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1435:, the Central Political School of the CCP began to carry out the Rectification Campaign among its students. Massive numbers of party members were forced to write reports of confession and self-criticism. The Central General Study Committee ordered people to report on their daily habits and speech. This stage was known as the "Salvation Stage". The Salvation Stage was the extension of the Maoist anti-Trotskyist movement and the censorship of newcomers who had come from the areas governed by the Kuomintang. The Central Social Department took control of the movement and turned it into a mass persecution in 1943.
931:"notions of freedom, democracy, and individual liberation among Party intellectuals", establishing the concept of "the leader and the collective above all, and the individual as negligible." Mao first "drew on the support of the liberal intellectuals in the Party to encircle and suppress the Soviet faction", then reinstated the Soviet faction and used them to "to join with in suppressing the remnants (the liberal intellectuals) of the 'May Fourth' influence in the Party."
1367:, and later included Liu Shaoqi. This Committee temporarily replaced the politburo and secretariat, running daily operation for the CCP and making it one of the most powerful administrative bodies at that time. The Committee gave Mao the ability to exercise authoritarian power without being limited by elections and term limits. The earlier collective decision-making system of CCP center was abandoned, and Mao turned the government of Yan'an into his own dictatorship.
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government and doubting its resolve in resisting the
Japanese, many new CCP volunteers were drawn by communist propaganda that portrayed the CCP as "the saviors of the nation", promising democracy and liberal reforms. As a result, hundreds of thousands of students, teachers, artists, writers, and journalists poured into Yan'an, seeking a revolutionary career. In Marxist classification these new recruits were of
1052:, the Academy of Marxism-Leninism, the Women's University, Yan'an University, and the Academy of the Nationality, as well as a number of special training programs. All veterans and new recruits had to be enrolled and educated in one of these institutions, in accordance with their previous training or their expertise, before they could be trusted with assignment to party and government positions.
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under "extraordinary pressure" to examine fully his or her most deeply held views, and to do so in the presence of the group. The individual then had to write a full "self-confession." Other group members isolated the individual during this process. Only when the confession was accepted would the person be drawn back into an accepted position in the group and in the larger society.
1010:, and was at best supplemented by the intellectuals who trekked out to Yan'an to join the Party during the war against Japan. The Yan'an Rectification Campaign was also directed towards the indoctrination of older CCP personnel. "The Party chose to re-emphasize its basic principles during this period, in an evident determination to maintain its
1390:. In the Rescue Campaign, members would write about their own confessions, often pointing fingers at other members to save themselves from other people's false allegations toward them. The Rescue Campaign soon became a circular cycle of false guilt and fake reenactments sending many innocent people to death via needless witch hunts.
1348:, and any other senior leaders who supported Wang Ming. Mao forced these leaders to criticize each other and self-criticize in rounds of meetings. Every one of them wrote reports of confession and apologies for their mistakes. Those who had produced self-criticisms were later persecuted according to their own confessions.
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These techniques of pressure, ostracism, and reintegration were particularly powerful in China, where the culture puts great value on "saving face", protecting one's innermost thinking, and above all, identifying with a group. Individuals put through thought reform later described it as excruciating.
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The Yan'an era had a profound effect on the CCP and its future fortunes. When the
Communists completed the Long March, the CCP was a relatively small band of less than 10,000 worn out troops from the south, displaced to an isolated and poor area in the hinterlands of northern China. By the end of the
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and the importance of Mao's alleged 'adaptation of communism to the conditions of China'. The
Rectification Campaign was successful in either convincing or coercing the other leaders of the CCP to support Mao. Because the CCP had overcome great odds to grow and develop during this period, the methods
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During this preparatory phase, Mao used his political skills to consolidate his power base. By manipulating the political climate in Yan'an, Mao was able to break up the alliance of his opponents, most notably Zhang Guotao and the members of the 28 Bolsheviks, and to eliminate his rivals one by one.
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The process of indoctrination extended even to the cadres who had survived the Long March and "proven their revolutionary credibility." All Party members were reeducated with the newly established "Mao Zedong
Thought" in order to ensure their high compliance with the new leadership and the new party
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Thousands of people, especially those new members who came from areas governed by KMT, were purged, kept in custody, censored, mentally and physically tortured, and occasionally executed. Many of them were labeled as "spies of the
Kuomintang" or "anti party activists". Not only were they themselves
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The Yan'an rectification saw Mao consolidate his position of preeminence in the CCP. To do this he undertook a "thought-reform campaign" from 1942 to 1944. The effort was partly a reflection of Mao's wish to eradicate Soviet influence. Under the conditions of independently operating
Communist areas
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The third phase of the
Rectification Campaign lasted from October 1943 to 1944 or April 1945, depending on sources. It is generally known as the "Summing up party history" phase. Senior leaders restudied party history and attempted to reach agreements on major issues by admitting to "errors". The
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Under the guidance of a group leader, an individual, as part of a larger "study group", would study
Marxist documents to understand "key principles," and then relate those principles to their own lives in a "critical, concrete, and thoroughgoing way". Other members of the group put the individual
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The mostly young volunteers who arrived in Yan'an after the Long March were "vital to Mao because they were relatively well educated, and he needed competent administrators to staff his future regime." Most of the Long
Marchers and rural recruits from within the Communist bases were illiterate
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The Yan'an
Rectification Campaign improved the discipline, education, and organization of the membership of the CCP. Having lost many veterans before and during the Long March, the CCP found new sources of recruits among urban youth, students, and intellectuals. Alienated from the Nationalist
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From February 1942 to October 1943, the Rectification Campaign reached its peak. Mao gave the lecture "Improving the Party Work Style and Thought" in the opening ceremony at the Central Party School. The lecture "Against Party Stereotype-Writing" in the cadre party of Yan'an in February 1942
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A large number of the young volunteers congregated in Yan'an, the capital of Mao's Communist Party. By the time Mao Zedong started his drive to "condition" them, around 40,000 had arrived. Most were in their late teens and early twenties, had joined the CCP in territories controlled by the
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During the Yan'an Rectification Campaign, more sophisticated techniques of thought control were used than had been previously attempted in China. Relying on criticism, self-criticism, "struggle", confession, and the content of the Marxist doctrine, these methods were heavily influenced by
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Nationalists, and later departed to Yan'an. They were excited at reaching what was called a "revolutionary Mecca." One young volunteer described his feeling: "At last we saw the heights of Yenan City. We were so excited we wept. We cheered from our truck... We started to sing the "
919:, have focused on the political nature of the Rectification Movement. Modern scholars have increasingly viewed the movement as being initiated by Mao in order to ensure his status as paramount leader of the CCP. According to Gao, the Rectification Movement had four purposes:
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To end the veneration of "Party intellectuals who had studied in the Soviet Union and those who had been educated abroad or through "standard" education within China", ultimately forming the new fashion: "Being well-read was wrong-headed, and ignorance of the classics was
1420:, a journalist and intellectual known for his belief in "democracy and science." Wang wrote an essay denouncing the hierarchy, bureaucracy, and inegalitarian distribution of resources in Yan'an. The essay irritated Mao greatly, and Wang was labeled a
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in 1949, Mao repeatedly used some of the tactics that had been successful in Yan'an whenever he felt the need to monopolize political power. To a large extent, the Yan'an Rectification Campaign began with the "systematic remolding of human minds."
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To build up Party ideology and organization by using "the Communist Party's theory of inner-Party struggle", employing "ideological persuasion and coercion to forge an ideal Communist 'New Man' who combined loyalty and obedience with a fighting
1303:(1928), the 28 Bolsheviks began to take control of the CCP with the help of the Comintern. To gain the support of those who might potentially oppose him, Mao labeled his rivals as comrades who were supporting the wrong cause. This rejection of
1055:
At the end of the Yan'an Rectification Campaign the CCP had developed an operational set of principles and practices that differed greatly from the centralized, functionally specialized, hierarchical, command-oriented approach imposed by
1035:
and incessant warfare, Mao could not rely on discipline alone to guarantee obedience in the CCP ranks. In order to ensure the Party's obedience to his orders, Mao developed the techniques of the Rectification Campaign to implement ææłæčé
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with his speech "Reform in Learning, the Party and Literature." A book entitled "Documents of the Rectification Campaign" was published and circulated internally. This book included essays including Mao's "Combat Liberalism" and
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The CCP established numerous schools, formulating a new type of educational system. Among these schools were the Anti-Japanese Military and Political University, the Lu Xun Academy of the Arts, the Northwest Public School, the
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principles of party organization to the thousands of new members who had joined the CCP during its expansion after 1937. A second, equally important aspect of the movement was the elimination of the blind imitation of
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The resulting changes in views were not permanent, but the experience overall seriously affected the lives of those who went through it. The CCP used these same types of techniques on millions of Chinese after 1949.
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Why must there be a revolutionary party? There must be a revolutionary party because our enemies still exist, and furthermore there must not be only an ordinary revolutionary party but a Communist revolutionary
991:, the Long March. With only a few original members of the CCP surviving until the end of the Yan'an period, the Party as of the mid-1940s consisted of 90% peasants recruited from the base areas of north China.
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and unable to intervene, Mao seized the opportunity in Yan'an to "go to work" on his Party and "mold it into an unquestioning machine" in preparation for the all-out civil war against the Nationalists under
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In July and August 1942 the CCP issued the decision for "Research and Analysis" and "Improvement of Party Membership." The leading team for the campaign was established with Mao as director and
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1263:. Before the Rectification Campaign Mao's contribution to the revolution in rural areas, and even his status as a senior leader, was doubted by other members of the CCP, including
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origin. Their enthusiasm and various sorts of expertise were useful for the revolution, but only after they had undergone a thorough political reeducation and ideological reform.
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Some CCP members thought Mao would also accept genuine criticism and spoke their true feelings of anger over hierarchy and inequality in Yan'an. The most famous came from
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One group was labeled "dogmatists," comprising Wang Ming, the 28 Bolsheviks, and those who had studied abroad and were deeply influenced by foreign theories, including
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interpreted the aim and policy of the movement in full detail â the event included thousands of cadres from the party. In this lecture, Mao Zedong declared:
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estimated that more than 10,000 were killed in the "rectification" process, as the CCP made efforts to attack intellectuals and replace the culture of the
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arguments made him appear politically and mentally superior to his political enemies. Mao categorized his rivals, or potential rivals, into two groups.
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These became deeply held values of the CCP, and years later became central to the party's mythology that reminisced about the success of the Yan'an era.
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in the Soviet Union. In what some authors have labeled the "Yan'an complex," the CCP emphasized a combination of qualities that can be summed up as:
892:(1934â1935). The area was known as a territory of camaraderie without corruption, though the Rectification Movement essentially changed everything.
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deputy director. In 1942 the CCP had 800,000 members, of which only a small group of approximately 150 members usually made all major decisions.
1039:"thought reform" or "ideological transformation". Mao's tactics often included isolating and attacking dissenting individuals in "study groups."
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The legacies of the Yan'an Rectification Movement proved fundamental to the subsequent history of the Chinese Communist Party, according to
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The preparatory phase of the Rectification Campaign lasted from May 1941 to February 1942. The Campaign began on February 1, 1942, under
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Mao set up the Central General Study Committee to be in charge of the movement. This committee was run by Mao's close allies
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Modern research by Chinese and Western scholars, in particular the interpretation of history professor Gao Hua in his work "
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ideology. In order to secure his power, Mao supported his political authority with ethical and moral rhetoric.
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Lifton, Robert J. (November 1956). "Thought Reform of Chinese Intellectuals: A Psychiatric Evaluation".
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Yan'an era, however, the CCP's forces had grown to nearly 2.8 million members, and it governed nineteen
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1868:"Yenan Rectification Movement: Mao Tse-Tung's Big Push Toward Charismatic Leadership During 1941â1942"
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foundations in the midst of all the changes brought about by the war-time shift to the united front."
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employed in Yan'an were looked upon in reverence during Mao's later years. After the founding of the
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How the Red Sun Rose: The Origins and Development of the Yan'an Rectification Movement, 1930â1945
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One of the members crucial to carrying out the Rectification Movement was the secret police boss
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How the Red Sun Rose: The Origins and Development of the Yan'an Rectification Movement, 1930â1945
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How the Red Sun Rose: The Origin and Development of the Yan'an Rectification Movement, 1930â1945
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The Rectification Campaign was officially launched in 1942. Since the 4th Plenum Meeting of
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Throughout the Rectification Campaign, Yan'an was not seriously threatened by either the
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To theorize the concept of "peasants as the principal force of the Chinese Revolution"
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with that of the CCP. The rectification movement is regarded by many as the origin of
831:'s paramount role within the CCP, especially from 1942 to 1944, and the adoption of a
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1424:. Wang was arrested by the Central Social Department, modeled off the Soviet Union's
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Party membership was strongly shaped by the devastation of the final battles for the
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peasants. It was these more recent volunteers who were Mao's primary "target".
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that was expected to follow the defeat of the Japanese. (This is according to
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Foreign Broadcast Information Service. No ISBN. Text digitised March 5, 2007.
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models, obedience to Soviet directives (mostly communicated to China via the
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1943 portion of the campaign included a "Rescue Campaign" that focused on
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stress on developing and maintaining close ties with the local population;
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a strong preference for officials whose leadership spans a range of areas;
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The Party's leadership, however, reflected the CCP's origins south of the
17:
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Chinese-Soviet Relations, 1937â1945: The Diplomacy of Chinese Nationalism
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Creating the "New Man": From Enlightenment Ideals to Socialist Realities
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1321:
1147: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
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1324:. The other group was labeled "empiricists", whose members included
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as guiding ideologies. This move formalised Mao's deviation from the
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30:"Cheng Feng" redirects here. For the women's basketball player, see
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Brandt, Conrad; Schwartz, Benjamin I.; Fairbank, John King (1952).
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that contained a population of nearly one hundred million people.
36:
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1243:
Although Mao took charge of the leadership of the CCP after the
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had not experienced the same turmoil and hostilities as other
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decentralized rule with flexibility allowed to local leaders;
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China Report: Political, Sociological and Military Affairs.
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Mao and Markets: The Communist Roots of Chinese Enterprise
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focus on egalitarianism and simple living among officials.
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humiliated, but also their family members and relatives.
1251:, he was still one among many senior leaders, including
804:(CCP) from 1942 to 1945. The movement took place in the
1740:
Pacific Century: The Emergence of Modern Pacific Asia
1704:
Fairbank, John K.; Feuerwerker, Albert, eds. (1986).
1101:contemporary Soviet practices of "thought reform".
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the importance of ideology in keeping cadres loyal;
858:United States Joint Publications Research Service
1454:List of campaigns of the Chinese Communist Party
1090:Thought reform in the People's Republic of China
27:1942â45 Chinese Communist Party political effort
1690:US Joint Publication Research Service. (1979).
1660:Governing China: From Revolution Through Reform
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1936:
1934:
1932:
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2295:. The Chinese University of Hong Kong Press.
1544:. The Chinese University of Hong Kong Press.
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1538:Hua, Gao; Mosher, Stacy; Jian, Guo (2018).
1464:1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre
2034:A Documentary History of Chinese Communism
1708:(1 ed.). Cambridge University Press.
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1883:
1812:(1995). "Yan'an Communism Reconsidered".
1778:Revolutionary Discourse in Mao's Republic
1775:Apter, David Ernest; Saich, Tony (1994).
1207:Learn how and when to remove this message
2323:Campaigns of the Chinese Communist Party
1974:
1972:
1970:
1968:
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1271:, and intellectuals such as Zhou Enlai,
740:Manchuria and Inner Mongolia (1931â1936)
681:Manchuria, Korea, and Taiwan (1894â1895)
41:Group photo of some participants of the
2233:Student Nationalism in China, 1924â1949
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1287:as one of the CCP's preferred leaders.
1096:Ideology of the Chinese Communist Party
827:. These included the consolidation of
2338:Persecution of intellectuals in China
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1944:Wild Swans: Three Daughters of China
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1145:adding citations to reliable sources
1003:", and Russia's Motherland March.'"
1885:10.1111/j.1746-1049.1971.tb00463.x
1449:Yan'an Forum on Literature and Art
876:In the 1930s the remote region of
43:Yan'an Forum on Literature and Art
25:
2266:Yan'an Rectification Movement
1233:'s "How to be a Good Communist."
1301:6th National Congress of the CCP
1283:, Mao was not recognized by the
1121:
983:Remolding of the volunteer corps
866:Mao Zedong's cult of personality
721:German Pacific possesions (1914)
2014:from the original on 2015-09-24
1914:from the original on 2020-07-14
1156:"Yan'an Rectification Movement"
1132:needs additional citations for
812:centered on the remote city of
696:Manchuria and Korea (1904â1905)
2000:Hamish McDonald (2005-10-08).
1706:The Cambridge History of China
792:
783:
775:
96:1931â1937 (pre-war skirmishes)
1:
2042:10.4159/harvard.9780674734050
2002:"A Swan's Little Book of Ire"
816:. Although it was during the
768:Yan'an Rectification Movement
2280:Resources in other libraries
2068:The Journal of Asian Studies
2036:. Harvard University Press.
1657:Lieberthal, Kenneth (2004).
1413:became a well known victim.
1598:University of Hawai'i Press
1409:also made self criticisms.
524:North Burma and West Yunnan
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1826:10.1177/009770049502100102
1093:
1087:
850:People's Republic of China
645:Military campaigns of the
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2275:Resources in your library
2120:Lieberthal (2003), p. 47.
2007:The Sydney Morning Herald
1866:Tokuda, Noriyuki (1971).
1714:10.1017/chol9780521243384
1628:Lieberthal (2003), p. 46.
1500:from its transliteration.
884:territories. Situated in
686:Liaodong Peninsula (1895)
656:
146:Pacification of Manchukuo
92:
2201:Garver, John W. (1988).
2133:; Qiao, Kunyuan (2022).
1872:The Developing Economies
1783:Harvard University Press
1737:Borthwick, Mark (1998).
1592:Cheng, Yinghong (2009).
1474:Hundred Flowers Campaign
1431:Under the leadership of
1428:, and beheaded in 1947.
818:Second Sino-Japanese War
793:YĂĄn'Än ZhÄngfÄng YĂčndĂČng
755:Asia-Pacific (1941â1945)
83:Second Sino-Japanese War
2207:Oxford University Press
1285:Communist International
910:Communist International
810:revolutionary base area
802:Chinese Communist Party
750:French Indochina (1940)
32:Cheng Feng (basketball)
1378:
1043:Operational principles
577:West HenanâNorth Hubei
46:
2139:Yale University Press
1094:Further information:
40:
2230:Li, Lincoln (1994).
2147:10.2307/j.ctv3006z6k
2131:Marquis, Christopher
1941:Chang, Jung (2008).
1908:Modern China Studies
1141:improve this article
1050:Central Party School
1550:10.2307/j.ctvbtzp48
1459:Cultural Revolution
1279:. Unlike his rival
950:. With the Soviets
862:May Fourth Movement
780:traditional Chinese
726:Siberia (1918â1922)
504:Sichuan (cancelled)
2318:Massacres in China
2289:Gao, Hua. (2000).
1949:Simon and Schuster
1667:. pp. 45â48.
1600:. pp. 59â70.
1492:Also known as the
1469:Canidrome massacre
841:Mao Zedong Thought
833:party constitution
825:Kenneth Lieberthal
796:) was a political
772:simplified Chinese
294:Yellow River flood
208:Railway Operation
47:
2261:Library resources
2243:978-0-7914-1749-2
2216:978-0-19-536374-6
2156:978-0-300-26883-6
2051:978-0-674-73029-8
1958:978-1-4391-0649-5
1792:978-0-674-76780-5
1750:978-0-8133-4355-6
1723:978-1-139-05480-5
1674:978-0-393-92492-3
1607:978-0-8248-3074-8
1559:978-962-996-822-9
1388:group retribution
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845:Moscow party line
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691:China (1899â1901)
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470:Yunnan-Burma Road
408:Hundred Regiments
180:Marco Polo Bridge
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1245:Zunyi Conference
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837:Marxist-Leninism
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498:ZhejiangâJiangxi
374:Winter Offensive
271:North-East Henan
202:Sihang Warehouse
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2255:Further reading
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1020:petit bourgeois
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961:Chiang Kai-shek
886:northwest China
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745:China (1937â45)
716:Tsingtao (1914)
703:
652:
648:Empire of Japan
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339:SuixianâZaoyang
185:BeipingâTianjin
124:Nenjiang Bridge
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2236:. SUNY Press.
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1910:(in Chinese).
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1084:Thought reform
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1037:sÄ«xiÇng gÇizĂ o
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1001:Internationale
989:Jiangxi Soviet
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897:Marxist theory
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835:that endorsed
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2137:. New Haven:
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1988:0-8050-6638-1
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1905:
1904:""滶ćźæŽéŁ"äžäžȘäșșćŽæ"
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1407:Zhang Wentian
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1277:28 Bolsheviks
1274:
1270:
1266:
1265:Xiang Zhongfa
1262:
1261:Zhang Wentian
1258:
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1246:
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1239:
1238:Wang Jiaxiang
1234:
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1158: â
1157:
1153:
1152:Find sources:
1146:
1142:
1136:
1135:
1130:This section
1128:
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1110:
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1058:Joseph Stalin
1053:
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1021:
1015:
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1008:Yangtze River
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927:To purge the
926:
924:commendable."
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806:Yan'an Soviet
803:
799:
798:mass movement
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709:TaishĆ period
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676:Ryukyu (1879)
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666:Taiwan (1874)
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112:Lytton Report
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39:
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19:
2328:Maoist China
2305:
2290:
2265:
2232:
2225:
2202:
2165:j.ctv3006z6k
2134:
2125:
2075:(1): 75â88.
2072:
2066:
2060:
2033:
2027:
2016:. Retrieved
2005:
1995:
1979:
1943:
1916:. Retrieved
1907:
1875:
1871:
1817:
1814:Modern China
1813:
1810:Selden, Mark
1777:
1739:
1732:
1705:
1699:
1691:
1665:W. W. Norton
1659:
1624:
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1437:
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1415:
1392:
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1311:
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1289:
1249:Zhang Guotao
1242:
1235:
1223:
1203:
1197:January 2018
1194:
1184:
1177:
1170:
1163:
1151:
1139:Please help
1134:verification
1131:
1107:
1103:
1099:
1079:
1054:
1046:
1036:
1033:
1024:
1016:
1005:
997:
993:
986:
973:
969:Jon Halliday
956:Nazi Germany
948:Nationalists
941:
914:
894:
875:
855:
822:
791:
767:
765:
733:ShĆwa period
731:
730:
707:
706:
701:Korea (1910)
660:Meiji period
658:
581:
567:
558:4th Changsha
549:
548:
541:
522:
515:
496:
464:3rd Changsha
462:
457:2nd Changsha
455:
450:South Shanxi
448:
441:
429:
406:
405:
398:
380:West Suiyuan
372:
358:
353:1st Changsha
351:
337:
330:
299:
292:
256:
242:
231:Pingxingguan
223:
196:2nd Shanghai
194:
141:1st Shanghai
1980:Mao: A Life
1820:(1): 8â44.
1616:j.ctt6wqzq7
1568:j.ctvbtzp48
1418:Wang Shiwei
1411:Wang Shiwei
1334:Peng Dehuai
1314:Liu Bocheng
1030:Rise of Mao
800:led by the
490:Yenangyaung
431:South Henan
425:South Anhui
366:Kunlun Pass
264:Taierzhuang
2312:Categories
2173:1348572572
2018:2007-04-04
1918:2020-07-29
1902:He, Fang.
1743:. Avalon.
1508:References
1498:Cheng Feng
1422:Trotskyist
1395:Kang Sheng
1353:Kang Sheng
1326:Zhou Enlai
1306:ad hominem
1253:Zhou Enlai
1231:Liu Shaoqi
1226:Mao Zedong
1167:newspapers
977:base areas
965:Jung Chang
929:May Fourth
890:Long March
872:Background
829:Mao Zedong
583:West Hunan
535:Mount Song
517:West Hubei
437:West Hubei
312:Wenxi fire
307:Wanjialing
156:Great Wall
18:Cheng Feng
2181:253067190
2105:144589833
2089:0021-9118
1878:: 83â99.
1850:145316369
1834:0097-7004
1494:Zhengfeng
1433:Peng Zhen
1381:Phase III
1361:Peng Zhen
1357:Li Fuchun
1342:Li Weihan
1330:Ren Bishi
1281:Wang Ming
1273:Qu Qiubai
1257:Wang Ming
530:Myitkyina
510:1943â1945
393:1940â1942
288:Chongqing
174:1937â1939
119:Jiangqiao
102:Manchuria
2012:Archived
1912:Archived
1443:See also
1365:Gao Gang
1318:Zuo Quan
1295:Phase II
1275:and the
1269:Li Lisan
1012:Leninist
944:Japanese
938:spirit."
901:Leninist
882:mainland
563:Hengyang
443:Shanggao
332:Nanchang
250:Massacre
2097:2941547
1403:Jiangxi
1346:Deng Fa
1338:Chen Yi
1322:Zhu Rui
1220:Phase I
1181:scholar
946:or the
603:Taihoku
596:Air War
589:Guangxi
551:Ichi-Go
543:Changde
485:Toungoo
475:Tachiao
276:Lanfeng
244:Nanking
225:Taiyuan
166:Suiyuan
129:Jinzhou
45:, 1942.
2299:
2263:about
2240:
2213:
2179:
2171:
2163:
2153:
2103:
2095:
2087:
2048:
1986:
1955:
1848:
1842:189281
1840:
1832:
1789:
1747:
1720:
1671:
1614:
1604:
1566:
1556:
1376:party.
1363:, and
1320:, and
1183:
1176:
1169:
1162:
1154:
952:at war
906:Soviet
878:Yan'an
814:Yan'an
790::
788:pinyin
784:滶ćźæŽéąšéć
782::
776:滶ćźæŽéŁèżćš
774::
480:Oktwin
385:Wuyuan
345:Swatow
324:Hainan
319:Canton
258:Xuzhou
236:Xinkou
190:Chahar
134:Harbin
107:Mukden
2177:S2CID
2161:JSTOR
2101:S2CID
2093:JSTOR
1846:S2CID
1838:JSTOR
1612:JSTOR
1564:JSTOR
1480:Notes
1399:Bo Gu
1188:JSTOR
1174:books
954:with
301:Wuhan
2297:ISBN
2238:ISBN
2211:ISBN
2169:OCLC
2151:ISBN
2085:ISSN
2046:ISBN
1984:ISBN
1953:ISBN
1830:ISSN
1787:ISBN
1745:ISBN
1718:ISBN
1669:ISBN
1602:ISBN
1554:ISBN
1426:OGPU
1259:and
1160:news
967:and
899:and
856:The
839:and
808:, a
766:The
283:Amoy
161:Rehe
2143:doi
2077:doi
2038:doi
1880:doi
1822:doi
1710:doi
1546:doi
1496:or
1143:by
2314::
2209:.
2205:.
2189:^
2175:.
2167:.
2159:.
2149:.
2141:.
2113:^
2099:.
2091:.
2083:.
2073:16
2071:.
2044:.
2010:.
2004:.
1982:.
1967:^
1951:.
1947:.
1927:^
1906:.
1894:^
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