Census in British India - Knowledge (XXG)

1768:, a prominent campaigner for women's rights and a believer that the Raj authorities were not getting to grips with Indian social issues, used figures from the 1931 census to support her misguided claim that such marriages were not in decline and that the act had caused a significant spike in the numbers. She claimed that there had been a 50 percent increase in wives under the age of 15 and a quadrupling of wives under 5 years old since 1921, and that the lives of women were being blighted. She thought Indians incapable of helping themselves and in need of firmer instruction from British authorities, who should enforce change, rather than merely encourage it. In turn, debates such as those, based on untrustworthy information, informed opinions about 33: 1744:...by far the least structured census ever conducted in the subcontinent and a printer's nightmare, since rather than fit the population into pre-determined categories census takers asked relatively open-ended questions about religious beliefs and occupations. The result was a proliferation of columns concerning occupations in particular. Individuals appeared as 'con-man', 'pimp', 'prostitute', 'idiot' and 'thief', or however else they might appear or describe themselves. Worse still, castes and tribes were listed as to whether they were 'animist', Christian, Hindu or Mohammedan, with little structure or system beyond the self-representation of the respondents. 176:

government machine or from interest groups that seek recognition and self-advantage. The questions and available responses, as well as the statistical and logistical methods, change over time, and the same can be true of geographical boundaries and of population identities, such as race and nationalities. However, as well as being an administrative tool, a series of censuses can act as a coalescent of the population or at least of parts of it, causing various groups within the whole to form identities in space and over time. The ability of people to classify themselves can both reinforce and create classifications with which they identify.

1740:, which had suffered a famine that was estimated to have caused the deaths of around a third of its three million people but whose numbers within five years exceeded the pre-famine total. The information provided for religion was described as "not altogether reliable, the Hindoos being probably over-estimated, the Mahomedans under-rated, and with the exceptions of the Christians, the Jews, and the Parsees, the remainder being more or less conjectural". The figures for caste and nationality were also described as "for the most part conjectural". The 1872 census was, in the opinion of Crispin Bates, 259: 160: 1852:

enumerators were happy to be rewarded with a certificate acknowledging their good work and that the village officials "whose services are fortunately made available for three days or so by the simple expedient of decreeing a public holiday for the census, and turning every official thus set at liberty on to a block as near as possible to his ordinary residence. There is thus comparatively little need of outside agents, and such as are wanted can be got, on payment of out-of-pocket expenses, for the distinction of flourishing round with pen and ink and two or three torch bearers and attendants".

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occupations of women, the inheritance of property and the maintenance of widows, even diet, to name a few obvious cases, vary according to the caste and the religious community of the individual. The time will no doubt come when occupation will serve the purpose at present served by religion and caste in presenting demographic data, but that time is not yet, and at the present moment their barriers have not so far decayed that their social importance can be ignored for public purposes.

1727:"suddenly found that he had unconsciously been the ruler of an additional population more than equal to that of the whole of England and Wales". Proposed benefits such as improvements in public health and targeted famine relief, but they were often not realised in those particular instances because the poor data relating to age (mortality rates, as an example) prevented the sort of mapping of the population that over time was improving the well-being of the British populace. 323:, who was Census Commissioner in 1931, stated that "tribe was provided to cover the many communities still organised on the basis in whose case the tribe has not become a caste; it was likewise determinate enough, and no attempt was made to define the term race which was generally used so loosely as almost to defy any definition". That assumptions such as immutability were inadequate was acknowledged, for example, by the 1911 Commissioner, 1678:

was common in Britain and other Western countries. The nature of time had a different meaning to the people of India, who considered age to be a bureaucratic device and were more concerned with practical measures of time, such as the demarcations of natural disasters, a tendency to measure life by harvests and the cultural impact of puberty that starkly differentiated adults from children. Other cultural influences included the

283:... such accounts risk overstating the capacity of British census officials to control their subjects through the mere act of counting them. If age, seemingly one of the most straight-forward features of the census, posed the serious difficulties of biased reports and independent verification, concepts like "objectification" are of especially dubious value in more controversial categories like caste and ethnicity. 645: 700: 635: 151:

obtuse". Objections based on various rumours that the censuses were intended to introduce new taxes, aid military or labour recruitment, assist in conversions to Christianity or force migration were not uncommon, at least in the early decades. There were also incidents of violence although they tended to occur in places where tensions between native people and the British were already high.

665: 685: 1789: 300:. The reliance on elites formed part of a colonial strategy to create attachment to a national identity in an arbitrarily-defined highly-disparate whole. The Raj aimed to gain favour with the elites, whose position would then lead to the idea of Indian nationhood percolating through the remainder of society. However, even the concept of Brahmanic elites is tricky: 675: 337:

aspirational people to seek advancement and caused the evolution, sometimes almost overnight, of completely-new social identities that often adopted the honorific titles of perceived superior groups such as Brahmins and Rajputs as part of their name. Caste associations were formed to establish the authenticity of such claims, often by

655: 271:, reject that idea, which Gupta considers to imply that Indians had "no identity worth the name" prior to the colonial period, but he acknowledges that the Raj had a significant role in how caste is now practised. Timothy Alborn is somewhat more sceptical, but his primary concern is to refute studies based on the theories of 625: 1695:

misunderstanding, with the populace often being unconvinced that the submitted data was not used at a personal level but was rather aggregated for analysis. Those issues could not easily be corrected because there were also significant variances caused by periodic outbreaks of famine and diseases such as

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Caste and religion still form the most significant social constructs in India and the former, in particular, has been influenced by the Raj census efforts. Although there were certainly some enumerations of caste prior to the arrival of the British, some modern academics, such as Cohn and Dirks, have

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authorities concluded the first "all-India census". However, S. C. Srivastava noted that it did not in fact cover all of the country and that it was asynchronous by being conducted between 1867 and 1872 after an initial 1856 decision to introduce decennial enumerations from 1861 had been disrupted by

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The response of actuaries to the challenge of inadequate Indian age returns between the Bengali census of 1871 and the final British-administered all-India census of 1931 was not very different from the recent critical work of historians and demographers about such unstable census-data categories as

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appeared out of nowhere and were created as official categories for what had been geographically-disparate differently-named communities that happened to share traditional occupations, respectively as dairymen/grazers and craft artisans such as goldsmiths and carpenters. The Yadavs were also another

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companies. Among the many statistical oddities was the population's liking for certain numbers; in 1911, 56 percent of respondents were found to have ages ending in 0, 2 or 5. The correlation of registration records to census data also revealed improbabilities, with discrepancies suggesting that 60

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and a tendency among Brahmins to understate the age of unmarried late-teenage daughters because for them not to have been married by that time implied a dereliction of parental and religious duty, which would consign the parents to a torrid period between death and reincarnation. Also, Indians were

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As with caste, recording age in the census amounted to a problematic attempt to impose Western values on the population. Most people in British India did not know their age anyway, and the few who did, mostly Brahmins, were often reluctant to divulge the information with the degree of accuracy that

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people objecting on the grounds of superstition and Burmese people on the grounds of artistry. Enumerators also faced dangerous situations, including instances of being attacked by tigers. According to the 1891 Census Commissioner, the respondents were almost all illiterate and often "unwilling and

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In parallel with the introduction of censuses, the campaign to end infanticide led to the first formal attempts to register births, marriages and deaths. Legislation for that purpose was enacted between 1866 and 1872, but the system was underresourced and reliant on village officials. Although the

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and ancient texts. It also did not apply throughout the country. Furthermore, as Ibbetson and others in the Punjab realised after 1872, the Brahmanic system had no practical purpose from an administrative point of view. In 1881, Punjab abandoned the primary categorisation by varna that was used in

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which was conducted periodically from 1865 to 1941. The censuses were primarily concerned with administration and faced numerous problems in their design and conduct ranging from the absence of house numbering in hamlets to cultural objections on various grounds to dangers posed by wild animals to

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were known to follow both Hindu and Muslim rituals and caused the census to classify them as socially Hindus but Muslim by faith. The Raj had also introduced constitutional changes that gave certain groups political representation. That led to events such as that in the 1931 census. According to

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Clerical labour was cheap in India anyway, but the relatively-low costs of physically visiting and enumerating the population, relative to other countries and to the costs of tabulating the results, may have been in part from vanity. Writing in 1900, Baines stated that outside the major cities,

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were recorded as castes and as tribes, but the category of tribe was not formally adopted until the 1901 census. The recorded details changed in every census from 1872 to 1941 and the administrators struggled to comprehend Indian culture. They relied heavily on elitist strictures through their

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have argued that the censuses of the Raj period significantly influenced the social and spatial demarcations within India that exist today. The use of enumerative mechanisms such as the census, which were intended to bolster the colonial presence, may indeed have sown the seeds that grew to be

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It is not in its devotional aspect that the census is concerned with religion.... ocial conduct is much influenced by practices which may not be in themselves religious but which are subject to religious sanctions. The age of marriage, the practice of remarriage, the observance of purdah, the

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Hutton was observing the effects of a popular belief that the purpose of the census was to define the relative position of people in society. Therefore, respondents would often claim to be of a socially-superior community to that which they actually were. That misconception gave an outlet for

197:... classifications of convenience for government officials transformed into contested identities for the Indian public as the census went from an enumerative exercise of the British government to an authoritative representation of the social body and a vital tool of indigenous interests. 1735:

stated that the 1872 census "must be regarded more as a creditable, and in the main successful attempt to deal with an exceptionally difficult subject, than as a complete or reliable statement of a class of facts". Among the problems, which were noted as "surely... some grave error", was the

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of a population and it is inherently constrained. For example, the questions required non-overlapping responses, and both the questions and the lists of response options were guided by preconceptions resulting from political desires or needs. The political forces may emanate from within the

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Baines noted in 1900 that in some "high class" households, "domestic privacy is a matter of social honour". He also noted that some suspicion regarding age recording existed in some European countries, where it was felt that the detail might be used for the purpose of determining military

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That caste should not be treated as a fixed designation is now commonly recognised since new groups come and go, and there are movements between groups. Bhagat describes them as "fluid, fuzzy and dynamic historically" and gives as an example the emergence in the early 20th century of the

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from the value system and the societies of the West were highlighted by the inclusion of "caste", "religion", "profession" and "age" in the data to be collected, as the collection and analysis of that information had a considerable impact on the structure and politics of Indian society.

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The problems of registration, age irrelevance and ignorance were known to the census authorities, whose officials produced tables that demonstrated statistically-implausible spikes and age distributions from the 1880s onward. They came to recognise that the issues were exacerbated by a

1703:, as well as the very imperfect system of registering life events. Attempts at correction were made, but the figures remained unreliable throughout the Raj period, and perhaps worse, the attempts to correct them in the official reports were not always based on sound methodology. 222:

Administrative needs were indeed a necessity, and the imperative increased with a recognition that the 1857 Rebellion had been a significant challenge to Britain's presence in India. The shock of that caused the end of the Company Rule and also caused influential members of the

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1891 census: Includes all "Unitarians" (5 persons), "Theists" (47 persons), "Deists" (12 persons), "Atheists" (27 persons), "Freethinkers" (5 persons), "Agnostics" (69 persons), "Positivists" (2 persons), "No religion" (18 persons), and "Religion not Returned" (42,578 persons)

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Our ignorance of the customs and beliefs of the people among whom we dwell is surely in some respects a reproach to us; for not only does that ignorance deprive European science of material which it greatly needs, but it also involves a distinct loss of administrative power to

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and that "educated Indian women were working in every province of their country to eradicate social evils and outmoded customs and prejudices, and we refused to accept the assertion that the removal of social evils in Indian society was the responsibility of the British".

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suggested that the population had risen by 1.1 million, but the birth and death records indicated a fall of 217,469. The difference could not be attributed to migration. In 1931, there was an inexplicable difference of 4.6 million births between census and registration

421:, the Commissioner in 1881, designated categories of Brahmans, Rajputs, Castes of Good Social Position, Inferior Castes and Non-Hindus or Aboriginal Castes; in 1921, the category of "depressed classes" was used; and in 1931 the nomenclature became "exterior classes". 1722:

The outcomes of the census exercise were sometimes startling. For example, the 1872 census in Bengal suggested that the population was considerably greater than had been believed. A supervisor there noted that it "rose in one day from 42 to 67 millions" and that the

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Feeling ran so high over the return of religion in the Punjab that some exterior castes, asked by one party to register as Hindus, by others as Sikhs, and even as Moslems, declared themselves Ad Dharmi or "adherents of the original religion," whatever that may

345:, and they presented what Frank Conlon has described as a "deluge" of petitions for official recognition to the census authorities. Through such recognition, they thought that they could later make political and economic gains even though, as with the 408:

The 1872 and 1881 censuses attempted to classify people fundamentally according to the Varna mentioned in ancient texts. The broad caste basing proved not to reflect the realities of social relationships, but it was met with approval from scholars of

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a caste which had applied in one province to be called Brahman (priestly caste) asked in another to be called Rajput (warrior caste) and there are several instances at this census of castes claiming to be Brahman who claimed to be Rajputs ten years

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is among those who have been criticised for allegedly failing to appreciate the underlying statistical problems in the published data. Noting that some of the officials queried even trying to impose the age category, Alborn noted:

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and cultures, ethnicities and religions, many of which have evolved over several millennia. The 1931 census enumerated nearly 20 percent of the world's population, spread over 1,800,000 square miles (4,700,000 km);

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Despite the general ruling that caste was restricted to Hindus, which was later modified to include Jains, there were over 300 recorded Christian castes, and more than 500 castes were Muslim. The definition of Hindu,

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Linguistic differences also presented difficulties, with different spellings and pronunciations for similar castes and administrative attempts to create language-based caste categories that had not been known.

1841:

Perfect synchronicity was not achievable because of issues such as terrain and climate. For example, the 1931 census in Burma took place two days before the exercise was carried out in much of the rest of the

372:, which was commonly used as a generic description for all low-caste people, was mistakenly used as a specific caste name by the authorities. That caused much resentment and attempts to achieve recognition as 1764:(Sarda Act) of 1929. The legislation had been supported by the 1931 Census Commissioner, Hutton, who had noticed a declining trend in the custom of child marriages and saw the act as encouraging the decline. 1687:

registration processes improved over the years, they were significantly disrupted at times, notably when officials were preoccupied in dealing with famines and, from the 1920s onward, by the actions of the

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the 1857 Rebellion. The first synchronous decennial census was conducted in 1881 and has continued thus since, but the 1941 exercise was severely curtailed and very little of its data was published due to

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called the census exercise "more telling of the administrative needs of the British than of the social reality for the people of British India". The differences in the nature of Indian society during the

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stating, "Risley's anthropology worked not so much to retard nationalism as to render it communal. In so doing, it also left a bloody legacy for South Asia that continues to exact a mounting toll".

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is sometimes referred to as the first proper census in India. By 1872, the only administrative area of British India in which there had not been an attempt to conduct a regionwide enumeration was

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The Sarda Act imposed penalties for marriage of girls under the age of 14 and boys under the age of 18. It led to incorrect data being supplied regarding age and marriage status in areas such as

349:(whose claim to Brahmin status itself is contested), their associations might comprise very disparate socioeconomic groups. Frequently, the enumerators just took what people claimed for granted. 1713:"occupation" or "race." As much as possible, they made do with what they had, all the while preaching caution about the shaky empirical foundation on which their charts and graphs were built. 2166:

that might result in large temporary movements. Temporary economic migration (nomadic groups, seasonal harvesting, people working on construction projects and suchlike) certainly took place.

74:(of a much smaller population) had been in 1801, repeated every ten years thereafter, and this provided the pattern for the Indian process, although this threw up many different problems. 581:

and Jain religious beliefs was always blurred, and even the Christian and Muslim believers could cause difficulties with classification although they were usually more easily defined.

1772:

and the role of Britain generally in the country. Rathbone herself was confronted by Rama Rau, an Indian feminist, who said that the British were simply not well-placed to understand

179:

While the above is true of all population censuses, the nature of society in British India posed particular problems. Even the geographically-smaller post-Partition India contains a

1887:, is very different from that of northern India.. The 1931 census recorded 50 million such people as "depressed classes", representing 14 percent of the population recorded. 3928: 414:

other British Indian jurisdictions in that year and preferred instead to assign more weight to the category of occupation. In 1891, the other jurisdictions followed suit.

240: 231:, to think that if further discontent was to be avoided, a better understanding of the colonial subjects was needed. The censuses formed one aspect of a wider series of 3112: 2634: 1683:

not very good at estimating the age of others, which made it difficult for census enumerators to assess or to correct the information with which they were supplied.

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Harris, Richard; Lewis, Robert (2013). "Colonial Anxiety Counted: Plague and Census in Bombay and Calcutta, 1901". In Peckham, Robert; Pomfret, David M. (eds.).

129:. The 1931 census is often considered be the last British-administered census. The report of the 1881 census comprised three volumes; that of 1931 comprised 28. 1861:

Literacy rates were poor. Despite improvements in education by 1931, it was calculated then that 9.5 percent of the population could read and write a postcard.

327:, who commented on the demonstrably obvious processes of fusion and fission in social groups that gave rise to new group identities. Similarly, Hutton noted: 2162:, tended to limit its effects, but it was important to try to arrange the date of the census so that it minimised clashes with major religious festivals and 3956: 368:

paradigm on the census caste categories. The census administrators themselves also created caste communities in which none existed previously. In Bengal,

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In one recorded instance, native census enumerators used figures varying between 16 and 60 when they were asked to estimate the age of a specific person.

2126:, between the censuses of 1871 and that of 1921, detailed caste-based occupation data were mentioned to estimate the impact of famines on lower castes. 427:

The first census results came in 1872. During the 1941 census, it was decided to merge the different caste groups under a single monolithic category –

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Those tasked with gathering the data faced various unusual situations. Matters of culture affected even simple processes such as house numbering, with

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percent or more of life events were going unrecorded, causing one actuary in 1911 to remark that system was "practically useless". The 1911 census in

120:. The various limited exercises conducted prior to 1869 have been described as "fragmentary, hardly systematic and lack any uniformity". In 1872, the 296:

interpretation of regional literature and on the advice of Brahmins, who subscribed to a traditional but impractical ritual ranking system, known as

143:, responsibility for census operations lay with temporary administrative structures, which were established for each census and then dismantled. 1760:

Despite its variability, the published information relating to age caused significant angst among social reformers, notably in relation to the

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From the outset in 1872, there was never a formal definition of the census categories for caste, race or tribe. For example, in 1891, the

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argued that the British, through their census and other works, effectively created the caste system as it exists today. Others, such as

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had recorded 179 languages and 544 dialects, while the 1931 census, which covered a somewhat more extensive area, noted 225 languages.

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Attempts continued to recognise the broad socio-economic implications of the varna system, but they were also applied inconsistently.

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Yang, Anand A. (1987), "A Conversation of Rumors: The Language of Popular "Mentalitès" in Late Nineteenth-Century Colonial India",

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Robb, Peter (1997), "The Colonial State and Constructions of Indian Identity: An Example on the Northeast Frontier in the 1880s",

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and a Kshatriya status. Their creation as a caste was aided also by the Raj's policy of grouping people who bore similar names.

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as well as to assess landholdings for revenue purposes, which was then a primary consideration, as attested in the writings of

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The theories of Risley, which broadly assumed that caste and race were related and were based on now-discredited methods of

3131: 235:, the categorisations of which became an essential part of the British administrative mechanism. Of those categorisations, 3966: 3778: 3169: 189: 1802: 1761: 1688: 311:

There was a general presumption that the caste of a person was immutable and unchanging and that it could only apply to

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said in 1935 that was the largest such exercise in the world but "also the quickest and the cheapest". Scholars such as

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were also thus categorised from 1901. In 1911, the caste of Christians and Muslims was recorded if given by them.

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Peabody, Norbert (2001), "Cents, Sense, Census: Human Inventories in Late Precolonial and Early Colonial India",

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The significance of religion, as well as caste, was considerable. Hutton said in his census report for 1931 that

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was regarded as being "the cement that holds together the myriad units of Indian society", according to the 1901

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The censuses that came later were much broader and, according to Crispin Bates, "more sophisticated" attempts at

86: 3771: 418: 98: 48: 3507:

Rajan, Sebastian Irudaya (1997), "India's Population: Second and Growing", in Rajan, Sebastian Irudaya (ed.),

398: 113: 1865:, the 1891 Census Commissioner, thought that only 2 percent of the population could fill out a census form. 193:

independent India, but not everybody accepts that. Peter Gottschalk has stated of that cultural influence:

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Bhagat, Ram B. (2006), "Census and caste enumeration: British legacy and contemporary practice in India",

1884: 3932: 3910: 1821: 346: 228: 185: 102: 3036:

Anon (Journal of the Statistical Society of London) (1876), "The Census of British India of 1871–72",

3884: 3879: 3874: 3869: 3864: 3859: 3854: 3849: 3822: 3626: 2059:

1931 census: Includes all "No religion" (153 persons), "Indefinite Beliefs" (940 persons), "Chinese (

17: 3181:

Conlon, Frank F. (1974), "Caste by Association: The Gauda Sarasvata Brahmana Unification Movement",

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Villages, Women, and the Success of Dairy Cooperatives in India: Making Place for Rural Development

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1872 census: Includes all "Others" (5,025,721 persons) and "Not Known" (425,175 persons) responses.

2027: 1898: 1724: 338: 78: 3971: 3700: 3650: 3642: 3606: 3598: 3552: 3544: 3488: 3313: 3305: 3257: 3206: 3198: 3158: 3080: 3045: 3025: 3009: 2913: 2884: 2826: 2797: 2768: 2710: 2681: 2652: 1769: 272: 180: 136: 94: 2857:(Supplement to Commerce Reports ed.). Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce. p. 46. 3735: 3670: 3662: 3514: 3496: 3466: 3446: 3424: 3414: 3401: 3381: 3333: 3275: 3269: 3240:

Ghosh, J. K.; Maiti, P.; Rao, T. J.; Sinha, B. K. (1999), "Evolution of Statistics in India",

3227: 3121: 3098: 3017: 2957: 2123: 2109: 1902:

project that began in the 1990s and relied heavily on Raj ethnographies, recorded 4635 castes.

357: 320: 276: 140: 117: 97:, too, carried out quantitative exercises in various places and at various times prior to the 3438: 2951: 3692: 3634: 3590: 3536: 3508: 3325: 3297: 3249: 3190: 3072: 3001: 1765: 305: 297: 3794: 3346: 386: 206: 44: 1828:

around 1869 but it was not completed until a few years after the first all-India census;

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were more similar to other castes in Bengal than to any of the Brahmin groups elsewhere.

3630: 3567: 3217: 2104: 1773: 670: 539: 268: 247: 3288:

Guha, Sumit (2003), "The Politics of Identity and Enumeration in India c. 1600–1990",

3945: 3610: 3556: 3317: 3210: 1924: 1750: 1737: 365: 353: 132: 106: 90: 3654: 2678:"Report on the census of British India, taken on the 17th February 1881 ..., Vol. 2" 3563: 3360:

Jassal, Smita Tewari (2001), "Caste in the Colonial State: Mallahs in the census",

3029: 2976: 2060: 1794: 699: 660: 590: 531: 243: 126: 2707:"Census of India, 1891. General tables for British provinces and feudatory states" 3729: 3460: 3418: 3395: 3375: 3361: 3350: 3221: 3114:

Race, Caste and Tribe in Central India: The Early Origins of Indian Anthropometry

3092: 2917: 2909: 2888: 2880: 2852: 2830: 2822: 2801: 2793: 2772: 2764: 2736: 2714: 2706: 2685: 2677: 2656: 2648: 2635:"Caste census: India's affirmative action policy is based on 90+ years old data" 2040: 1920: 1916: 1704: 634: 582: 424:

The 1901 census recorded 1646 distinct castes, which increased to 4147 in 1931.

381: 232: 121: 58: 3571: 644: 385:

example of a group that invented tradition in the process often referred to as

3594: 3301: 3271:

Religion, Science, and Empire: Classifying Hinduism and Islam in British India

1995: 1980: 1965: 1950: 1935: 1784: 664: 324: 2992:

Alborn, Timothy L. (1999), "Age and Empire in the Indian Census, 187I-1931",

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Permanent migration was uncommon anyway. Cultural constraints, such as caste

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The Other Empire: Metropolis, India and Progress in the Colonial Imagination

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was among those who had conducted earlier limited surveys in areas of India.

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seemingly inexplicable figure for the "diseased and starved" population in

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There were historical attempts to enumerate the population in parts of the

3540: 3172:(1987), "The census, social structure and objectification in South Asia", 3462:

In quest of Indian folktales: Pandit Ram Gharib Chaube and William Crooke

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castes through coalescence of like-minded, politically motivated groups.

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Local table for "Caste, tribe, race or nationality", from the 1901 census

105:, was replaced by the administrators operating under the auspices of the 82: 3731:

Imperial Contagions: Medicine, Hygiene, and Cultures of Planning in Asia

3162: 3704: 3548: 3492: 3309: 3261: 3202: 3084: 3049: 2140: 2100: 2030:" (140,422 persons), and "Other Christian" (135,462 persons) responses. 2017:" (349,863 persons), and "Other Hindu" (206,117,326 persons) responses. 1874:

The Patidars gained recognition as a distinct caste in the 1931 census.

1696: 695: 680: 650: 598: 547: 523: 515: 342: 316: 164: 3646: 3602: 3242:

International Statistical Review / Revue Internationale de Statistique

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The officials employed to make sense of the raw age data were in fact

2006:" (418,789 persons), and "Other Hindu" (18,898,884 persons) responses. 674: 171:

Ram Bhagat points out that a demographic census is an exercise in the

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after which its authority to govern the country, often referred to as

2136: 2068: 1679: 586: 292: 3253: 3194: 3076: 3060: 246:. The role of Risley has sometimes drawn particular attention, with 139:

occurred. Throughout the British Raj, and onwards until 1961 in the

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1941 census: Includes all "Indian Christian" (6,040,665 persons), "

36:

Cover of Volume 17 of the 1911 census report (fully digitized file)

3763: 1754: 654: 630: 594: 491: 428: 377: 257: 236: 158: 31: 341:

allegedly connected to mythology and ancient history, as did the

2202: 2200: 2198: 2196: 2194: 2163: 578: 390: 147: 3767: 288: 3617:

Shirras, George Findlay (1935), "The Census of India, 1931",

2881:"Census of India 1931. Vol. 1, India. Pt. 2, Imperial tables" 2071:)" (150,240 persons), and "Others" (1,065 persons) responses. 3355:, Printed by the Superintendent, Government Printing, Punjab 2444: 2442: 2039:

1881 census: Includes all "Tribal" (6,426,511 persons) and "

624: 3663:"Data Collection in Census: A Survey of Census Enumerators" 3223:

Castes of Mind: Colonialism and the Making of Modern India

2977:

Anon (Journal of the Statistical Society of London) (1876)

2741:. The story of nations. G. P. Putnam's sons. p. 355. 1911:

1872 census: Includes all "Hindu" (187,937,450 persons), "

3326:"The certitude of caste: when identity trumps hierarchy" 3174:

An Anthropologist Among the Historians and Other Essays

2401: 2399: 2314: 2312: 275:

and objectification that have emerged from the work of

2649:"Memorandum on the census of British India of 1871-72" 2397: 2395: 2393: 2391: 2389: 2387: 2385: 2383: 2381: 2379: 2765:"Census of India 1901. Vol. 1A, India. Pt. 2, Tables" 2419: 2417: 2415: 2413: 2367: 2365: 2363: 2361: 2359: 2357: 2355: 2353: 2351: 2300: 2298: 2296: 2294: 2292: 279:. He stated of the claimed objectification of caste: 2823:"Census of India 1921. Vol. 1, India. Pt. 2, Tables" 2290: 2288: 2286: 2284: 2282: 2280: 2278: 2276: 2274: 2272: 3893: 3842: 3835: 3810: 3801: 2236: 2234: 2232: 2230: 2228: 2226: 3929:Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India 3527:Reddy, Deepa S. (2005), "The Ethnicity of Caste", 3377:South Asia's Modern History: Thematic Perspectives 2206: 2103:, whose more usual work took place on behalf of 1732:The Journal of the Statistical Society of London 2794:"Census of India, 1911. Vol. 1., Pt. 2, Tables" 1742: 1710: 604: 569: 329: 281: 215: 195: 3667:India's Demographic Transition: A Reassessment 3510:India's Demographic Transition: A Reassessment 3443:India's Demographic Transition: A Reassessment 612:Religious groups in British India (1872−1941) 589:worshipped both Hindu idols and the Christian 3779: 3721:The Census in British India: New Perspectives 2851:United States Department of Commerce (1924). 389:. They claimed descent from the mythological 209:, the Deputy Superintendent of the census in 8: 3038:Journal of the Statistical Society of London 1883:The caste system in southern India, such as 3176:, Oxford University Press, pp. 224–254 3120:, Edinburgh Papers In South Asian Studies, 3839: 3807: 3786: 3772: 3764: 3481:Comparative Studies in Society and History 3290:Comparative Studies in Society and History 2448: 2251: 2217: 610: 364:and the colonial authorities to impose a 3065:Journal of the Royal Statistical Society 2854:Trade and Economic Review for 1922 No.34 2494: 2482: 2263: 213:in 1881, stated in his official report: 2542: 2506: 2405: 2178: 2151: 1814: 3573:The People of India (Memorial edition) 3061:"On Census-Taking and its Limitations" 2910:"Census of India, 1941. Vol. 1, India" 2622: 2600: 2518: 2423: 2371: 2318: 2304: 1824:had commenced work on what became the 3665:, in Rajan, Sebastian Irudaya (ed.), 3441:, in Rajan, Sebastian Irudaya (ed.), 2937: 2611: 2553: 2530: 2342: 2330: 2240: 27:Census of India prior to independence 18:Census of India prior to independence 7: 3906:2011 Socio Economic and Caste Census 2994:Journal of Interdisciplinary History 2588: 2576: 2565: 2471: 2460: 2434: 2185: 2956:. Mittal Publications. p. 37. 3957:History of the government of India 808: 803: 798: 793: 788: 783: 778: 773: 768: 763: 758: 753: 748: 743: 738: 733: 728: 723: 718: 713: 52:census personnel. The sociologist 25: 3363:Contributions to Indian Sociology 3330:Contributions to Indian Sociology 2950:Jebagnanam Cyril Kanmony (2010). 3719:Barrier, N. Gerald, ed. (1981). 2861:from the original on 13 May 2023 1787: 698: 683: 673: 663: 653: 643: 633: 623: 163:Map showing the distribution of 3400:, Manchester University Press, 2745:from the original on 8 May 2023 3734:. Hong Kong University Press. 3423:, Cambridge University Press, 3226:, Princeton University Press, 2043:" (143,581 persons) responses. 360:, loomed large in attempts by 135:ceased to exist in 1947, when 1: 3347:Ibbetson, Denzil Charles Jelf 1826:Statistical Account of Bengal 3661:Vemuri, Murali Dhar (1997), 3465:, Indiana University Press, 3183:The Journal of Asian Studies 1987:" (6,388 persons) responses. 1972:" (5,504 persons) responses. 1957:" (4,050 persons) responses. 1942:" (1,147 persons) responses. 1803:Government of India Act 1858 1762:Child Marriage Restraint Act 1689:Indian independence movement 302:Prasanta Chandra Mahalanobis 72:census in the United Kingdom 3952:Government of British India 3439:"New Pathways: Census 1961" 3274:, Oxford University Press, 2009:1941 census: Includes all " 1990:1931 census: Includes all " 1975:1921 census: Includes all " 1960:1911 census: Includes all " 1930:1891 census: Includes all " 3988: 3459:Naithani, Sadhana (2006), 3366:, Mouton, pp. 319–351 3268:Gottschalk, Peter (2012), 2953:Dalits and Tribes of India 2883:. 1931. pp. 513–519. 1994:" (219,300,645 persons), " 1983:" (467,578 persons), and " 1979:" (216,260,620 persons), " 1968:" (243,445 persons), and " 1964:" (217,337,943 persons), " 1949:" (207,050,557 persons), " 1945:1901 census:Includes all " 1934:" (207,688,724 persons), " 1927:" (913 persons) responses. 1923:" (347,994 persons), and " 1863:Jervoise Athelstane Baines 1562: 1454: 1346: 1238: 1130: 1022: 914: 814: 403:Linguistic Survey of India 3923: 3685:Journal of Social History 3595:10.1017/s0026749x0001430x 3529:Anthropological Quarterly 3302:10.1017/s0010417503000070 2912:. 1941. pp. 97–101. 2013:" (48,813,180 persons), " 1953:" (92,419 persons), and " 1938:" (39,952 persons), and " 1830:Francis Buchanan-Hamilton 707: 704: 694: 689: 679: 669: 659: 649: 639: 629: 619: 616: 227:, such as the folklorist 66:Administrative background 3324:Gupta, Dipankar (2004), 3091:Basu, Pratyusha (2009), 2825:. 1921. pp. 39–44. 2796:. 1911. pp. 37–42. 2767:. 1901. pp. 57–62. 2709:. 1891. pp. 87–95. 2651:. 1872. pp. 50–54. 419:William Chichele Plowden 99:Indian Rebellion of 1857 3394:Marriott, John (2003), 3111:Bates, Crispin (1995), 3006:10.1162/002219599551912 2680:. 1881. pp. 9–18. 563:Religion and occupation 114:North-Western Provinces 112:The 1865 census of the 41:Census in British India 3901:Indian economic census 3756:Census of India, 1921 3669:, M. D. Publications, 3513:, M. D. Publications, 3445:, M. D. Publications, 3332:, vol. 38, SAGE, 1998:" (990,233 persons), " 1919:" (398,409 persons), " 1746: 1715: 609: 574: 347:Goud Saraswat Brahmins 334: 304:has demonstrated that 285: 263: 220: 199: 168: 37: 3933:Demographics of India 3911:Census of agriculture 3541:10.1353/anq.2005.0038 3420:Ideologies of the Raj 2735:Frazer, R.W. (1897). 1822:William Wilson Hunter 261: 229:Richard Carnac Temple 162: 35: 3967:Censuses in Pakistan 3697:10.1353/jsh/20.3.485 3583:Modern Asian Studies 3564:Risley, Herbert Hope 3437:Mitra, Asok (1997), 2002:" (5,378 persons), " 1915:" (1,147 persons), " 1885:that found in Kerala 339:inventing traditions 233:ethnographic studies 225:Indian Civil Service 3631:1935GeoRv..25..434S 3619:Geographical Review 2207:Ghosh et al. (1999) 1899:The People of India 1896:The oft-criticised 1725:Lieutenant-Governor 613: 241:Census Commissioner 181:myriad of languages 167:per the 1911 census 79:Indian subcontinent 3415:Metcalf, Thomas R. 3218:Dirks, Nicholas B. 2220:, pp. 185–189 1770:Indian nationalism 611: 273:imagined community 264: 203:social engineering 186:G. Findlay Shirras 169: 155:Role of the census 95:East India Company 38: 3962:Censuses in India 3939: 3938: 3919: 3918: 3843:National censuses 3836:Post-Independence 3831: 3830: 3811:National censuses 3741:978-9-88813-912-5 3676:978-8-175-33028-3 3520:978-8-175-33028-3 3472:978-0-253-34544-8 3452:978-8-175-33028-3 3430:978-0-521-58937-6 3407:978-0-7190-6018-2 3387:978-1-31762-446-2 3339:978-0-761-93324-3 3281:978-0-195-39301-9 3233:978-1-400-84094-6 3104:978-1-604-97625-0 3097:, Cambria Press, 2963:978-81-8324-348-3 2918:saoa.crl.28215532 2889:saoa.crl.25793234 2831:saoa.crl.25394121 2802:saoa.crl.25393779 2773:saoa.crl.25352838 2715:saoa.crl.25318666 2686:saoa.crl.25057654 2657:saoa.crl.25057647 2449:Gottschalk (2012) 2252:Gottschalk (2012) 2218:Gottschalk (2012) 2124:Madras Presidency 2110:Bombay Presidency 1670: 1669: 708:Total population 376:. Castes such as 358:scientific racism 321:John Henry Hutton 277:Benedict Anderson 141:Republic of India 70:The first modern 16:(Redirected from 3979: 3840: 3808: 3803:Pre-independence 3788: 3781: 3774: 3765: 3745: 3724: 3707: 3679: 3657: 3613: 3577: 3576:, Thacker, Spink 3559: 3523: 3503: 3475: 3455: 3433: 3410: 3390: 3367: 3356: 3342: 3320: 3284: 3264: 3236: 3213: 3177: 3170:Cohn, Bernard S. 3165: 3145: 3144: 3142: 3136: 3130:, archived from 3119: 3107: 3087: 3052: 3032: 2979: 2974: 2968: 2967: 2947: 2941: 2935: 2929: 2928: 2926: 2924: 2906: 2900: 2899: 2897: 2895: 2877: 2871: 2870: 2868: 2866: 2848: 2842: 2841: 2839: 2837: 2819: 2813: 2812: 2810: 2808: 2790: 2784: 2783: 2781: 2779: 2761: 2755: 2754: 2752: 2750: 2732: 2726: 2725: 2723: 2721: 2703: 2697: 2696: 2694: 2692: 2674: 2668: 2667: 2665: 2663: 2645: 2639: 2638: 2637:. 25 April 2023. 2631: 2625: 2620: 2614: 2609: 2603: 2598: 2592: 2586: 2580: 2579:, pp. 50–55 2574: 2568: 2563: 2557: 2551: 2545: 2540: 2534: 2528: 2522: 2516: 2510: 2504: 2498: 2492: 2486: 2480: 2474: 2469: 2463: 2458: 2452: 2446: 2437: 2432: 2426: 2421: 2408: 2403: 2374: 2369: 2346: 2340: 2334: 2328: 2322: 2316: 2307: 2302: 2267: 2261: 2255: 2249: 2243: 2238: 2221: 2215: 2209: 2204: 2189: 2183: 2167: 2156: 2144: 2133: 2127: 2120: 2114: 2097: 2091: 2088: 2082: 2078: 2072: 2065:Ancestor Worship 2050: 2044: 2037: 2031: 2024: 2018: 1909: 1903: 1894: 1888: 1881: 1875: 1872: 1866: 1859: 1853: 1849: 1843: 1839: 1833: 1819: 1797: 1792: 1791: 1790: 1766:Eleanor Rathbone 810: 805: 800: 795: 790: 785: 780: 775: 770: 765: 760: 755: 750: 745: 740: 735: 730: 725: 720: 715: 702: 687: 677: 667: 657: 647: 637: 627: 614: 554: 546: 538: 530: 522: 514: 506: 500:Tribal religions 498: 490: 482: 306:Bengali Brahmins 21: 3987: 3986: 3982: 3981: 3980: 3978: 3977: 3976: 3942: 3941: 3940: 3935: 3915: 3889: 3827: 3797: 3795:Census of India 3792: 3752: 3742: 3727: 3718: 3715: 3713:Further reading 3710: 3682: 3677: 3660: 3616: 3580: 3568:Crooke, William 3562: 3526: 3521: 3506: 3478: 3473: 3458: 3453: 3436: 3431: 3413: 3408: 3393: 3388: 3370: 3359: 3345: 3340: 3323: 3287: 3282: 3267: 3254:10.2307/1403563 3239: 3234: 3216: 3195:10.2307/2052936 3180: 3168: 3148: 3140: 3138: 3134: 3128: 3117: 3110: 3105: 3090: 3077:10.2307/2979722 3055: 3035: 2991: 2987: 2982: 2975: 2971: 2964: 2949: 2948: 2944: 2936: 2932: 2922: 2920: 2908: 2907: 2903: 2893: 2891: 2879: 2878: 2874: 2864: 2862: 2850: 2849: 2845: 2835: 2833: 2821: 2820: 2816: 2806: 2804: 2792: 2791: 2787: 2777: 2775: 2763: 2762: 2758: 2748: 2746: 2734: 2733: 2729: 2719: 2717: 2705: 2704: 2700: 2690: 2688: 2676: 2675: 2671: 2661: 2659: 2647: 2646: 2642: 2633: 2632: 2628: 2621: 2617: 2610: 2606: 2599: 2595: 2587: 2583: 2575: 2571: 2564: 2560: 2556:, pp. x–xi 2552: 2548: 2541: 2537: 2529: 2525: 2517: 2513: 2505: 2501: 2495:Naithani (2006) 2493: 2489: 2483:Ibbetson (1916) 2481: 2477: 2470: 2466: 2459: 2455: 2447: 2440: 2433: 2429: 2422: 2411: 2404: 2377: 2370: 2349: 2341: 2337: 2329: 2325: 2317: 2310: 2303: 2270: 2264:Marriott (2003) 2262: 2258: 2250: 2246: 2239: 2224: 2216: 2212: 2205: 2192: 2184: 2180: 2176: 2171: 2170: 2157: 2153: 2148: 2147: 2134: 2130: 2121: 2117: 2098: 2094: 2089: 2085: 2079: 2075: 2058: 2057: 2054: 2053: 2051: 2047: 2038: 2034: 2025: 2021: 2011:Scheduled Caste 2008: 2007: 1989: 1988: 1974: 1973: 1959: 1958: 1944: 1943: 1929: 1928: 1910: 1906: 1895: 1891: 1882: 1878: 1873: 1869: 1860: 1856: 1850: 1846: 1840: 1836: 1820: 1816: 1811: 1793: 1788: 1786: 1783: 1720: 1675: 1663: 1662: 1653: 1652: 1643: 1642: 1633: 1632: 1623: 1622: 1613: 1612: 1603: 1602: 1593: 1592: 1583: 1582: 1573: 1572: 1555: 1554: 1545: 1544: 1535: 1534: 1525: 1524: 1515: 1514: 1505: 1504: 1495: 1494: 1485: 1484: 1475: 1474: 1465: 1464: 1447: 1446: 1437: 1436: 1427: 1426: 1417: 1416: 1407: 1406: 1397: 1396: 1387: 1386: 1377: 1376: 1367: 1366: 1357: 1356: 1339: 1338: 1329: 1328: 1319: 1318: 1309: 1308: 1299: 1298: 1289: 1288: 1279: 1278: 1269: 1268: 1259: 1258: 1249: 1248: 1231: 1230: 1221: 1220: 1211: 1210: 1201: 1200: 1191: 1190: 1181: 1180: 1171: 1170: 1161: 1160: 1151: 1150: 1141: 1140: 1123: 1122: 1113: 1112: 1103: 1102: 1093: 1092: 1083: 1082: 1073: 1072: 1063: 1062: 1053: 1052: 1043: 1042: 1033: 1032: 1015: 1014: 1005: 1004: 995: 994: 985: 984: 975: 974: 965: 964: 955: 954: 945: 944: 935: 934: 925: 924: 907: 906: 885: 884: 875: 874: 865: 864: 855: 854: 845: 844: 835: 834: 825: 824: 565: 560: 559: 558: 552: 544: 536: 528: 520: 512: 504: 496: 488: 480: 476: 475: 474: 471: 468: 465: 462: 459: 456: 453: 449: 448: 445: 442: 439: 399:George Grierson 387:Sanskritisation 256: 211:Punjab Province 207:Denzil Ibbetson 190:Bernard S. Cohn 157: 118:Bengal Province 68: 45:census of India 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 3985: 3983: 3975: 3974: 3969: 3964: 3959: 3954: 3944: 3943: 3937: 3936: 3924: 3921: 3920: 3917: 3916: 3914: 3913: 3908: 3903: 3897: 3895: 3894:Other censuses 3891: 3890: 3888: 3887: 3882: 3877: 3872: 3867: 3862: 3857: 3852: 3846: 3844: 3837: 3833: 3832: 3829: 3828: 3826: 3825: 3820: 3814: 3812: 3805: 3799: 3798: 3793: 3791: 3790: 3783: 3776: 3768: 3762: 3761: 3751: 3750:External links 3748: 3747: 3746: 3740: 3725: 3714: 3711: 3709: 3708: 3691:(3): 485–505, 3680: 3675: 3658: 3639:10.2307/209312 3625:(3): 434–448, 3614: 3589:(2): 245–283, 3578: 3560: 3535:(3): 543–584, 3524: 3519: 3504: 3487:(4): 819–850, 3476: 3471: 3456: 3451: 3434: 3429: 3411: 3406: 3391: 3386: 3368: 3357: 3343: 3338: 3321: 3296:(1): 148–167, 3285: 3280: 3265: 3237: 3232: 3214: 3189:(3): 351–365, 3178: 3166: 3157:(2): 119–134, 3146: 3137:on 5 July 2016 3126: 3108: 3103: 3088: 3053: 3044:(2): 411–416, 3033: 2988: 2986: 2983: 2981: 2980: 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1080: 1079: 1077: 1074: 1070: 1069: 1067: 1064: 1060: 1059: 1057: 1054: 1050: 1049: 1047: 1044: 1040: 1039: 1037: 1034: 1030: 1029: 1027: 1024: 1020: 1019: 1016: 1012: 1011: 1009: 1006: 1002: 1001: 999: 996: 992: 991: 989: 986: 982: 981: 979: 976: 972: 971: 969: 966: 962: 961: 959: 956: 952: 951: 949: 946: 942: 941: 939: 936: 932: 931: 929: 926: 922: 921: 919: 916: 912: 911: 908: 904: 903: 901: 898: 895: 892: 889: 886: 882: 881: 879: 876: 872: 871: 869: 866: 862: 861: 859: 856: 852: 851: 849: 846: 842: 841: 839: 836: 832: 831: 829: 826: 822: 821: 819: 816: 812: 811: 806: 801: 796: 791: 786: 781: 776: 771: 766: 761: 756: 751: 746: 741: 736: 731: 726: 721: 716: 710: 709: 706: 703: 693: 688: 678: 671:Zoroastrianism 668: 658: 648: 638: 628: 618: 564: 561: 557: 556: 550: 542: 540:Zoroastrianism 534: 526: 518: 510: 502: 494: 486: 477: 472: 469: 466: 463: 460: 457: 454: 451: 450: 446: 443: 440: 437: 436: 435: 434: 433: 269:Dipankar Gupta 255: 252: 248:Nicholas Dirks 173:classification 156: 153: 67: 64: 43:refers to the 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 3984: 3973: 3970: 3968: 3965: 3963: 3960: 3958: 3955: 3953: 3950: 3949: 3947: 3934: 3930: 3927: 3922: 3912: 3909: 3907: 3904: 3902: 3899: 3898: 3896: 3892: 3886: 3883: 3881: 3878: 3876: 3873: 3871: 3868: 3866: 3863: 3861: 3858: 3856: 3853: 3851: 3848: 3847: 3845: 3841: 3838: 3834: 3824: 3821: 3819: 3816: 3815: 3813: 3809: 3806: 3804: 3800: 3796: 3789: 3784: 3782: 3777: 3775: 3770: 3769: 3766: 3760: 3759: 3754: 3753: 3749: 3743: 3737: 3733: 3732: 3726: 3722: 3717: 3716: 3712: 3706: 3702: 3698: 3694: 3690: 3686: 3681: 3678: 3672: 3668: 3664: 3659: 3656: 3652: 3648: 3644: 3640: 3636: 3632: 3628: 3624: 3620: 3615: 3612: 3608: 3604: 3600: 3596: 3592: 3588: 3584: 3579: 3575: 3574: 3569: 3565: 3561: 3558: 3554: 3550: 3546: 3542: 3538: 3534: 3530: 3525: 3522: 3516: 3512: 3511: 3505: 3502: 3498: 3494: 3490: 3486: 3482: 3477: 3474: 3468: 3464: 3463: 3457: 3454: 3448: 3444: 3440: 3435: 3432: 3426: 3422: 3421: 3416: 3412: 3409: 3403: 3399: 3398: 3392: 3389: 3383: 3380:, Routledge, 3379: 3378: 3373: 3372:Mann, Michael 3369: 3365: 3364: 3358: 3354: 3353: 3352:Panjab Castes 3348: 3344: 3341: 3335: 3331: 3327: 3322: 3319: 3315: 3311: 3307: 3303: 3299: 3295: 3291: 3286: 3283: 3277: 3273: 3272: 3266: 3263: 3259: 3255: 3251: 3247: 3243: 3238: 3235: 3229: 3225: 3224: 3219: 3215: 3212: 3208: 3204: 3200: 3196: 3192: 3188: 3184: 3179: 3175: 3171: 3167: 3164: 3160: 3156: 3152: 3147: 3133: 3129: 3127:1-900-79502-7 3123: 3116: 3115: 3109: 3106: 3100: 3096: 3095: 3089: 3086: 3082: 3078: 3074: 3070: 3066: 3062: 3058: 3057:Baines, J. A. 3054: 3051: 3047: 3043: 3039: 3034: 3031: 3027: 3023: 3019: 3015: 3011: 3007: 3003: 2999: 2995: 2990: 2989: 2984: 2978: 2973: 2970: 2965: 2959: 2955: 2954: 2946: 2943: 2939: 2934: 2931: 2919: 2915: 2911: 2905: 2902: 2890: 2886: 2882: 2876: 2873: 2860: 2856: 2855: 2847: 2844: 2832: 2828: 2824: 2818: 2815: 2803: 2799: 2795: 2789: 2786: 2774: 2770: 2766: 2760: 2757: 2744: 2740: 2739: 2738:British India 2731: 2728: 2716: 2712: 2708: 2702: 2699: 2687: 2683: 2679: 2673: 2670: 2658: 2654: 2650: 2644: 2641: 2636: 2630: 2627: 2624: 2623:Jassal (2001) 2619: 2616: 2613: 2608: 2605: 2602: 2601:Conlon (1974) 2597: 2594: 2590: 2585: 2582: 2578: 2573: 2570: 2567: 2562: 2559: 2555: 2550: 2547: 2544: 2539: 2536: 2533:, p. 227 2532: 2527: 2524: 2521:, p. 278 2520: 2519:Risley (1915) 2515: 2512: 2509:, p. 119 2508: 2503: 2500: 2496: 2491: 2488: 2484: 2479: 2476: 2473: 2468: 2465: 2462: 2457: 2454: 2451:, p. 183 2450: 2445: 2443: 2439: 2436: 2431: 2428: 2425: 2424:Baines (1900) 2420: 2418: 2416: 2414: 2410: 2407: 2402: 2400: 2398: 2396: 2394: 2392: 2390: 2388: 2386: 2384: 2382: 2380: 2376: 2373: 2372:Alborn (1999) 2368: 2366: 2364: 2362: 2360: 2358: 2356: 2354: 2352: 2348: 2344: 2339: 2336: 2332: 2327: 2324: 2321:, p. 111 2320: 2319:Vemuri (1997) 2315: 2313: 2309: 2306: 2305:Bhagat (2006) 2301: 2299: 2297: 2295: 2293: 2291: 2289: 2287: 2285: 2283: 2281: 2279: 2277: 2275: 2273: 2269: 2266:, p. 209 2265: 2260: 2257: 2254:, p. 191 2253: 2248: 2245: 2242: 2237: 2235: 2233: 2231: 2229: 2227: 2223: 2219: 2214: 2211: 2208: 2203: 2201: 2199: 2197: 2195: 2191: 2188:, p. 169 2187: 2182: 2179: 2173: 2165: 2161: 2155: 2152: 2142: 2138: 2132: 2129: 2125: 2119: 2116: 2111: 2106: 2102: 2096: 2093: 2087: 2084: 2077: 2074: 2070: 2066: 2062: 2049: 2046: 2042: 2036: 2033: 2029: 2023: 2020: 2016: 2012: 2005: 2001: 1997: 1993: 1986: 1982: 1978: 1971: 1967: 1963: 1956: 1952: 1948: 1941: 1937: 1933: 1926: 1922: 1918: 1914: 1908: 1905: 1901: 1900: 1893: 1890: 1886: 1880: 1877: 1871: 1868: 1864: 1858: 1855: 1848: 1845: 1838: 1835: 1831: 1827: 1823: 1818: 1815: 1808: 1804: 1801: 1800: 1796: 1785: 1780: 1778: 1775: 1771: 1767: 1763: 1758: 1756: 1752: 1745: 1741: 1739: 1734: 1733: 1728: 1726: 1717: 1714: 1709: 1706: 1702: 1698: 1692: 1690: 1684: 1681: 1673:Recording age 1672: 1665: 1658: 1655: 1648: 1645: 1638: 1635: 1628: 1625: 1618: 1615: 1608: 1605: 1598: 1595: 1588: 1585: 1578: 1575: 1568: 1565: 1561: 1557: 1550: 1547: 1540: 1537: 1530: 1527: 1520: 1517: 1510: 1507: 1500: 1497: 1490: 1487: 1480: 1477: 1470: 1467: 1460: 1457: 1453: 1449: 1442: 1439: 1432: 1429: 1422: 1419: 1412: 1409: 1402: 1399: 1392: 1389: 1382: 1379: 1372: 1369: 1362: 1359: 1352: 1349: 1345: 1341: 1334: 1331: 1324: 1321: 1314: 1311: 1304: 1301: 1294: 1291: 1284: 1281: 1274: 1271: 1264: 1261: 1254: 1251: 1244: 1241: 1237: 1233: 1226: 1223: 1216: 1213: 1206: 1203: 1196: 1193: 1186: 1183: 1176: 1173: 1166: 1163: 1156: 1153: 1146: 1143: 1136: 1133: 1129: 1125: 1118: 1115: 1108: 1105: 1098: 1095: 1088: 1085: 1078: 1075: 1068: 1065: 1058: 1055: 1048: 1045: 1038: 1035: 1028: 1025: 1021: 1017: 1010: 1007: 1000: 997: 990: 987: 980: 977: 970: 967: 960: 957: 950: 947: 940: 937: 930: 927: 920: 917: 913: 909: 902: 899: 896: 893: 890: 887: 880: 877: 870: 867: 860: 857: 850: 847: 840: 837: 830: 827: 820: 817: 813: 807: 802: 797: 792: 787: 782: 777: 772: 767: 762: 757: 752: 747: 742: 737: 732: 727: 722: 717: 712: 711: 701: 697: 692: 686: 682: 676: 672: 666: 662: 656: 652: 646: 642: 636: 632: 626: 622: 615: 608: 603: 600: 596: 592: 588: 584: 580: 573: 568: 562: 551: 549: 543: 541: 535: 533: 527: 525: 519: 517: 511: 509: 503: 501: 495: 493: 487: 485: 479: 478: 432: 430: 425: 422: 420: 415: 412: 406: 404: 400: 394: 392: 388: 383: 379: 375: 371: 367: 363: 359: 355: 354:anthropometry 350: 348: 344: 340: 333: 328: 326: 322: 318: 314: 309: 307: 303: 299: 294: 290: 284: 280: 278: 274: 270: 260: 253: 251: 249: 245: 242: 238: 234: 230: 226: 219: 214: 212: 208: 204: 198: 194: 191: 187: 182: 177: 174: 166: 161: 154: 152: 149: 144: 142: 138: 134: 133:British India 130: 128: 123: 119: 115: 110: 108: 107:British Crown 104: 100: 96: 92: 91:Muhnot Nainsi 88: 84: 80: 75: 73: 65: 63: 60: 55: 50: 46: 42: 34: 30: 19: 3925: 3757: 3730: 3720: 3688: 3684: 3666: 3622: 3618: 3586: 3582: 3572: 3532: 3528: 3509: 3484: 3480: 3461: 3442: 3419: 3396: 3376: 3362: 3351: 3329: 3293: 3289: 3270: 3248:(1): 13–34, 3245: 3241: 3222: 3186: 3182: 3173: 3154: 3150: 3139:, retrieved 3132:the original 3113: 3093: 3071:(1): 41–71, 3068: 3064: 3041: 3037: 3000:(1): 6I–89, 2997: 2993: 2985:Bibliography 2972: 2952: 2945: 2940:, p. 61 2938:Mitra (1997) 2933: 2921:. Retrieved 2904: 2892:. Retrieved 2875: 2863:. Retrieved 2853: 2846: 2834:. Retrieved 2817: 2805:. Retrieved 2788: 2776:. Retrieved 2759: 2747:. Retrieved 2737: 2730: 2718:. Retrieved 2701: 2689:. Retrieved 2672: 2660:. Retrieved 2643: 2629: 2618: 2612:Reddy (2005) 2607: 2596: 2591:, p. 51 2584: 2572: 2561: 2554:Gupta (2004) 2549: 2538: 2531:Dirks (2001) 2526: 2514: 2502: 2490: 2478: 2467: 2456: 2430: 2345:, p. 16 2343:Mitra (1997) 2338: 2331:Rajan (1997) 2326: 2259: 2247: 2241:Bates (1995) 2213: 2181: 2154: 2131: 2118: 2095: 2086: 2076: 2048: 2035: 2028:Anglo-Indian 2022: 1907: 1897: 1892: 1879: 1870: 1857: 1847: 1837: 1825: 1817: 1795:India portal 1759: 1747: 1743: 1730: 1729: 1721: 1711: 1693: 1685: 1676: 1666:386,666,623 1558:350,529,557 1450:316,128,721 1342:313,547,840 1234:294,361,056 1126:287,223,431 1018:253,891,821 910:190,563,048 661:Christianity 605: 591:Holy Trinity 575: 570: 566: 532:Christianity 426: 423: 416: 407: 402: 395: 351: 335: 330: 310: 286: 282: 265: 244:H. H. Risley 221: 216: 200: 196: 178: 172: 170: 145: 131: 127:World War II 111: 103:Company Rule 76: 69: 54:Michael Mann 49:independence 40: 39: 29: 3141:15 February 2589:Basu (2009) 2577:Basu (2009) 2566:Robb (1997) 2497:, p. 6 2485:, p. v 2472:Guha (2003) 2461:Cohn (1987) 2435:Yang (1987) 2333:, p. 1 2186:Mann (2015) 2041:Nat Worship 1925:Kumbhipatia 1921:Kabirpanthi 1705:Amartya Sen 1566:255,280,369 1458:239,613,929 1350:216,734,586 1242:217,586,892 1134:207,147,026 1026:207,731,727 918:188,685,913 818:139,248,568 382:Vishwakarma 122:British Raj 59:British Raj 3946:Categories 3723:. Manohar. 2174:References 2056:responses. 1636:25,441,489 1576:92,058,096 1478:12,786,806 1468:77,677,545 1370:11,571,268 1360:68,735,233 1312:10,295,168 1262:10,721,453 1252:66,647,299 1144:62,458,077 1036:57,321,164 928:50,121,585 828:40,882,537 325:E. A. Gait 218:ourselves. 3972:Ethnology 3926:See also: 3611:145299102 3566:(1915) , 3557:144905106 3349:(1916) , 3318:145529059 3211:161174511 2101:actuaries 2061:Confucian 2015:Ad-Dharmi 2004:Ad-Dharmi 1992:Brahmanic 1977:Brahmanic 1962:Brahmanic 1947:Brahmanic 1932:Brahmanic 1701:influenza 1646:1,449,286 1606:6,316,549 1596:5,691,447 1538:1,252,105 1528:8,280,347 1498:6,296,763 1488:4,335,771 1430:1,178,596 1420:9,774,611 1390:4,754,064 1380:3,238,803 1322:1,248,182 1282:3,876,203 1272:3,014,466 1214:1,334,148 1204:8,584,148 1174:2,923,241 1164:2,195,339 1154:9,476,759 1106:1,416,638 1096:9,280,467 1066:2,284,380 1056:1,907,833 1046:7,131,361 998:1,221,896 988:6,570,092 958:1,862,634 948:1,853,426 938:3,418,884 900:5,450,896 848:1,174,436 838:2,832,851 602:Shirras, 374:Namasudra 362:Indogists 315:although 137:Partition 87:Abul Fazl 47:prior to 3818:Overview 3758:Volume I 3655:28729901 3501:18646375 3417:(1997), 3374:(2015), 3220:(2001), 3163:29789312 3059:(1900), 3022:21991619 2859:Archived 2743:Archived 2160:endogamy 2113:records. 2081:service. 1842:country. 1781:See also 1718:Outcomes 641:Buddhism 621:Hinduism 508:Buddhism 484:Hinduism 411:Sanskrit 370:Chandala 343:Patidars 83:Kautilya 3705:3788109 3627:Bibcode 3570:(ed.), 3549:4150981 3493:2696671 3310:3879485 3262:1403563 3203:2052936 3085:2979722 3050:2339124 3030:2739080 2141:Kashmir 1917:Satnami 1697:cholera 1616:114,890 1586:232,003 1548:152,398 1508:109,752 1400:101,778 1292:100,096 1224:129,900 858:896,658 705:Others 696:Jainism 681:Judaism 651:Sikhism 599:Gujarat 548:Judaism 524:Jainism 516:Sikhism 366:Western 293:Rajputs 3738: 3703: 3673: 3653: 3647:209312 3645: 3609: 3603:313030 3601: 3555: 3547: 3517: 3499: 3491: 3469: 3449: 3427: 3404: 3384: 3336: 3316: 3308: 3278: 3260: 3230: 3209: 3201: 3161: 3124: 3101: 3083: 3048: 3028: 3020: 3014:206986 3012: 2960: 2923:20 May 2916: 2894:20 May 2887: 2836:20 May 2829: 2807:20 May 2800: 2778:20 May 2771: 2720:20 May 2713: 2691:20 May 2684: 2662:20 May 2655: 2137:Baroda 2069:Taoist 2067:, and 2000:Brahmo 1985:Brahmo 1970:Brahmo 1955:Brahmo 1940:Brahmo 1913:Brahmo 1738:Orissa 1680:zodiac 1656:60,014 1626:22,480 1581:23.81% 1571:66.02% 1518:24,141 1473:22.16% 1463:68.36% 1440:18,004 1410:21,778 1365:21.74% 1355:68.56% 1332:37,101 1302:20,980 1257:21.26% 1194:18,228 1184:94,190 1149:21.22% 1139:70.37% 1116:42,763 1086:17,194 1076:89,904 1041:19.96% 1031:72.32% 1008:59,985 983:0.005% 978:12,009 968:85,397 933:19.74% 923:74.32% 883:0.004% 868:69,476 833:21.45% 823:73.07% 691:Tribal 595:Kunbis 593:, and 587:Bombay 555:Others 553: 545: 537: 529: 521: 513: 505: 497: 489: 481: 313:Hindus 165:lepers 93:. The 3701:JSTOR 3651:S2CID 3643:JSTOR 3607:S2CID 3599:JSTOR 3553:S2CID 3545:JSTOR 3489:JSTOR 3314:S2CID 3306:JSTOR 3258:JSTOR 3207:S2CID 3199:JSTOR 3159:JSTOR 3151:Genus 3135:(PDF) 3118:(PDF) 3081:JSTOR 3046:JSTOR 3026:S2CID 3010:JSTOR 2914:JSTOR 2885:JSTOR 2865:8 May 2827:JSTOR 2798:JSTOR 2769:JSTOR 2749:8 May 2711:JSTOR 2682:JSTOR 2653:JSTOR 2164:melas 1809:Notes 1755:Reddy 1751:Kamma 1661:0.02% 1651:0.37% 1641:6.58% 1631:0.01% 1621:0.03% 1611:1.63% 1601:1.47% 1591:0.06% 1563:1941 1553:0.04% 1543:0.36% 1533:2.36% 1523:0.01% 1513:0.03% 1493:1.24% 1483:3.65% 1455:1931 1445:0.01% 1435:0.37% 1425:3.09% 1415:0.01% 1405:0.03% 1385:1.02% 1375:3.66% 1347:1921 1337:0.01% 1317:3.28% 1307:0.01% 1297:0.03% 1287:1.24% 1277:0.96% 1267:3.42% 1247:69.4% 1239:1911 1229:0.04% 1219:0.45% 1209:2.92% 1199:0.01% 1189:0.03% 1179:0.99% 1169:0.75% 1159:3.22% 1131:1901 1121:0.01% 1111:0.49% 1101:3.23% 1091:0.01% 1081:0.03% 1061:0.66% 1051:2.48% 1023:1891 1013:0.02% 1003:0.48% 993:2.59% 973:0.03% 963:0.73% 953:0.73% 943:1.35% 915:1881 905:2.86% 878:7,626 873:0.04% 863:0.47% 853:0.62% 843:1.49% 815:1872 631:Islam 617:Year 583:Kolis 492:Islam 429:Hindu 378:Yadav 332:ago". 317:Jains 298:varna 254:Caste 237:caste 3885:2024 3880:2011 3875:2001 3870:1991 3865:1981 3860:1971 3855:1961 3850:1951 3823:1891 3736:ISBN 3671:ISBN 3515:ISBN 3497:PMID 3467:ISBN 3447:ISBN 3425:ISBN 3402:ISBN 3382:ISBN 3334:ISBN 3276:ISBN 3228:ISBN 3143:2015 3122:ISBN 3099:ISBN 3018:PMID 2958:ISBN 2925:2024 2896:2024 2867:2023 2838:2024 2809:2024 2780:2024 2751:2023 2722:2024 2693:2024 2664:2024 2139:and 1996:Arya 1981:Arya 1966:Arya 1951:Arya 1936:Arya 1753:and 1699:and 1503:1.8% 1395:1.5% 1327:0.4% 1071:0.8% 804:pop. 794:pop. 784:pop. 774:pop. 764:pop. 754:pop. 744:pop. 734:pop. 724:pop. 714:pop. 579:Sikh 473:1941 470:1931 467:1921 464:1911 461:1901 458:1891 455:1881 452:1872 391:Yadu 380:and 356:and 291:and 289:Jats 148:Bhil 89:and 3693:doi 3635:doi 3591:doi 3537:doi 3298:doi 3250:doi 3191:doi 3073:doi 3002:doi 2122:In 607:be. 597:in 585:in 447:400 444:300 441:200 438:100 401:'s 3948:: 3931:, 3699:, 3689:20 3687:, 3649:, 3641:, 3633:, 3623:25 3621:, 3605:, 3597:, 3587:31 3585:, 3551:, 3543:, 3533:78 3531:, 3495:, 3485:43 3483:, 3328:, 3312:, 3304:, 3294:45 3292:, 3256:, 3246:67 3244:, 3205:, 3197:, 3187:33 3185:, 3155:62 3153:, 3079:, 3069:63 3067:, 3063:, 3042:39 3040:, 3024:, 3016:, 3008:, 2998:30 2996:, 2441:^ 2412:^ 2378:^ 2350:^ 2311:^ 2271:^ 2225:^ 2193:^ 2063:, 1691:. 897:— 891:— 431:. 205:. 109:. 85:, 3787:e 3780:t 3773:v 3744:. 3695:: 3637:: 3629:: 3593:: 3539:: 3300:: 3252:: 3193:: 3075:: 3004:: 2966:. 2927:. 2898:. 2869:. 2840:. 2811:. 2782:. 2753:. 2724:. 2695:. 2666:. 2143:. 894:— 888:— 809:% 799:% 789:% 779:% 769:% 759:% 749:% 739:% 729:% 719:% 20:)

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Index