequences in eukaryotic cell cycle control"
5028:"Genetic framework of cyclin-dependent kinase function in Arabidopsis"
3510:. Recent Results in Cancer Research. Vol. 211. pp. 153–175.
3118:. Advances in Cancer Research. Vol. 82. Academic Press. pp.
2884:"Cellular mechanisms of tumour suppression by the retinoblastoma gene"
2811:
2470:
Maton A, Lahart D, Hopkins J, Warner MQ, Johnson S, Wright JD (1997).
1854:. This fact is made use of in cancer treatment; by a process known as
1794:, or M phase. A far-red and near-infrared FUCCI was developed using a
1690:
plays an important role in triggering the control mechanisms at both G
1173:
Active S cyclin-CDK complexes phosphorylate proteins that make up the
6253:
6169:
6155:
6151:
6147:
6139:
6097:
6092:
5961:
1964:
1932:, are produced continuously throughout the cell cycle (except during
1803:
1715:
1574:
1459:
1186:
1073:
1032:
in a sequential fashion and it is impossible to "reverse" the cycle.
1011:
991:
762:
534:
211:
146:
138:
70:
5462:"Cyclin D activates the Rb tumor suppressor by mono-phosphorylation"
4942:
3063:"Cyclin D activates the Rb tumor suppressor by mono-phosphorylation"
2899:
1111:(for "cell division cycle") followed by an identifying number, e.g.
1057:
371:
A phase where the cell has left the cycle and has stopped dividing.
5267:"Positive feedback of G1 cyclins ensures coherent cell cycle entry"
4899:
757:
have been replicated, i.e., each chromosome consists of two sister
6228:
6223:
6112:
6107:
6102:
2709:
Robbins SL, Cotran RS (2004). Kumar V, Abbas AK, Fausto N (eds.).
2018:
1874:, the most variable phase of the cycle. M and S do not vary much.
1827:
1471:
1402:
1360:
1119:
1113:
1021:
975:
932:
916:
502:
494:
223:
142:
81:
5877:
Transcriptional program of the cell cycle: high-resolution timing
1324:, forming the cyclin E-CDK2 complex, which pushes the cell from G
626:(annotated as "Meta."), which takes place after having undergone
6257:
6248:
6218:
6197:
6135:
5848:
5408:
Eser U, Falleur-Fettig M, Johnson A, Skotheim JM (August 2011).
2637:"The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2001 – Press release"
2113:
2049:
1718:-hCdtI(30/120) fluorescence is shown in red and highlights the G
1578:
1563:
1245:
1209:
assembly. A critical complex activated during this process is a
203:
199:
5923:
5902:
5882:
Cell cycle and metabolic cycle regulated transcription in yeast
1936:). However, the chromosomes and other associated elements like
6238:
6202:
6192:
6165:
6143:
3550:
Pramila T, Wu W, Miles S, Noble WS, Breeden LL (August 2006).
2057:
1952:
1944:
1835:
1687:
1436:
1420:
1301:
1274:
1266:
719:
is called the restriction point or START and is regulated by G
405:
4509:
Mao Z, Bozzella M, Seluanov A, Gorbunova V (September 2008).
3213:"A Code of Mono-phosphorylation Modulates the Function of RB"
2833:
Goel S, DeCristo MJ, McAllister SS, Zhao JJ (November 2018).
230:). After cell division, each of the daughter cells begin the
74:) cells in different phases of the cell cycle. Growth in an '
5876:
1080:(CDKs), determine a cell's progress through the cell cycle.
871:
614:
of the human chromosomes, showing their usual state in the G
243:
The eukaryotic cell cycle consists of four distinct phases:
5881:
4565:
Nasmyth K (September 1995). "Evolution of the cell cycle".
808:
checkpoint for any DNA damage within the chromosomes. The G
552:
The word "post-mitotic" is sometimes used to refer to both
5809:(5th ed.). San Francisco: Pearson/Benjamin Cummings.
5265:
Skotheim JM, Di Talia S, Siggia ED, Cross FR (July 2008).
1967:
and the resulting molecular interactions from the various
480:
ensures that the cell is ready to complete cell division.
110:, is the sequential series of events that take place in a
1877:
In general, cells are most radiosensitive in late M and G
1826:
A disregulation of the cell cycle components may lead to
1107:; genetic nomenclature in yeast dubs many of these genes
198:
into a mature organism, and is also the process by which
3599:
3597:
3595:
773:
are very low during this phase. An exception to this is
27:
Series of events and stages that result in cell division
5903:
Science Creative Quarterly's overview of the cell cycle
2835:"CDK4/6 Inhibition in Cancer: Beyond Cell Cycle Arrest"
1619:
It is estimated that in normal human cells about 1% of
978:
filaments. Mitosis and cytokinesis together define the
153:
cells, the cell cycle is divided into two main stages:
78:' is carefully controlled by regulating the cell cycle.
3854:
Sidorova JM, Mikesell GE, Breeden LL (December 1995).
2159:"Metabolism, cell growth and the bacterial cell cycle"
2056:
must be suppressed by the Cdk4/6-cyclin D complex for
1039:
765:
and number of chromosomes are unchanged. Rates of RNA
6429:
1885:
phase, there is a second peak of resistance late in G
1454:, which binds to CDK4 and arrests the cell cycle in G
1365:
Overview of signal transduction pathways involved in
943:
Cytokinesis phase (separation of all cell components)
777:
production, most of which occurs during the S phase.
4294:
LeMaire-Adkins R, Radke K, Hunt PA (December 1997).
3373:"Targeting CDK4 and CDK6: From Discovery to Therapy"
1143:
Upon receiving a pro-mitotic extracellular signal, G
812:
checkpoint is mainly regulated by the tumor protein
602:
phase (First growth phase or Post mitotic gap phase)
6393:
6365:
6312:
6276:
6267:
6211:
6183:
6126:
6033:
5960:
5216:Cross FR, Buchler NE, Skotheim JM (December 2011).
2068:extend our knowledge of the G1/S transition across
1585:
DNA replication and DNA replication origin activity
915:breaks down before the chromosomes separate, while
5860:David Morgan's Seminar: Controlling the Cell Cycle
3545:
3543:
2211:
3161:"RB1: a prototype tumor suppressor and an enigma"
2006:mutants are still viable, running counter to the
1379:CDK interacting protein/Kinase inhibitory protein
1135:cycle, in response to various molecular signals.
4230:
4228:
3700:
3698:
2736:
2734:
1527:Many periodically expressed genes are driven by
537:). This is very common for cells that are fully
5552:Takahata S, Yu Y, Stillman DJ (November 2009).
4712:Annual Review of Cell and Developmental Biology
1680:oocyte to return from its previously dormant, G
2648:
2646:
1899:double-strand breaks. HR is nearly absent in
1742:, mAG, was fused to hGem(1/110) and an orange
1244:are also inactive because CDK4/6 are bound by
5935:
5357:Venta R, Valk E, Kõivomägi M, Loog M (2012).
4747:"Cyclin-dependent kinases: a family portrait"
4122:Omberg L, Golub GH, Alter O (November 2007).
3705:White MA, Riles L, Cohen BA (February 2009).
2218:(2nd ed.). Washington, D.C.: ASM Press.
1340:-cdk1 complex activation causes breakdown of
295:Schematic of the cell cycle. Outer ring: I =
8:
4447:Seminars in Cell & Developmental Biology
3371:Sherr CJ, Beach D, Shapiro GI (April 2016).
1959:Cyclin-dependent kinase and cyclin evolution
1664:the spindle equator before anaphase begins.
583:the total time required for the cell cycle.
5898:Fucci:Using GFP to visualize the cell-cycle
5769:(5th ed.). New York: Garland Science.
2933:The cell cycle : principles of control
1139:General mechanism of cyclin-CDK interaction
753:commences; when it is complete, all of the
6273:
5942:
5928:
5920:
4602:Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences
3206:
3204:
2704:
2702:
2700:
2698:
1999:has a Cdk1 homolog called CDKA;1, however
731:check point commits the cell to division.
6234:Cellular apoptosis susceptibility protein
5718:
5669:
5659:
5618:
5577:
5528:
5487:
5477:
5433:
5384:
5374:
5298:
5241:
5189:
5140:
5130:
5043:
4862:
4770:
4686:
4676:
4534:
4458:
4417:
4360:
4319:
4270:
4260:
4235:Vilenchik MM, Knudson AG (October 2003).
4157:
4147:
4098:
4088:
4004:
3958:. London: New Science Press. p. 18.
3879:
3822:
3730:
3678:
3637:
3575:
3396:
3288:
3236:
3184:
3088:
3078:
3032:
3022:
2981:
2907:
2858:
2774:
2678:
2526:
2501:De Souza CP, Osmani SA (September 2007).
2415:
2366:
2274:
2264:
2182:
1971:(CDKs). In yeast, just one CDK (Cdc28 in
1738:imaging of the cell cycle. Originally, a
1072:Two key classes of regulatory molecules,
723:/S cyclins, which cause transition from G
1705:
1506:which can be managed by dose reduction.
605:
473:
444:Growth and preparation for mitosis. The
443:
422:
393:
370:
337:
290:
63:
55:
6436:
2208:"Chapter 14: The Eukaryotic Cell Cycle"
2124:
1762:, but are not functional proteins. The
1369:, also known as "programmed cell death"
1320:, etc. Cyclin E thus produced binds to
1225:Specific action of cyclin-CDK complexes
3112:Morris EJ, Dyson NJ (1 January 2001).
2882:Burkhart DL, Sage J (September 2008).
2476:. New Jersey: Prentice Hall. pp.
1770:, or M phase and degraded during the G
1702:Fluorescence imaging of the cell cycle
586:Interphase proceeds in three stages, G
5748:The Cell Cycle: Principles of Control
5455:
5453:
5211:
5209:
5073:
5071:
5069:
5067:
5065:
5063:
4970:
4968:
4560:
4558:
4556:
4554:
3956:The Cell Cycle: Principles of Control
3258:
3256:
3056:
3054:
3052:
2390:Cameron IL, Greulich RC (July 1963).
1589:Analyses of synchronized cultures of
1094:Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
990:. This occurs most notably among the
820:Mitotic phase (chromosome separation)
404:ensures that everything is ready for
7:
3465:Current Medical Research and Opinion
4839:"Mice thrive without Cdk4 and Cdk2"
4063:Alter O, Golub GH (November 2004).
3320:. Boston: Academic Press. pp.
3314:"Cdk2 protein kinase (vertebrates)"
2157:Wang JD, Levin PA (November 2009).
1790:phase and destroyed during the S, G
1018:Regulation of eukaryotic cell cycle
953:Mitosis is immediately followed by
634:(annotated as S) of the cell cycle.
4651:Maizels N, Weiner AM (July 1994).
4622:10.1111/j.1749-6632.1987.tb40596.x
2503:"Mitosis, not just open or closed"
2445:World Book Online Reference Center
2110:– synchronization of cell cultures
1513:Transcriptional regulatory network
1201:phases, promote the initiation of
880:Mitosis is the process by which a
671:phase, a cell has three options.
25:
5790:. New York: W.H. Freeman and CO.
3422:Nature Reviews. Clinical Oncology
3005:Henley SA, Dick FA (March 2012).
2239:Smith JA, Martin L (April 1973).
727:to S phase. Passage through the G
675:To continue cell cycle and enter
6463:
6451:
6439:
5836: This article incorporates
5831:
4724:10.1146/annurev.cellbio.13.1.261
3316:. In Hardie DG, Hanks S (eds.).
2359:10.1128/MCB.22.21.7459-7472.2002
1895:(HR) is an accurate process for
1462:which prevents p53 degradation.
1056:
1043:
804:, cells must be checked at the G
38:. For the academic journal, see
6161:
5865:The cell cycle & Cell death
5324:Current Opinion in Cell Biology
3115:Retinoblastoma protein partners
1431:. They halt the cell cycle in G
904:to opposite sides of the cell.
876:A diagram of the mitotic phases
525:generally enter the quiescent G
2473:Cells: Building Blocks of Life
2439:Rubenstein I, Wick SM (2008).
2347:Molecular and Cellular Biology
2214:The cell: a molecular approach
907:Mitosis occurs exclusively in
834:consists of nuclear division (
1:
5807:Molecular biology of the gene
5767:Molecular Biology of the Cell
5530:10.1016/s0092-8674(00)81519-6
5336:10.1016/S0955-0674(02)00314-9
4203:10.1126/science.274.5293.1664
3860:Molecular Biology of the Cell
3824:10.1016/S0092-8674(01)00494-9
3680:10.1093/bioinformatics/bti093
3477:10.1080/03007995.2017.1348344
3128:10.1016/s0065-230x(01)82001-7
2935:. London: New Science Press.
2711:Pathological Basis of Disease
2659:Molecular Biology of the Cell
1405:formation, they are known as
838:) and division of cytoplasm (
707:The deciding point is called
703:phase or re-enter cell cycle.
5661:10.1371/journal.pgen.1002847
5426:10.1016/j.molcel.2011.06.024
5045:10.1016/j.devcel.2012.02.015
4855:10.1016/j.molonc.2007.03.001
4460:10.1016/j.semcdb.2014.03.013
3516:10.1007/978-3-319-91442-8_11
3389:10.1158/2159-8290.cd-15-0894
3281:10.1016/j.molcel.2019.03.020
3229:10.1016/j.molcel.2019.01.004
2312:10.1016/0092-8674(81)90415-3
2163:Nature Reviews. Microbiology
1381:) family and the INK4a/ARF (
1041:
957:, which divides the nuclei,
222:(with possible exception of
173:In cells without nuclei the
6244:Maturation promoting factor
4300:The Journal of Cell Biology
3723:10.1534/genetics.108.098145
3508:Small Molecules in Oncology
2396:The Journal of Cell Biology
1752:nuclear localization signal
1373:Two families of genes, the
6507:
6385:Postreplication checkpoint
5620:10.1016/j.cell.2004.05.025
4362:10.1016/j.cell.2007.12.033
2098:Origin recognition complex
2088:Eukaryotic DNA replication
1913:Non-homologous end joining
1674:postreplication checkpoint
1601:
1215:anaphase-promoting complex
946:
823:
788:
738:
699:phase hence it may enter G
681:Stop cell cycle and enter
644:
636:
575:
510:
474:Cell division occurs. The
47:
29:
5092:10.1016/j.tcb.2013.03.002
3985:Molecular Systems Biology
3954:Morgan DO (2007). "2–3".
3434:10.1038/nrclinonc.2016.26
2851:10.1016/j.tcb.2018.07.002
2015:G1/S checkpoint evolution
1764:green fluorescent protein
1740:green fluorescent protein
1621:single-strand DNA damages
1496:hormone-receptor-positive
1332:/S, which initiates the G
1175:pre-replication complexes
735:S phase (DNA replication)
375:
5376:10.3389/fphys.2012.00459
3318:Protein kinase factsBook
1969:cyclin-dependent kinases
1893:Homologous recombination
1816:movie found at this link
1778:phase, while the orange
1591:Saccharomyces cerevisiae
1520:Saccharomyces cerevisiae
1470:Synthetic inhibitors of
1257:susceptibility protein (
1104:Saccharomyces cerevisiae
1078:cyclin-dependent kinases
1036:Role of cyclins and CDKs
928:Saccharomyces cerevisiae
541:. Some cells enter the G
5913:3 November 2008 at the
5908:KEGG – Human Cell Cycle
5870:30 October 2018 at the
5363:Frontiers in Physiology
4678:10.1073/pnas.91.15.6729
4262:10.1073/pnas.2135498100
4149:10.1073/pnas.0709146104
4090:10.1073/pnas.0406767101
3776:10.1126/science.1075090
3556:Genes & Development
3165:Genes & Development
1924:Evolution of the genome
1822:Role in tumor formation
1766:is made during the S, G
1443:), a growth inhibitor.
896:condense and attach to
263:(collectively known as
97:Deinococcus radiodurans
6367:Cell cycle checkpoints
5838:public domain material
5787:Molecular cell biology
5711:10.1105/tpc.112.104620
5570:10.1038/emboj.2009.270
5234:10.1098/rstb.2011.0078
5182:10.1105/tpc.107.054676
5080:Trends in Cell Biology
4579:10.1098/rstb.1995.0113
4312:10.1083/jcb.139.7.1611
3177:10.1101/gad.282145.116
3159:Dyson NJ (July 2016).
3024:10.1186/1747-1028-7-10
2888:Nature Reviews. Cancer
2839:Trends in Cell Biology
2607:10.1002/bies.950170603
2564:10.1038/sj.onc.1208610
2266:10.1073/pnas.70.4.1263
2134:Essential cell biology
2103:Retinoblastoma protein
2025:
1727:
1609:Cell cycle checkpoints
1571:midblastula transition
1370:
1028:
877:
642:
508:
500:
335:
288:or the resting phase.
275:, in which the cell's
168:cell cycle checkpoints
99:
79:
61:
60:Life cycle of the cell
6394:Other cellular phases
6118:CDK-activating kinase
3872:10.1091/mbc.6.12.1641
2747:Nature Communications
2671:10.1091/mbc.9.12.3273
2038:transcription factors
2022:
1709:
1604:Cell cycle checkpoint
1529:transcription factors
1364:
1152:transcription factors
1025:
875:
830:The relatively brief
688:phase for undergoing
637:Further information:
609:
506:
498:
294:
94:
67:
59:
18:Cell cycle regulation
6446:Evolutionary biology
5887:Cell Cycle Animation
4808:10.1038/onc.2009.170
4763:10.1038/ncb1109-1275
4527:10.4161/cc.7.18.6679
2983:10.4161/cc.9.4.10611
1996:Arabidopsis thaliana
1919:Cell cycle evolution
1903:, is most active in
1782:is made during the G
1634:/S checkpoint, the G
1498:(HR-positive, HR+),
922:Aspergillus nidulans
695:Become arrested in G
630:which occurs in the
477:Metaphase Checkpoint
6491:Cellular senescence
5855:on 8 December 2009.
5479:10.7554/eLife.02872
5291:10.1038/nature07118
5283:2008Natur.454..291S
5228:(1584): 3532–3544.
4997:10.1038/nature06046
4989:2007Natur.448..811S
4931:Nature Cell Biology
4751:Nature Cell Biology
4669:1994PNAS...91.6729M
4614:1987NYASA.503...17C
4253:2003PNAS..10012871V
4247:(22): 12871–12876.
4195:1996Sci...274.1664E
4189:(5293): 1664–1672.
4140:2007PNAS..10418371O
4134:(47): 18371–18376.
4081:2004PNAS..10116577A
4075:(47): 16577–16582.
4044:on 9 September 2014
3997:10.1038/msb.2009.70
3925:10.1038/nature02062
3917:2003Natur.425..859U
3768:2002Sci...298..799L
3630:10.1038/nature06955
3622:2008Natur.453..944O
3568:10.1101/gad.1450606
3080:10.7554/eLife.02872
2759:2014NatCo...5.4750D
2519:10.1128/EC.00178-07
2408:10.1083/jcb.18.1.31
2306:(2 Pt 1): 321–330.
2257:1973PNAS...70.1263S
2175:10.1038/nrmicro2202
2108:Synchronous culture
2093:Mitotic catastrophe
1907:, and declines in G
1812:fluorescent protein
1808:bacteriophytochrome
1800:fluorescent protein
1780:fluorescent protein
1744:fluorescent protein
1419:includes the genes
1183:replication origins
884:cell separates the
108:cell-division cycle
6380:Spindle checkpoint
6185:P53 p63 p73 family
5746:Morgan DO (2007).
5132:10.1105/tpc.021774
5032:Developmental Cell
4843:Molecular Oncology
4410:10.1038/nmeth.3935
3312:Norbury C (1995).
3223:(5): 985–1000.e6.
2931:Morgan DO (2007).
2767:10.1038/ncomms5750
2206:Cooper GM (2000).
2026:
1728:
1371:
1344:and initiation of
1249:binds to existing
1177:assembled during G
1082:Leland H. Hartwell
1029:
878:
643:
509:
501:
491:phase (quiescence)
336:
303:; inner ring: M =
118:) and some of its
100:
80:
62:
6427:
6426:
6423:
6422:
6375:Restriction point
5816:978-0-8053-4642-8
5797:978-0-7167-4366-8
5776:978-0-8153-4111-6
5757:978-0-87893-508-6
5705:(10): 4083–4095.
5564:(21): 3378–3389.
5277:(7202): 291–296.
4983:(7155): 811–815.
4802:(33): 2925–2939.
4757:(11): 1275–1276.
4663:(15): 6729–6734.
4573:(1329): 271–281.
4521:(18): 2902–2906.
3965:978-0-9539181-2-6
3911:(6960): 859–864.
3866:(12): 1641–1658.
3762:(5594): 799–804.
3616:(7197): 944–947.
3562:(16): 2266–2278.
3525:978-3-319-91441-1
3331:978-0-12-324719-3
3275:(4): 758–770.e4.
3171:(13): 1492–1502.
2942:978-0-19-920610-0
2812:10.1021/cr1003166
2724:978-81-8147-528-2
2665:(12): 3273–3297.
2639:. Nobelprize.org.
2558:(17): 2765–2775.
2487:978-0-13-423476-2
2353:(21): 7459–7472.
2241:"Do cells cycle?"
2225:978-0-87893-106-4
1734:), which enables
1647:restriction point
1407:tumor suppressors
1070:
1069:
1010:that may lead to
902:sister chromatids
771:protein synthesis
713:Restriction point
507:Animal cell cycle
484:
483:
394:Cell growth. The
92:
32:fission (biology)
16:(Redirected from
6498:
6468:
6467:
6456:
6455:
6444:
6443:
6435:
6274:
5944:
5937:
5930:
5921:
5856:
5851:. Archived from
5835:
5834:
5820:
5801:
5780:
5761:
5733:
5732:
5722:
5690:
5684:
5683:
5673:
5663:
5639:
5633:
5632:
5622:
5598:
5592:
5591:
5581:
5558:The EMBO Journal
5549:
5543:
5542:
5532:
5508:
5502:
5501:
5491:
5481:
5457:
5448:
5447:
5437:
5405:
5399:
5398:
5388:
5378:
5354:
5348:
5347:
5319:
5313:
5312:
5302:
5262:
5256:
5255:
5245:
5213:
5204:
5203:
5193:
5161:
5155:
5154:
5144:
5134:
5110:
5104:
5103:
5075:
5058:
5057:
5047:
5038:(5): 1030–1040.
5023:
5017:
5016:
4972:
4963:
4962:
4926:
4920:
4919:
4883:
4877:
4876:
4866:
4834:
4828:
4827:
4791:
4785:
4784:
4774:
4742:
4736:
4735:
4707:
4701:
4700:
4690:
4680:
4648:
4642:
4641:
4597:
4591:
4590:
4562:
4549:
4548:
4538:
4506:
4500:
4499:
4479:
4473:
4472:
4462:
4438:
4432:
4431:
4421:
4389:
4383:
4382:
4364:
4340:
4334:
4333:
4323:
4306:(7): 1611–1619.
4291:
4285:
4284:
4274:
4264:
4232:
4223:
4222:
4178:
4172:
4171:
4161:
4151:
4119:
4113:
4112:
4102:
4092:
4060:
4054:
4053:
4051:
4049:
4043:
4036:
4025:
4019:
4018:
4008:
3976:
3970:
3969:
3951:
3945:
3944:
3900:
3894:
3893:
3883:
3851:
3845:
3844:
3826:
3802:
3796:
3795:
3751:
3745:
3744:
3734:
3702:
3693:
3692:
3682:
3673:(7): 1164–1171.
3658:
3652:
3651:
3641:
3601:
3590:
3589:
3579:
3547:
3538:
3537:
3503:
3497:
3496:
3471:(9): 1559–1569.
3460:
3454:
3453:
3417:
3411:
3410:
3400:
3377:Cancer Discovery
3368:
3362:
3361:
3359:
3357:
3348:. Archived from
3342:
3336:
3335:
3309:
3303:
3302:
3292:
3260:
3251:
3250:
3240:
3208:
3199:
3198:
3188:
3156:
3150:
3149:
3109:
3103:
3102:
3092:
3082:
3058:
3047:
3046:
3036:
3026:
3002:
2996:
2995:
2985:
2961:
2955:
2954:
2928:
2922:
2921:
2911:
2879:
2873:
2872:
2862:
2830:
2824:
2823:
2806:(5): 3407–3432.
2800:Chemical Reviews
2795:
2789:
2788:
2778:
2738:
2729:
2728:
2706:
2693:
2692:
2682:
2650:
2641:
2640:
2633:
2627:
2626:
2590:
2584:
2583:
2547:
2541:
2540:
2530:
2513:(9): 1521–1527.
2498:
2492:
2491:
2467:
2461:
2460:
2458:
2456:
2447:. Archived from
2436:
2430:
2429:
2419:
2387:
2381:
2380:
2370:
2338:
2332:
2331:
2295:
2289:
2288:
2278:
2268:
2251:(4): 1263–1267.
2236:
2230:
2229:
2217:
2203:
2197:
2196:
2186:
2154:
2148:
2147:
2129:
1448:INK4a/ARF family
1342:nuclear envelope
1336:/M transition).
1318:thymidine kinase
1211:ubiquitin ligase
1192:gene copy number
1060:
1047:
1040:
913:nuclear envelope
499:Plant cell cycle
338:
327:; not in ring: G
131:eukaryotic cells
93:
21:
6506:
6505:
6501:
6500:
6499:
6497:
6496:
6495:
6476:
6475:
6474:
6462:
6450:
6438:
6430:
6428:
6419:
6409:
6389:
6361:
6308:
6303:
6289:
6269:
6263:
6207:
6179:
6122:
6029:
5956:
5948:
5915:Wayback Machine
5872:Wayback Machine
5841:
5832:
5828:
5823:
5817:
5804:
5798:
5783:
5777:
5764:
5758:
5745:
5741:
5739:Further reading
5736:
5692:
5691:
5687:
5654:(8): e1002847.
5641:
5640:
5636:
5600:
5599:
5595:
5551:
5550:
5546:
5510:
5509:
5505:
5459:
5458:
5451:
5407:
5406:
5402:
5356:
5355:
5351:
5321:
5320:
5316:
5264:
5263:
5259:
5215:
5214:
5207:
5163:
5162:
5158:
5112:
5111:
5107:
5077:
5076:
5061:
5025:
5024:
5020:
4974:
4973:
4966:
4943:10.1038/ncb1284
4928:
4927:
4923:
4888:Nature Genetics
4885:
4884:
4880:
4836:
4835:
4831:
4793:
4792:
4788:
4744:
4743:
4739:
4709:
4708:
4704:
4650:
4649:
4645:
4599:
4598:
4594:
4564:
4563:
4552:
4508:
4507:
4503:
4484:Cancer Research
4481:
4480:
4476:
4440:
4439:
4435:
4391:
4390:
4386:
4342:
4341:
4337:
4293:
4292:
4288:
4234:
4233:
4226:
4180:
4179:
4175:
4121:
4120:
4116:
4062:
4061:
4057:
4047:
4045:
4041:
4034:
4027:
4026:
4022:
3978:
3977:
3973:
3966:
3953:
3952:
3948:
3902:
3901:
3897:
3853:
3852:
3848:
3804:
3803:
3799:
3753:
3752:
3748:
3704:
3703:
3696:
3660:
3659:
3655:
3603:
3602:
3593:
3549:
3548:
3541:
3526:
3505:
3504:
3500:
3462:
3461:
3457:
3419:
3418:
3414:
3370:
3369:
3365:
3355:
3353:
3352:on 3 March 2016
3344:
3343:
3339:
3332:
3311:
3310:
3306:
3262:
3261:
3254:
3210:
3209:
3202:
3158:
3157:
3153:
3138:
3111:
3110:
3106:
3060:
3059:
3050:
3004:
3003:
2999:
2963:
2962:
2958:
2943:
2930:
2929:
2925:
2900:10.1038/nrc2399
2881:
2880:
2876:
2845:(11): 911–925.
2832:
2831:
2827:
2797:
2796:
2792:
2740:
2739:
2732:
2725:
2708:
2707:
2696:
2652:
2651:
2644:
2635:
2634:
2630:
2592:
2591:
2587:
2549:
2548:
2544:
2507:Eukaryotic Cell
2500:
2499:
2495:
2488:
2469:
2468:
2464:
2454:
2452:
2438:
2437:
2433:
2389:
2388:
2384:
2340:
2339:
2335:
2297:
2296:
2292:
2238:
2237:
2233:
2226:
2205:
2204:
2200:
2169:(11): 822–827.
2156:
2155:
2151:
2144:
2131:
2130:
2126:
2122:
2079:
2042:phosphorylation
2030:G1/S checkpoint
2017:
1961:
1926:
1921:
1910:
1888:
1884:
1880:
1873:
1865:
1861:
1842:
1824:
1793:
1789:
1785:
1777:
1773:
1769:
1749:
1725:
1721:
1713:
1704:
1697:
1693:
1683:
1671:
1660:/M checkpoint.
1659:
1655:
1644:
1637:
1633:
1606:
1600:
1587:
1560:phosphorylation
1552:
1515:
1468:
1457:
1434:
1359:
1354:
1335:
1331:
1327:
1227:
1207:mitotic spindle
1200:
1180:
1161:
1156:DNA replication
1146:
1141:
1132:phosphorylation
1086:R. Timothy Hunt
1063:
1061:
1050:
1048:
1038:
1020:
988:endoreplication
951:
945:
828:
822:
811:
807:
798:
793:
787:
784:
743:
737:
730:
726:
722:
702:
698:
690:differentiation
686:
670:
665:
656:
649:
641:
635:
621:
617:
604:
601:
593:
589:
580:
574:
563:
548:
544:
532:
528:
520:
515:
493:
490:
450:
440:
424:DNA replication
400:
390:
367:
330:
318:
310:
285:
260:
248:
241:
212:internal organs
116:DNA replication
82:
52:
46:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
6504:
6502:
6494:
6493:
6488:
6478:
6477:
6473:
6472:
6460:
6448:
6425:
6424:
6421:
6420:
6418:
6417:
6412:
6407:
6403:
6397:
6395:
6391:
6390:
6388:
6387:
6382:
6377:
6371:
6369:
6363:
6362:
6360:
6359:
6354:
6348:
6343:
6338:
6333:
6328:
6318:
6316:
6310:
6309:
6307:
6306:
6301:
6297:
6292:
6287:
6282:
6280:
6271:
6265:
6264:
6262:
6261:
6251:
6246:
6241:
6236:
6231:
6226:
6221:
6215:
6213:
6209:
6208:
6206:
6205:
6200:
6195:
6189:
6187:
6181:
6180:
6178:
6177:
6159:
6132:
6130:
6124:
6123:
6121:
6120:
6115:
6110:
6105:
6100:
6095:
6090:
6085:
6080:
6075:
6070:
6065:
6060:
6055:
6050:
6045:
6039:
6037:
6031:
6030:
6028:
6027:
6013:
5995:
5981:
5966:
5964:
5958:
5957:
5949:
5947:
5946:
5939:
5932:
5924:
5918:
5917:
5905:
5900:
5895:
5890:
5884:
5879:
5874:
5862:
5857:
5844:Science Primer
5827:
5826:External links
5824:
5822:
5821:
5815:
5802:
5796:
5781:
5775:
5762:
5756:
5742:
5740:
5737:
5735:
5734:
5699:The Plant Cell
5685:
5634:
5613:(7): 887–898.
5593:
5544:
5523:(6): 859–869.
5503:
5449:
5420:(4): 515–527.
5414:Molecular Cell
5400:
5349:
5330:(2): 140–148.
5314:
5257:
5205:
5170:The Plant Cell
5156:
5125:(4): 945–955.
5119:The Plant Cell
5105:
5086:(7): 345–356.
5059:
5018:
4964:
4937:(8): 831–836.
4921:
4900:10.1038/ng1232
4878:
4829:
4786:
4737:
4718:(1): 261–291.
4702:
4643:
4592:
4550:
4501:
4490:(5): 581–595.
4474:
4433:
4404:(9): 763–769.
4398:Nature Methods
4384:
4355:(3): 487–498.
4335:
4286:
4224:
4173:
4114:
4055:
4020:
3971:
3964:
3946:
3895:
3846:
3817:(6): 697–708.
3797:
3746:
3717:(2): 435–446.
3694:
3667:Bioinformatics
3653:
3591:
3539:
3524:
3498:
3455:
3428:(7): 417–430.
3412:
3383:(4): 353–367.
3363:
3337:
3330:
3304:
3269:Molecular Cell
3252:
3217:Molecular Cell
3200:
3151:
3136:
3104:
3048:
2997:
2976:(4): 689–699.
2956:
2941:
2923:
2894:(9): 671–682.
2874:
2825:
2790:
2730:
2723:
2694:
2642:
2628:
2601:(6): 471–480.
2585:
2542:
2493:
2486:
2462:
2451:on 30 May 2011
2431:
2382:
2333:
2290:
2231:
2224:
2198:
2149:
2142:
2123:
2121:
2118:
2117:
2116:
2111:
2105:
2100:
2095:
2090:
2085:
2083:Cellular model
2078:
2075:
2016:
2013:
1985:cdk2 cdk4 cdk6
1960:
1957:
1925:
1922:
1920:
1917:
1908:
1886:
1882:
1878:
1871:
1863:
1859:
1840:
1823:
1820:
1791:
1787:
1783:
1775:
1771:
1767:
1756:ubiquitination
1747:
1723:
1719:
1711:
1703:
1700:
1695:
1691:
1681:
1669:
1657:
1653:
1642:
1635:
1631:
1602:Main article:
1599:
1596:
1586:
1583:
1550:
1545:clb1,2,3,4,5,6
1514:
1511:
1467:
1464:
1455:
1432:
1358:
1355:
1353:
1350:
1333:
1329:
1325:
1314:DNA polymerase
1283:E-type cyclins
1255:retinoblastoma
1234:growth factors
1226:
1223:
1198:
1178:
1164:ubiquitination
1159:
1144:
1140:
1137:
1068:
1067:
1062:Nobel Laureate
1054:
1049:Nobel Laureate
1037:
1034:
1019:
1016:
947:Main article:
944:
941:
900:that pull the
870:
869:
864:
859:
854:
849:
824:Main article:
821:
818:
809:
805:
796:
789:Main article:
786:
785:phase (growth)
782:
779:
739:Main article:
736:
733:
728:
724:
720:
705:
704:
700:
696:
693:
684:
679:
668:
663:
658:(G indicating
654:
645:Main article:
619:
615:
603:
599:
596:
591:
587:
576:Main article:
573:
570:
561:
546:
542:
539:differentiated
530:
526:
518:
511:Main article:
492:
488:
485:
482:
481:
472:
467:
462:
456:
455:
448:
442:
438:
434:
428:
427:
421:
416:
410:
409:
398:
392:
388:
384:
379:
373:
372:
369:
365:
361:
356:
352:
351:
348:
345:
342:
328:
316:
308:
283:
258:
246:
240:
237:
196:fertilized egg
95:Cell cycle in
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
6503:
6492:
6489:
6487:
6484:
6483:
6481:
6471:
6466:
6461:
6459:
6454:
6449:
6447:
6442:
6437:
6433:
6416:
6413:
6411:
6404:
6402:
6399:
6398:
6396:
6392:
6386:
6383:
6381:
6378:
6376:
6373:
6372:
6370:
6368:
6364:
6358:
6355:
6352:
6349:
6347:
6344:
6342:
6339:
6337:
6334:
6332:
6329:
6327:
6323:
6320:
6319:
6317:
6315:
6311:
6305:
6298:
6296:
6293:
6291:
6284:
6283:
6281:
6279:
6275:
6272:
6266:
6259:
6255:
6252:
6250:
6247:
6245:
6242:
6240:
6237:
6235:
6232:
6230:
6227:
6225:
6222:
6220:
6217:
6216:
6214:
6210:
6204:
6201:
6199:
6196:
6194:
6191:
6190:
6188:
6186:
6182:
6175:
6171:
6167:
6163:
6160:
6157:
6153:
6149:
6145:
6141:
6137:
6134:
6133:
6131:
6129:
6128:CDK inhibitor
6125:
6119:
6116:
6114:
6111:
6109:
6106:
6104:
6101:
6099:
6096:
6094:
6091:
6089:
6086:
6084:
6081:
6079:
6076:
6074:
6071:
6069:
6066:
6064:
6061:
6059:
6056:
6054:
6051:
6049:
6046:
6044:
6041:
6040:
6038:
6036:
6032:
6025:
6021:
6017:
6014:
6011:
6007:
6003:
5999:
5996:
5993:
5989:
5985:
5982:
5979:
5975:
5971:
5968:
5967:
5965:
5963:
5959:
5955:
5952:
5945:
5940:
5938:
5933:
5931:
5926:
5925:
5922:
5916:
5912:
5909:
5906:
5904:
5901:
5899:
5896:
5894:
5891:
5888:
5885:
5883:
5880:
5878:
5875:
5873:
5869:
5866:
5863:
5861:
5858:
5854:
5850:
5846:
5845:
5839:
5830:
5829:
5825:
5818:
5812:
5808:
5803:
5799:
5793:
5789:
5788:
5782:
5778:
5772:
5768:
5763:
5759:
5753:
5749:
5744:
5743:
5738:
5730:
5726:
5721:
5716:
5712:
5708:
5704:
5700:
5696:
5689:
5686:
5681:
5677:
5672:
5667:
5662:
5657:
5653:
5649:
5648:PLOS Genetics
5645:
5638:
5635:
5630:
5626:
5621:
5616:
5612:
5608:
5604:
5597:
5594:
5589:
5585:
5580:
5575:
5571:
5567:
5563:
5559:
5555:
5548:
5545:
5540:
5536:
5531:
5526:
5522:
5518:
5514:
5507:
5504:
5499:
5495:
5490:
5485:
5480:
5475:
5471:
5467:
5463:
5456:
5454:
5450:
5445:
5441:
5436:
5431:
5427:
5423:
5419:
5415:
5411:
5404:
5401:
5396:
5392:
5387:
5382:
5377:
5372:
5368:
5364:
5360:
5353:
5350:
5345:
5341:
5337:
5333:
5329:
5325:
5318:
5315:
5310:
5306:
5301:
5296:
5292:
5288:
5284:
5280:
5276:
5272:
5268:
5261:
5258:
5253:
5249:
5244:
5239:
5235:
5231:
5227:
5223:
5219:
5212:
5210:
5206:
5201:
5197:
5192:
5187:
5183:
5179:
5176:(1): 88–100.
5175:
5171:
5167:
5160:
5157:
5152:
5148:
5143:
5138:
5133:
5128:
5124:
5120:
5116:
5109:
5106:
5101:
5097:
5093:
5089:
5085:
5081:
5074:
5072:
5070:
5068:
5066:
5064:
5060:
5055:
5051:
5046:
5041:
5037:
5033:
5029:
5022:
5019:
5014:
5010:
5006:
5002:
4998:
4994:
4990:
4986:
4982:
4978:
4971:
4969:
4965:
4960:
4956:
4952:
4948:
4944:
4940:
4936:
4932:
4925:
4922:
4917:
4913:
4909:
4905:
4901:
4897:
4893:
4889:
4882:
4879:
4874:
4870:
4865:
4860:
4856:
4852:
4848:
4844:
4840:
4833:
4830:
4825:
4821:
4817:
4813:
4809:
4805:
4801:
4797:
4790:
4787:
4782:
4778:
4773:
4768:
4764:
4760:
4756:
4752:
4748:
4741:
4738:
4733:
4729:
4725:
4721:
4717:
4713:
4706:
4703:
4698:
4694:
4689:
4684:
4679:
4674:
4670:
4666:
4662:
4658:
4654:
4647:
4644:
4639:
4635:
4631:
4627:
4623:
4619:
4615:
4611:
4607:
4603:
4596:
4593:
4588:
4584:
4580:
4576:
4572:
4568:
4561:
4559:
4557:
4555:
4551:
4546:
4542:
4537:
4532:
4528:
4524:
4520:
4516:
4512:
4505:
4502:
4497:
4493:
4489:
4485:
4478:
4475:
4470:
4466:
4461:
4456:
4452:
4448:
4444:
4437:
4434:
4429:
4425:
4420:
4415:
4411:
4407:
4403:
4399:
4395:
4388:
4385:
4380:
4376:
4372:
4368:
4363:
4358:
4354:
4350:
4346:
4339:
4336:
4331:
4327:
4322:
4317:
4313:
4309:
4305:
4301:
4297:
4290:
4287:
4282:
4278:
4273:
4268:
4263:
4258:
4254:
4250:
4246:
4242:
4238:
4231:
4229:
4225:
4220:
4216:
4212:
4208:
4204:
4200:
4196:
4192:
4188:
4184:
4177:
4174:
4169:
4165:
4160:
4155:
4150:
4145:
4141:
4137:
4133:
4129:
4125:
4118:
4115:
4110:
4106:
4101:
4096:
4091:
4086:
4082:
4078:
4074:
4070:
4066:
4059:
4056:
4040:
4033:
4032:
4024:
4021:
4016:
4012:
4007:
4002:
3998:
3994:
3990:
3986:
3982:
3975:
3972:
3967:
3961:
3957:
3950:
3947:
3942:
3938:
3934:
3930:
3926:
3922:
3918:
3914:
3910:
3906:
3899:
3896:
3891:
3887:
3882:
3877:
3873:
3869:
3865:
3861:
3857:
3850:
3847:
3842:
3838:
3834:
3830:
3825:
3820:
3816:
3812:
3808:
3801:
3798:
3793:
3789:
3785:
3781:
3777:
3773:
3769:
3765:
3761:
3757:
3750:
3747:
3742:
3738:
3733:
3728:
3724:
3720:
3716:
3712:
3708:
3701:
3699:
3695:
3690:
3686:
3681:
3676:
3672:
3668:
3664:
3657:
3654:
3649:
3645:
3640:
3635:
3631:
3627:
3623:
3619:
3615:
3611:
3607:
3600:
3598:
3596:
3592:
3587:
3583:
3578:
3573:
3569:
3565:
3561:
3557:
3553:
3546:
3544:
3540:
3535:
3531:
3527:
3521:
3517:
3513:
3509:
3502:
3499:
3494:
3490:
3486:
3482:
3478:
3474:
3470:
3466:
3459:
3456:
3451:
3447:
3443:
3439:
3435:
3431:
3427:
3423:
3416:
3413:
3408:
3404:
3399:
3394:
3390:
3386:
3382:
3378:
3374:
3367:
3364:
3351:
3347:
3341:
3338:
3333:
3327:
3323:
3319:
3315:
3308:
3305:
3300:
3296:
3291:
3286:
3282:
3278:
3274:
3270:
3266:
3259:
3257:
3253:
3248:
3244:
3239:
3234:
3230:
3226:
3222:
3218:
3214:
3207:
3205:
3201:
3196:
3192:
3187:
3182:
3178:
3174:
3170:
3166:
3162:
3155:
3152:
3147:
3143:
3139:
3137:9780120066827
3133:
3129:
3125:
3121:
3117:
3116:
3108:
3105:
3100:
3096:
3091:
3086:
3081:
3076:
3072:
3068:
3064:
3057:
3055:
3053:
3049:
3044:
3040:
3035:
3030:
3025:
3020:
3016:
3012:
3011:Cell Division
3008:
3001:
2998:
2993:
2989:
2984:
2979:
2975:
2971:
2967:
2960:
2957:
2952:
2948:
2944:
2938:
2934:
2927:
2924:
2919:
2915:
2910:
2905:
2901:
2897:
2893:
2889:
2885:
2878:
2875:
2870:
2866:
2861:
2856:
2852:
2848:
2844:
2840:
2836:
2829:
2826:
2821:
2817:
2813:
2809:
2805:
2801:
2794:
2791:
2786:
2782:
2777:
2772:
2768:
2764:
2760:
2756:
2752:
2748:
2744:
2737:
2735:
2731:
2726:
2720:
2716:
2712:
2705:
2703:
2701:
2699:
2695:
2690:
2686:
2681:
2676:
2672:
2668:
2664:
2660:
2656:
2649:
2647:
2643:
2638:
2632:
2629:
2624:
2620:
2616:
2612:
2608:
2604:
2600:
2596:
2589:
2586:
2581:
2577:
2573:
2569:
2565:
2561:
2557:
2553:
2546:
2543:
2538:
2534:
2529:
2524:
2520:
2516:
2512:
2508:
2504:
2497:
2494:
2489:
2483:
2479:
2475:
2474:
2466:
2463:
2450:
2446:
2442:
2435:
2432:
2427:
2423:
2418:
2413:
2409:
2405:
2401:
2397:
2393:
2386:
2383:
2378:
2374:
2369:
2364:
2360:
2356:
2352:
2348:
2344:
2337:
2334:
2329:
2325:
2321:
2317:
2313:
2309:
2305:
2301:
2294:
2291:
2286:
2282:
2277:
2272:
2267:
2262:
2258:
2254:
2250:
2246:
2242:
2235:
2232:
2227:
2221:
2216:
2215:
2209:
2202:
2199:
2194:
2190:
2185:
2180:
2176:
2172:
2168:
2164:
2160:
2153:
2150:
2145:
2143:9780393680393
2139:
2135:
2128:
2125:
2119:
2115:
2112:
2109:
2106:
2104:
2101:
2099:
2096:
2094:
2091:
2089:
2086:
2084:
2081:
2080:
2076:
2074:
2071:
2067:
2062:
2059:
2055:
2051:
2047:
2043:
2039:
2034:
2031:
2021:
2014:
2012:
2009:
2005:
2002:
1998:
1997:
1992:
1990:
1986:
1982:
1981:
1976:
1975:
1974:S. cerevisiae
1970:
1966:
1958:
1956:
1954:
1948:
1946:
1941:
1939:
1935:
1931:
1923:
1918:
1916:
1914:
1906:
1902:
1898:
1897:repairing DNA
1894:
1890:
1875:
1867:
1857:
1853:
1849:
1844:
1837:
1833:
1829:
1821:
1819:
1817:
1813:
1809:
1805:
1801:
1797:
1796:cyanobacteria
1781:
1765:
1761:
1757:
1753:
1745:
1741:
1737:
1733:
1717:
1708:
1701:
1699:
1689:
1685:
1677:
1675:
1665:
1661:
1650:
1648:
1639:
1628:
1626:
1622:
1617:
1615:
1610:
1605:
1597:
1595:
1592:
1584:
1582:
1580:
1576:
1572:
1567:
1565:
1561:
1557:
1553:
1546:
1542:
1538:
1533:
1530:
1525:
1522:
1521:
1512:
1510:
1507:
1505:
1501:
1500:HER2-negative
1497:
1493:
1489:
1485:
1481:
1475:
1473:
1465:
1463:
1461:
1453:
1449:
1444:
1442:
1438:
1430:
1426:
1422:
1418:
1416:
1410:
1408:
1404:
1400:
1396:
1392:
1388:
1384:
1380:
1376:
1368:
1363:
1356:
1351:
1349:
1347:
1343:
1339:
1328:to S phase (G
1323:
1319:
1315:
1311:
1307:
1303:
1298:
1296:
1292:
1288:
1284:
1279:
1276:
1270:
1268:
1262:
1260:
1256:
1252:
1247:
1243:
1239:
1235:
1231:
1224:
1222:
1220:
1216:
1213:known as the
1212:
1208:
1204:
1195:
1193:
1188:
1184:
1181:phase on DNA
1176:
1171:
1169:
1165:
1157:
1153:
1149:
1138:
1136:
1133:
1129:
1124:
1122:
1121:
1116:
1115:
1110:
1106:
1105:
1099:
1095:
1092:won the 2001
1091:
1090:Paul M. Nurse
1087:
1083:
1079:
1075:
1066:
1059:
1055:
1053:
1046:
1042:
1035:
1033:
1024:
1017:
1015:
1013:
1009:
1005:
1001:
997:
993:
989:
983:
981:
977:
973:
968:
967:cell membrane
964:
960:
956:
950:
942:
940:
938:
934:
930:
929:
924:
923:
918:
914:
910:
905:
903:
899:
895:
891:
887:
883:
874:
868:
865:
863:
860:
858:
855:
853:
850:
848:
845:
844:
843:
841:
837:
833:
827:
819:
817:
815:
803:
802:mitotic phase
792:
780:
778:
776:
772:
768:
767:transcription
764:
760:
756:
752:
751:DNA synthesis
748:
742:
734:
732:
718:
714:
710:
694:
691:
687:
680:
678:
674:
673:
672:
661:
657:
648:
640:
633:
629:
628:DNA synthesis
625:
613:
608:
597:
595:
584:
579:
571:
569:
567:
559:
555:
550:
540:
536:
524:
514:
505:
497:
486:
479:
478:
471:
468:
466:
463:
461:
460:Cell division
458:
457:
453:
452:
441:
435:
433:
430:
429:
425:
420:
417:
415:
412:
411:
407:
403:
402:
391:
385:
383:
380:
378:
374:
368:
362:
360:
357:
354:
353:
349:
347:Abbreviation
346:
343:
340:
339:
334:
333:Gap 0/Resting
326:
322:
314:
306:
302:
298:
293:
289:
287:
278:
274:
270:
266:
262:
255:(synthesis),
254:
250:
238:
236:
233:
229:
225:
221:
217:
213:
209:
205:
201:
197:
191:
188:
184:
180:
176:
171:
169:
165:
160:
156:
152:
148:
144:
140:
136:
132:
127:
125:
124:cell division
121:
117:
113:
109:
105:
98:
77:
73:
72:
66:
58:
54:
51:
50:Cell division
44:
42:
37:
33:
19:
6336:Prometaphase
5950:
5853:the original
5843:
5806:
5786:
5766:
5747:
5702:
5698:
5688:
5651:
5647:
5637:
5610:
5606:
5596:
5561:
5557:
5547:
5520:
5516:
5506:
5469:
5465:
5417:
5413:
5403:
5366:
5362:
5352:
5327:
5323:
5317:
5274:
5270:
5260:
5225:
5221:
5173:
5169:
5159:
5122:
5118:
5108:
5083:
5079:
5035:
5031:
5021:
4980:
4976:
4934:
4930:
4924:
4894:(1): 25–31.
4891:
4887:
4881:
4849:(1): 72–83.
4846:
4842:
4832:
4799:
4795:
4789:
4754:
4750:
4740:
4715:
4711:
4705:
4660:
4656:
4646:
4608:(1): 17–54.
4605:
4601:
4595:
4570:
4566:
4518:
4514:
4504:
4487:
4483:
4477:
4450:
4446:
4436:
4401:
4397:
4387:
4352:
4348:
4338:
4303:
4299:
4289:
4244:
4240:
4186:
4182:
4176:
4131:
4127:
4117:
4072:
4068:
4058:
4046:. Retrieved
4039:the original
4030:
4023:
3988:
3984:
3974:
3955:
3949:
3908:
3904:
3898:
3863:
3859:
3849:
3814:
3810:
3800:
3759:
3755:
3749:
3714:
3710:
3670:
3666:
3656:
3613:
3609:
3559:
3555:
3507:
3501:
3468:
3464:
3458:
3425:
3421:
3415:
3380:
3376:
3366:
3354:. Retrieved
3350:the original
3340:
3317:
3307:
3272:
3268:
3220:
3216:
3168:
3164:
3154:
3114:
3107:
3070:
3066:
3014:
3010:
3000:
2973:
2969:
2959:
2932:
2926:
2891:
2887:
2877:
2842:
2838:
2828:
2803:
2799:
2793:
2750:
2746:
2710:
2662:
2658:
2631:
2598:
2594:
2588:
2555:
2551:
2545:
2510:
2506:
2496:
2472:
2465:
2453:. Retrieved
2449:the original
2444:
2434:
2402:(1): 31–40.
2399:
2395:
2385:
2350:
2346:
2336:
2303:
2299:
2293:
2248:
2244:
2234:
2213:
2201:
2166:
2162:
2152:
2133:
2127:
2065:
2063:
2035:
2027:
2003:
2000:
1994:
1993:
1988:
1984:
1978:
1977:and Cdc2 in
1972:
1962:
1949:
1942:
1927:
1891:
1876:
1868:
1845:
1825:
1736:fluorescence
1729:
1686:
1678:
1666:
1662:
1651:
1640:
1629:
1618:
1607:
1590:
1588:
1568:
1544:
1536:
1534:
1526:
1518:
1516:
1508:
1476:
1469:
1447:
1445:
1414:
1413:
1411:
1398:
1394:
1390:
1386:
1382:
1378:
1374:
1372:
1299:
1280:
1271:
1263:
1228:
1196:
1172:
1142:
1125:
1118:
1112:
1108:
1102:
1071:
1030:
984:
952:
937:cell nucleus
926:
920:
906:
898:microtubules
890:cell nucleus
879:
852:prometaphase
836:karyokinesis
831:
829:
794:
749:starts when
745:The ensuing
744:
706:
659:
650:
585:
581:
551:
529:state from G
516:
475:
469:
445:
436:
418:
395:
386:
363:
350:Description
242:
228:nerve damage
192:
172:
137:) including
135:cell nucleus
128:
107:
103:
101:
96:
69:
53:
40:
6357:Cytokinesis
6326:Preprophase
6270:checkpoints
4453:: 174–180.
2066:A. thaliana
2064:Studies in
2024:similarity.
2008:opisthokont
2004:A. thaliana
1760:degradation
1714:/M phases.
1598:Checkpoints
1541:microarrays
1504:neutropenia
1488:abemaciclib
1480:palbociclib
1458:phase, and
1393:lternative
1385:hibitor of
1219:kinetochore
1128:heterodimer
996:slime molds
955:cytokinesis
949:Cytokinesis
894:chromosomes
886:chromosomes
840:cytokinesis
755:chromosomes
717:check point
709:check point
408:synthesis.
273:cytokinesis
216:regenerated
210:, and some
208:blood cells
175:prokaryotes
164:chromosomes
6486:Cell cycle
6480:Categories
6278:Interphase
6268:Phases and
5951:Cell cycle
5893:Cell Cycle
5472:: e02872.
4515:Cell Cycle
4048:7 February
3073:: e02872.
2970:Cell Cycle
2120:References
2070:eukaryotes
2046:hysteretic
1758:sites for
1614:DNA damage
1492:metastatic
1484:ribociclib
1357:Endogenous
1352:Inhibitors
1168:proteasome
1148:cyclin-CDK
1052:Paul Nurse
972:cell plate
963:organelles
909:eukaryotic
882:eukaryotic
759:chromatids
610:Schematic
590:, S, and G
578:Interphase
572:Interphase
523:eukaryotes
451:checkpoint
401:checkpoint
377:Interphase
297:Interphase
265:interphase
232:interphase
187:cell cycle
157:, and the
155:interphase
133:(having a
120:organelles
104:cell cycle
48:See also:
41:Cell Cycle
6401:Apoptosis
6351:Telophase
6341:Metaphase
6136:INK4a/ARF
3493:205542255
3017:(1): 10.
2595:BioEssays
1930:ribosomes
1856:debulking
1852:radiation
1810:-derived
1798:-derived
1466:Synthetic
1450:includes
1367:apoptosis
1098:conserved
1008:mutations
1006:or cause
1004:apoptosis
1000:fruit fly
959:cytoplasm
867:telophase
857:metaphase
639:Karyotype
624:metaphase
612:karyogram
566:apoptosis
558:senescent
554:quiescent
414:Synthesis
325:Synthesis
277:cytoplasm
43:(journal)
6346:Anaphase
6331:Prophase
5954:proteins
5911:Archived
5889:1Lec.com
5868:Archived
5729:23104828
5680:22879821
5629:15210110
5588:19745812
5539:10499802
5498:24876129
5444:21855792
5395:23230424
5344:11891111
5309:18633409
5252:22084380
5200:18223038
5151:15031414
5100:23566594
5054:22595674
5005:17700700
4959:10842071
4951:16007079
4916:19522248
4908:12923533
4873:19383288
4816:19561645
4796:Oncogene
4781:19884882
4638:38405158
4545:18769152
4496:14347544
4469:24641889
4428:27479328
4379:15704902
4371:18267078
4281:14566050
4219:39235426
4168:18003902
4109:15545604
4015:19888207
3933:14574415
3833:11572776
3784:12399584
3741:19033152
3711:Genetics
3689:15513999
3648:18463633
3586:16912276
3534:30069766
3485:28657360
3450:23646632
3442:27030077
3407:26658964
3356:11 March
3299:30982746
3247:30711375
3195:27401552
3146:11447760
3099:24876129
3043:22417103
2992:20107323
2951:70173205
2918:18650841
2869:30061045
2820:21401073
2785:25175461
2753:: 4750.
2715:Elsevier
2623:44307473
2580:25473573
2572:15838513
2552:Oncogene
2537:17660363
2426:14018040
2377:12370293
2328:12215040
2193:19806155
2077:See also
1980:S. pombe
1901:G1 phase
1806:) and a
1694:/S and G
1625:repaired
1389:inase 4/
1346:prophase
1338:Cyclin B
1310:cyclin A
1306:cyclin E
1287:cyclin E
1230:Cyclin D
1065:Tim Hunt
980:division
919:such as
862:anaphase
847:prophase
791:G2 phase
715:). This
647:G1 phase
513:G0 phase
355:Resting
179:bacteria
76:organism
6470:Science
6458:Biology
6432:Portals
6415:Meiosis
6322:Mitosis
6314:M phase
6295:S phase
6162:cip/kip
5720:3517237
5671:3410867
5579:2776103
5489:4076869
5435:3160620
5386:3515773
5369:: 459.
5300:2606905
5279:Bibcode
5243:3203458
5191:2254925
5013:4412772
4985:Bibcode
4864:5543859
4824:3096776
4772:2914104
4732:9442875
4697:8041690
4665:Bibcode
4630:3113314
4610:Bibcode
4587:8577838
4536:2754209
4419:5007177
4330:9412457
4321:2132649
4249:Bibcode
4211:8939848
4191:Bibcode
4183:Science
4159:2147680
4136:Bibcode
4077:Bibcode
4006:2779084
3991:: 312.
3941:4391711
3913:Bibcode
3890:8590795
3841:9308235
3792:4841222
3764:Bibcode
3756:Science
3732:2644938
3639:2736871
3618:Bibcode
3577:1553209
3398:4821753
3290:6800134
3238:6424368
3186:4949322
3090:4076869
3034:3325851
2909:6996492
2860:6689321
2776:4164785
2755:Bibcode
2689:9843569
2615:7575488
2528:2043359
2455:10 July
2417:2106275
2320:7199388
2285:4515625
2253:Bibcode
2184:2887316
1965:cyclins
1934:M-phase
1905:S phase
1726:phases.
1575:zygotic
1556:S phase
1415:cip/kip
1397:eading
1375:cip/kip
1203:mitosis
1158:. The G
1074:cyclins
888:in its
832:M phase
826:Mitosis
775:histone
747:S phase
741:S phase
677:S phase
632:S phase
535:neurons
465:Mitosis
305:Mitosis
301:Mitosis
269:M phase
253:S phase
190:cells.
183:archaea
159:M phase
151:protist
68:Onion (
36:mitosis
6254:Cullin
6140:p14arf
5962:Cyclin
5813:
5794:
5773:
5754:
5727:
5717:
5678:
5668:
5627:
5586:
5576:
5537:
5496:
5486:
5442:
5432:
5393:
5383:
5342:
5307:
5297:
5271:Nature
5250:
5240:
5198:
5188:
5149:
5142:412868
5139:
5098:
5052:
5011:
5003:
4977:Nature
4957:
4949:
4914:
4906:
4871:
4861:
4822:
4814:
4779:
4769:
4730:
4695:
4685:
4636:
4628:
4585:
4543:
4533:
4494:
4467:
4426:
4416:
4377:
4369:
4328:
4318:
4279:
4272:240711
4269:
4217:
4209:
4166:
4156:
4107:
4100:534520
4097:
4013:
4003:
3962:
3939:
3931:
3905:Nature
3888:
3881:301322
3878:
3839:
3831:
3790:
3782:
3739:
3729:
3687:
3646:
3636:
3610:Nature
3584:
3574:
3532:
3522:
3491:
3483:
3448:
3440:
3405:
3395:
3328:
3297:
3287:
3245:
3235:
3193:
3183:
3144:
3134:
3097:
3087:
3041:
3031:
2990:
2949:
2939:
2916:
2906:
2867:
2857:
2818:
2783:
2773:
2721:
2687:
2677:
2621:
2613:
2578:
2570:
2535:
2525:
2484:
2441:"Cell"
2424:
2414:
2375:
2368:135676
2365:
2326:
2318:
2283:
2276:433472
2273:
2222:
2191:
2181:
2140:
2001:cdka;1
1804:smURFP
1716:smURFP
1537:et al.
1486:, and
1417:family
1238:CDK4/6
1187:genome
1088:, and
1012:cancer
763:ploidy
344:Phase
341:State
323:, S =
299:, M =
267:) and
239:Phases
226:; see
224:nerves
220:healed
185:, the
149:, and
147:fungal
139:animal
71:Allium
6410:phase
6304:phase
6290:phase
6229:Cdc42
6224:Cdc25
6212:Other
5994:, B3)
5840:from
5466:eLife
5009:S2CID
4955:S2CID
4912:S2CID
4820:S2CID
4688:44276
4634:S2CID
4375:S2CID
4215:S2CID
4042:(PDF)
4035:(PDF)
3937:S2CID
3837:S2CID
3788:S2CID
3489:S2CID
3446:S2CID
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