424:(United Nations Children's Fund) was a principle agency assisting the Government and other third party organisations in employing the DDR program throughout Sierra Leone between 1998 and 2002. UNICEF provided protection for demobilized children within their interim care centres (ICC) whilst they conducted family tracing exercises to achieve reunification. 5038 demobilized child soldiers passed through these centres before their closure. They also assisted in tracing the families of 2166 children who had not been associated with armed conflict. These interim care centres offered children access to medical care and educational activities. ICC's policies intended to limit victims stay to a maximum of six weeks. Where ex-soldiers were not able to be reunited with their families or communities, UNICEF was able to provide them with foster homes.
347:, Susan Shepler argues the concept of youth in Sierra Leone is distinct from idealized western distinctions of childhood. Specifically, given the generally poor and agrarian economy in Sierra Leone, youth labor is normalized. Many children are forced into the labor market as a condition of necessity, working for their families or for others as a means to collect income for their family. Beyond the family unit, the concept of apprenticeships, or fostering of young children by people other than their biological parents is common. Children were often hired by adults to assist them in their trade, or act as helpers: cooking, cleaning, and running errands. Political conditions also amplified the prevalence of children in the workforce as child services were underfunded and often non-existent, leaving children with a lack access to education.
556:(RUF) subjected these child soldiers to training methods which hardened them through making them immune to violence. They were taught that this type of heinous behaviour and ideological thinking was a normalised process and they were not allowed to demonstrate remorse for their actions. The RUF instilled the notion that the soldiers should never return home because of the violent atrocities they had carried out against their families and communities. This invoked severe psychological effects including: anxiety, post-traumatic stress disorder, hostility and aggression on many of the victims. However, not all ex-combatants have suffered from these medical issues; some have demonstrated resilient social and mental health functions.
574:
former female and male combatants was rife. An estimated 1000 women and girls were excluded from DDR programs and are believed to have been living with former rebel combatants. Females were commonly denied access to DDR programs because of the requirement to hand in a weapon to qualify for assistance. In a UNICEF survey, 46% of those surveyed referenced this as their reason for being excluded from assistance. Females often did not have access to weapons when they were recruited for roles involving: sexual labour, cooking and porter assistance. Negative stigma and alienation within communities was frequently experienced by girls who were victims of brutal sexual encounters including
412:
351:, or children with no family unit or apprenticeships, were a primary target for early recruitment by the RUF. Early tactics included the promise of education and provisions such as food and clothing to street children. Shepler argues that cultural acceptance of youth in the labor pool was a catalyst for children's recruitment into the RUF. Children first acted as workers within military units, carrying out non-combative tasks, and later, acceptance of children in the ranks grew due to their inconspicuous nature. Children were used to bypass enemy lines and relay messages across battle zones.
565:
between victims and their families concerning the severity of the soldiers adolescent experiences were evident during the reintegration process. This issue stemmed from the failure of reintegration programs to successfully prepare and provide caregivers with sufficient preparation for the victims return. These programs tended to focus primarily on the child. It was evident that where caregivers were unable to monitor and understand the severity of the victims exposure to violence, it heavily affected the child's ability to reintegrate into the community.
360:
resentment was exploited by the RUF who promised retaliation for lost family members and an opportunity to be part of something. The coercive effects of adults in recruiting children to violence has parallels to broader patrimonial structures within the armed forces. Children are recruited and socialized as clients of "big men." However, as ranks depleted, the RUF resorted to forced abductions. Children were taken from their homes, often their families were assaulted or murdered. Fear became a primary means of enlisting children to fight.
452:. Their first project was established in 1999 and offered victims of sexual exploitation access to medical and psychological clinics. They further expanded this program through establishing community sensitisation services focused on enabling the reintegration of females with babies who were the product of sexual violation during conflict. These services were implemented through ensuring the accessibility of health care, education and skills training.
398:(DDR) method. The objective of the DDR is to "contribute security and stability in post-conflict environments so that recovery and development can begin". This system is used in coordination with other political and reconstruction mechanisms to ensure that long-term sustainable reintegration support is provided and to prevent Sierra Leone returning to violent conflict. In March 2004 the
573:
Re-victimization was prevalent within communities in post-conflict Sierra Leone, particularly during support processes and within community reintegration. It is widely recognised that it was more prevalent for females to be subjected to community rejection. Social and economic marginalisation between
599:
Some ex-RUF children have evaded the DDR process because they fear that they will be criminally prosecuted for their involvements with the atrocities committed by the RUF and be victims to the negative stigmatisation attached to their actions. Where children avoid assistance they are often left with
514:
is the process of formally discharging active combatants from the armed forces or other armed rebel groups they have been associated with. This is a two part journey; part one being the processing of soldiers and part two involves reinsertion of combatants. This process concerns providing assistance
359:
Early in the war, recruitment focused on those children whose family structures were poor or absent, promising protection and a sense of community. Much effort was given to play to the resentment children had about their situations, or about loss of family they may have endured due to the war. This
325:
The RUF was known for being exceptionally brutal; beheadings, maiming, and mutilation of victims was commonplace. The group has been heavily criticized by human rights groups for their forced conscription of children to use as combatants, their sexual exploitation of children and using children for
530:
method has been facilitated by 17,500 peace-keepers. The initial program was concluded on 31 December 2003 and it was estimated that 6,845 ex-soldiers had been demobilised by 2002 and reunified with their families. Female victims equated to an estimated 529 of these children. In
February 2004, the
460:
The
National Commission for Social Action (NaCSA) is a mandate of the Government Sierra Leone. It provides for reconstruction and relief and focuses on providing development which enables sustainable reintegration. It has established three specific programs: a community based program, public works
334:
The rise of the child soldier in Sierra Leone is a product of both socio-economic conditions prior to the war, and the growth of human rights violations during the war. Initial recruitment of children was possible because of the acceptance of children in the workforce, and then grew to a crisis as
564:
In some cases victims struggled to communicate their feelings due to the guilt, shame and stigma attached to their experiences. In these situations the severity of their communicative problems were dependent on the victims age, gender and role in the conflict. Issues relating to the communication
436:
and its reintegration approach is focused on providing informal education, social work, advocacy and health care initiatives to male ex-combatants who are under 18 years old and female victims of sexual abuse. In some cases they have been confronted with difficulty in attracting female victims to
372:
states that "parties shall take all appropriate measures to promote physical and psychological recovery and social reintegration of a child of victim of...armed conflicts. Such recovery and reintegration shall take place in an environment which fosters the health, self-respect and dignity of the
535:
program was complete. It had processed over 75,000 combatants, which included 4,651 women. It was estimated that nearly 55,000 ex-fighters were given access to the integration benefits previously discussed. Another 3000 children were involved in community programs organised by UNICEF and 12,000
492:
These programs focus on establishing long-term support networks and reintegration schemes which can continue to sustainably function without the long-term assistance from the third party organisations previously discussed. This long-term vision requires political, economic and social support.
590:
to generate disposable income to support themselves. In response to this exclusion, UNICEF established the 'Girls Left Behind
Project' which focused on: appropriating services to 1000 females, tracing 65% of their families, educating communities to ensure they did not suffer from further
515:
to ex-soldiers during the demobilisation phase prior to reintegrating them into society, which is the long-term goal. This assistance is crucial as it satisfies their short-term needs; it predominantly comes in the forms of: clothing, shelter, food, education, employment and health care.
320:
We were very much aware of the effects of drugs on children. Drugs and alcohol were prevalent and served as prerequisite for combat activities. Fighting with a gun is not an easy task because it puts so much pressure on the mind. So we needed to free the mind by taking drugs, and it
373:
child". Reintegration programs are facilitated within a human rights framework by non-governmental and governmental organizations. They primarily focus on the needs of the child and often fail to adequately prepare families for receiving and facilitating reintegration of the victim.
578:, violence and "AK-47 Marriages" or "Bush Marriages". These females were labelled as "unmarriageable" because of their exposure to sexual exploitation which often resulted in them losing their virginity before marriage. These girls were also associated with being carriers of
521:
is the final stage which enables ex-soldiers to obtain civilian status within the community through reintegrating them economically and socially. This involves entering into sustainable income and employment opportunities which will enable these individuals to support
586:. This label forced females to be excluded socially and economically. As a result of this "re-victimization" it was common for these females to have no choice but to stay with their rebel "husbands" in order to survive or choose
335:
the RUF and state militias abducted children into conscription. Economic conditions in Sierra Leone are traditionally poor. Primary agrarian, many families enlisted the help of their children to provide income for families.
201:
402:
proposed that UNAMSIL's mandate be extended to
December 2005 due to the fragile nature of the state's Government and concern that they were not ready to assume responsibility for the country's security.
600:
no newly acquired skills or financial benefits and are forced to support themselves. Often these individuals become involved with commercial sex labour, crime and drug exploitation to ensure survival.
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has provided needed clarification over the use of children in combat, and had identified certain actions which could be deemed as illegal with regards to the use of children in combat.
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The RUF kidnapped and forced children to fight from when the civil conflict began, and up to eighty percent of their numbers were aged from seven to fourteen and served in the
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involves collecting, controlling and disposing of weapons and ammunition associated with civilians and combatants. It also creates responsible arms management mechanisms.
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308:, and the militia groups which supported them, also recruited children, which led to an estimated 10,000 children taking part in the conflict. According to sociologist
980:
293:(RUF), state forces and state-supported militias conscripted children for use in combat. Although the use of children in combat is not new to Sierra Leone, the use of
984:
312:, up to 30 percent of the children in the RUF were girls. These girls were subject to rape, gang rape and other forms of sexual violence. The RUF used alcohol and
1706:
1115:
140:
527:
395:
1149:"Reintegration of Former Child Soldiers in Sierra Leone: The Role of Caregivers and Their Awareness of the Violence Adolescents Experienced During the War"
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125:
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445:
399:
532:
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807:
369:
305:
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998:
Murphy, William P. (September 2003). "Military
Patrimonialism and Child Soldier Clientalism in the Liberian and Sierra Leonean Civil Wars".
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attend informal educational classes. To address this issue, GOAL started distributing food packages to those who attended these programs.
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51:
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forced labor. These children were forced to commit murders, rapes, sexual slavery, mutilations and other forms of human rights abuses.
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616:
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MCINTYRE, ANGELA; ANING, EMMANUEL KWESI; ADDO, PROSPER NII NORTEY (January 2002). "Politics, War and Youth
Culture in Sierra Leone".
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1289:, The Disarmament, Demobilisation and Reintegration of Child Soldiers: Social and Psychological Transformation in Sierra Leone.
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1372:, Child Soldiers in Sierra Leone: Experiences, Implications and Strategies for Rehabilitation and Community Reintegration.
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619:(AFRC) were found guilty of various human rights abuses, which included the recruitment of children for use in combat.
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390:(UIN) was influential in ending the hostilities in Sierra Leone. They established the peace-keeping mission, the
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In 2007 the special court passed the first convictions for war crimes during the conflict. Three members of the
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Goal is a non-governmental organisation based in
Ireland which is funded by UNICEF. It operates specifically in
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program and micro finance program. It has played a pivotal role in re-establishing local governments.
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1266:, Reintegration of Child Ex-combatants in Sierra Leone with particular focus on the needs of females.
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678:
104:
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The 'DDR' program was adapted in 2006 to formally become the
Integrated DDR Standards (IDDRS).
273:(RUF), and a quarter of the government armed forces consisted of children aged 8–14 years old.
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1383:, The Twenty-First Report of the UN Secretary-General on the UN Mission in Sierra Leone.
1541:
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1148:
387:
30:
1298:
643:
Zack-Williams, A. B. (2001-03-01). "Child soldiers in the civil war in Sierra Leone".
2044:
1600:
Sivakumaran, Sandesh (2010). "War Crimes before the
Special Court for Sierra Leone".
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Child
Soldiers, Adult Interests: The Global Dimensions of the Sierra Leonean Tragedy
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Female Soldiers in Sierra Leone: Sex, Security, and Post-Conflict Development
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448:(FAWE) provides education for females across Africa, including in Freetown
394:(UNAMSIL), who assisted the Government of Sierra Leone in implementing the
1613:
1329:, Community Based Psychosocial and Economic Reintegration in Sierra Leone.
433:
316:
drugs on children during training, according to a former RUF commander:
1147:
Borisova, Ivelina I.; Betancourt, Theresa S.; Willett, John B. (2013).
1027:
1215:, Integrated Disarmament, Demobolization and Reintegration Standards.
421:
1011:
269:. Children fought on both sides of the conflict. Nearly half of the
808:"The memories should be their punishment: War rape in Sierra Leone"
410:
1084:
Sierra Leone : inside the war : history and narratives
1625:
1051:
Child soldiers : Sierra Leone's revolutionary united front
1501:"Sierra Leone: Landmark Convictions for Use of Child Soldiers"
579:
1316:
536:
ex-fighters were processed through formal education schemes.
1464:
Reimagining Child Soldiers in International Law and Policy
1442:
Child Soldiers: Sierra Leone's Revolutionary United Front
1401:, US AID Reintegration of Child Soldiers in Sierra Leone.
377:
Primary organisations facilitating reintegration programs
1564:
Armies of the Young: Child Soldiers in War and Terrorism
1130:, UN Convention on the Rights of the Child, Article 39.
1223:
1221:
1356:, United Nations Mission in Sierra Leone Fact Sheet.
858:"Innocence lost: The child soldiers of Sierra Leone"
608:
According to legal scholar Sandesh Sivakumaran, the
501:
The process of DDR is broken down into four stages:
416:
Humanitarian Aid Being Delivered to Sierra Leone MOD
1965:
1940:
1659:
1340:, United Nations Mission in Sierra Leone Factsheet.
698:
Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law
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Communication issues concerning the victim's family
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469:These organisations primarily include access to:
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1153:Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma
696:Simon M, Meisenberg (May 2013), "Sierra Leone",
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528:Disarmament, demobilization and reintegration
396:Disarmament, demobilization and reintegration
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1444:(1st ed.). Cambridge University Press.
979:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
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949:War and the crisis of youth in Sierra Leone
947:Peters, Krijn, politicoloog, 1975- (2011).
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1114:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
983:) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (
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1602:Journal of International Criminal Justice
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1086:. Moigula, Bernard S. Bangkok, Thailand.
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441:Forum for African Women's Educationalists
215:Movement to end the use of child soldiers
2076:War crimes in the Sierra Leone Civil War
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531:Sierra Leone Government stated that the
297:became widespread during the civil war.
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446:Forum for African Women Educationalists
400:Secretary-General of the United Nations
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1307:, UNICEF Fact Sheet on Child Soldiers.
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392:United Nations Mission in Sierra Leone
1228:The Child Soldiers Global Report 2004
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456:National Commission for Social Action
370:Convention on the Rights of the Child
207:Convention on the Rights of the Child
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1543:Child Soldiers: A Reference Handbook
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265:fought between 1991 and 2002 in the
881:10.18574/nyu/9780814724965.001.0001
645:Review of African Political Economy
543:Issues arising during reintegration
1585:. University of California Press.
617:Armed Forces Revolutionary Council
14:
1952:Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic
1722:Democratic Republic of the Congo
330:Causes leading to child soldiers
74:Rehabilitation and reintegration
440:
364:Reintegration of child soldiers
951:. Cambridge University Press.
552:Militant groups including the
407:United Nations Children's Fund
283:the decade-long civil conflict
263:child soldiers in Sierra Leone
110:Post-traumatic stress disorder
1:
1485:. New York University Press.
918:10.1080/10246029.2002.9627964
871:Shepler, Susan (2014-06-06).
473:Psychosocial support and care
1566:. Rutgers University Press.
1481:MacKenzie, Megan H. (2012).
1165:10.1080/10926771.2013.824059
1082:Higbie, James (2016-11-30).
146:Democratic Republic of Congo
1524:. Nova Science Publishers.
1466:. Oxford University Press.
700:, Oxford University Press,
289:between 1991 and 2002, the
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1285:November 26, 2013, at the
554:Revolutionary United Front
291:Revolutionary United Front
271:Revolutionary United Front
1581:Singer, Peter W. (2006).
1520:Pham, John-Peter (2005).
1440:Denov, Myriam S. (2010).
1397:October 20, 2011, at the
1053:. Cambridge Univ. Press.
1049:Denov, Myriam S. (2010).
666:10.1080/03056240108704504
657:10.1080/03056240108704504
595:Avoidance of DDR programs
2061:Child soldiers in Africa
1707:Central African Republic
1653:Child soldiers in Africa
1562:Rosen, David M. (2005).
1539:Rosen, David M. (2012).
1262:August 19, 2013, at the
261:Roughly 100.000-140.000
141:Central African Republic
1423:Human Rights Watch 2007
906:African Security Review
1000:African Studies Review
559:
418:
355:Coercion and abduction
323:
267:Sierra Leone Civil War
1867:SĂŁo TomĂ© and PrĂncipe
1727:Republic of the Congo
1413:, pp. 1033–1034.
479:Skills based training
465:Focus of facilitators
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339:Youth in Sierra Leone
318:
2066:2007 in Sierra Leone
860:. February 16, 2000.
548:Psychological issues
476:Family reunification
406:
285:which took place in
1942:States with limited
1614:10.1093/jicj/mqq056
810:. January 12, 2000.
488:Vocational training
2056:Child sexual abuse
1505:Human Rights Watch
1303:2015-02-26 at the
1234:2015-06-28 at the
1211:2016-03-03 at the
873:Childhood Deployed
569:"Re-victimization"
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382:The United Nations
368:Article 39 of the
345:Childhood Deployed
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1969:other territories
1742:Equatorial Guinea
758:, pp. 15–16.
604:Legal proceedings
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1554:978-1598845266
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1531:978-1594546716
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1507:. 21 June 2007
1497:
1492:978-0814761373
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1473:978-0199592654
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1217:
1188:
1159:(8): 803–828.
1132:
1121:
1092:
1074:
1059:
1041:
990:
957:
939:
896:
889:
863:
849:
837:
825:
823:, p. 100.
813:
796:
794:, p. 123.
784:
780:MacKenzie 2012
772:
760:
748:
736:
734:, p. 108.
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688:
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314:hallucinogenic
304:. The state's
295:child soldiers
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47:Child soldiers
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32:Child soldiers
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1782:Guinea-Bissau
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1093:9789745241985
1089:
1085:
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1060:9780521693219
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958:9780511976896
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890:9780814724965
886:
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878:
875:. NYU Press.
874:
867:
864:
859:
853:
850:
847:, p. 58.
846:
841:
838:
835:, p. 60.
834:
829:
826:
822:
817:
814:
809:
803:
801:
797:
793:
788:
785:
782:, p. 41.
781:
776:
773:
770:, p. 62.
769:
764:
761:
757:
752:
749:
746:, p. 26.
745:
740:
737:
733:
728:
725:
722:, p. 70.
721:
716:
713:
709:
707:9780199231690
703:
699:
692:
689:
684:
680:
676:
672:
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662:
658:
654:
651:(87): 73–82.
650:
646:
639:
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635:
633:
629:
622:
620:
618:
613:
611:
610:special court
603:
601:
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343:In her book,
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189:Legal aspects
187:
182:
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72:
70:
67:
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62:
58:
57:Girl soldiers
55:
53:
50:
49:
48:
45:
44:
43:
42:
39:Main articles
37:
34:
28:
24:
20:
19:
16:
2017:Saint Helena
1988:
1892:South Africa
1882:Sierra Leone
1881:
1687:Burkina Faso
1605:
1601:
1582:
1563:
1547:. ABC-CLIO.
1542:
1521:
1509:. Retrieved
1504:
1482:
1463:
1441:
1433:Bibliography
1418:
1406:
1388:
1377:
1334:
1323:
1312:
1294:
1156:
1152:
1124:
1083:
1077:
1050:
1044:
1006:(2): 61–87.
1003:
999:
993:
948:
942:
909:
905:
899:
872:
866:
852:
840:
828:
816:
787:
775:
763:
751:
739:
727:
715:
697:
691:
648:
644:
614:
607:
598:
588:prostitution
572:
563:
551:
538:
525:
518:
511:
506:Disarmament:
505:
500:
491:
468:
459:
450:Sierra Leone
444:
431:
420:
415:
385:
367:
358:
344:
342:
333:
324:
319:
310:Myriam Denov
306:armed forces
299:
287:Sierra Leone
280:
262:
260:
223:Red Hand Day
166:Sierra Leone
165:
126:World War II
105:Prostitution
95:Sexual abuse
15:
2071:2007 in law
2051:Child abuse
1944:recognition
1897:South Sudan
1787:Ivory Coast
912:(3): 6–15.
756:Singer 2006
720:Drumbl 2012
522:themselves.
482:Health care
100:Trafficking
2045:Categories
1999:(Portugal)
1957:Somaliland
1877:Seychelles
1842:Mozambique
1827:Mauritania
1812:Madagascar
1767:The Gambia
1702:Cape Verde
1102:1008994037
845:Rosen 2005
833:Rosen 2005
821:Denov 2010
792:Denov 2010
768:Rosen 2005
744:Rosen 2012
623:References
277:Background
1832:Mauritius
1110:cite book
1069:699517338
1036:144345909
1020:0002-0206
975:cite book
967:742997227
934:144104229
926:1024-6029
732:Pham 2005
683:154407129
675:0305-6244
576:Gang rape
485:Education
176:Sri Lanka
161:Palestine
118:Instances
90:Abduction
2023: /
2019: /
2012:(France)
2006: /
1984: /
1980: /
1932:Zimbabwe
1907:Tanzania
1757:Ethiopia
1752:Eswatini
1732:Djibouti
1697:Cameroon
1682:Botswana
1511:17 April
1462:(2012).
1395:Archived
1301:Archived
1283:Archived
1260:Archived
1232:Archived
1209:Archived
1183:29249893
434:Freetown
136:Cambodia
23:a series
21:Part of
2008:RĂ©union
2004:Mayotte
1995:Madeira
1990:(Spain)
1986:Melilla
1917:Tunisia
1887:Somalia
1872:Senegal
1857:Nigeria
1847:Namibia
1837:Morocco
1802:Liberia
1797:Lesotho
1747:Eritrea
1717:Comoros
1692:Burundi
1667:Algeria
1174:5730280
1028:1514826
321:worked.
281:During
171:Somalia
156:Myanmar
52:History
2027:
2010:
1997:
1927:Zambia
1922:Uganda
1862:Rwanda
1817:Malawi
1777:Guinea
1672:Angola
1589:
1570:
1551:
1528:
1489:
1470:
1448:
1181:
1171:
1100:
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1057:
1034:
1026:
1018:
965:
955:
932:
924:
887:
704:
681:
673:
422:UNICEF
131:Africa
82:Issues
69:Impact
64:Piracy
1982:Ceuta
1902:Sudan
1852:Niger
1807:Libya
1792:Kenya
1772:Ghana
1762:Gabon
1737:Egypt
1677:Benin
1318:GOAL.
1032:S2CID
1024:JSTOR
930:S2CID
679:S2CID
584:STI's
181:Yemen
151:India
1912:Togo
1822:Mali
1712:Chad
1587:ISBN
1568:ISBN
1549:ISBN
1526:ISBN
1513:2014
1487:ISBN
1468:ISBN
1446:ISBN
1179:PMID
1116:link
1098:OCLC
1088:ISBN
1065:OCLC
1055:ISBN
1016:ISSN
985:link
981:link
963:OCLC
953:ISBN
922:ISSN
885:ISBN
702:ISBN
671:ISSN
582:and
526:The
428:GOAL
386:The
1610:doi
1169:PMC
1161:doi
1008:doi
914:doi
877:doi
661:hdl
653:doi
580:HIV
2047::
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