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women and carries out a sexual affair with a dancing girl without marrying her, violently kills his enemies including those who had participated or supported the coup against his father, seeks and enjoys power. Thus, his life is anything but one of non-violence, sexual fidelity, restraint and non-possessiveness – some of the traditionally understood virtues for householders in
Jainism. Ultimately, the hero converts into a Jain ascetic, yet the epic writer is generally accepted to be a Jaina ascetic. The epic has explicit and lyrical descriptions of sensual gratifications and sex. According to David Shulman, the epic questions the long-held scholarly views of Jainism and the teachings of its most celebrated historic scholars. According to James Ryan, a proposed explanation is that the Digambara Jains were living with Hindus, the epic was influenced by the Hindu beliefs and outlook on life, and it reflects a synthetic work that fused the values and virtues of Hinduism and Jainism. An alternate explanation, states Ryan, is that the epic includes explicit eros and graphic descriptions of sex not to praise or recommend such values or practices in the way some early Hindu texts do, the epic includes this so as to examine and criticize it from the Jain perspective.
1309:, the chief abbot of a Shaiva Hindu monastery in Kumbhakonam. The first copy came from Tamil enthusiast Ramaswami Mutaliyar whom the abbot had introduced to Iyer (also spelled Aiyar), and the other came from the monastery's large collection of ancient texts. The palm-leaf manuscripts decay and degrade relatively quickly in the tropical climate of south India, and must be re-copied every few decades or about a century, a step that introduces scribal errors. The two copies of the manuscripts were different, and one included commentary from the 14th century. Aiyar studied the two versions of the manuscripts under oil lamps. With help from Appasami Nayinar – a Jaina community leader, Aiyar established a critical edition and published the first paper print of the epic in 1887.
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army. The queen gives birth to a boy as she hid in a remote cremation grounds. She hands over her baby she named Jivaka to a loyal servant to raise, becoming a nun herself. The boy grows up into a man, rather a superman, one who is perfect in every art, every skill, every field of knowledge. Jivaka the superhero excels in war and erotics, kills his enemies, wins over and marries every beautiful girl he meets, then regains the kingdom his father had lost. After enjoying power, sex and begetting many sons with his numerous wives, the epic ends with Jivaka renouncing the world and converting into a Jaina ascetic.
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rather a superman, one who is perfect in every art, every skill, every field of knowledge. He excels in war and erotics, kills his enemies, wins over and marries every pretty girl he meets, then regains the kingdom his father had lost. After enjoying power, sex and begetting many sons with his numerous wives, the epic ends with him renouncing the world and becoming a
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of the chief abbot of a Shaiva Hindu monastery in
Kumbhakonam, one copy given by Tamil enthusiast Ramaswami Mutaliyar and the other by the monastery. Aiyar studied the epic's manuscripts under oil lamps, with guidance from Appasami Nayinar – a Jaina community leader, established a critical edition and published the first paper version of the epic in 1887.
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contains 358 stanzas and narrates the victory of Jivaga in marrying the daughter of his maternal uncle, the king of
Videkam. Jivaka wins the competition of hitting the target with arrow and his fame spreads across. The assassin who killed Jivaka's father plans to seize him and put him to death, but
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depicts the hero in a place called
Susandesam where the king suspends on a high mark, promising to give his daughter in marriage to the person who succeeds in displacing the mark with an arrow. Jivaka wins the competition and marries the king's daughter namely Chisanti. The heroics is depicted in 30
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The epic begins with the story of a treacherous coup, where the king helps his pregnant queen escape in a peacock-shaped flying machine but is himself killed. The queen gives birth to a boy. She hands him over to a loyal servant to raise, becoming a nun herself. The boy, Jivaka, grows up into a man,
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The epic is a dense collection of erotic descriptions, and to some unused to the Indian literary culture and openness, the explicit descriptions seem obscene. According to James Ryan – a professor of Asian
Studies and Religion, "the Digambaras, with the rigorously ascetic views, would seem unlikely
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Portions of the epic were ceremonially recited by members of the Tamil Jain community in the 19th century. Rare copies of its palm-leaf manuscripts were preserved by Tamil Hindus. U V Swaminatha Aiyar – a Shaiva pundit and Tamil scholar, discovered two copies of it in 1880 at the encouragement
1358:
Kamil
Zvelebil mentions the Hindu discrimination against this text around 18th century, when it was one of the texts that Caminata Tecikar calls as "inferior writings which one should not read wasting one's time". However, Eva Wilden states that the Tecikar note has been quoted out of its context,
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The epic is unusual in many respects. Authored by a Jain ascetic, it presents a story that is unlike the generally accepted view of historic
Jainism being an "austerely ascetic" religious tradition. The hero the epic, Jivaka, indulges in a life of sensual pursuits with numerous women, marries many
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The epic begins with the story of a treacherous coup by a minister of the king. The king had given temporary responsibility for the capital while the king and queen were traveling. The king helps his pregnant queen escape in a peacock-shaped flying machine but gets himself killed by the minister's
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contains 415 stanzas and presents two young women namely
Gunamelai and Churamanjiri of high family contended for their superiority in possessing scented powders. The identical scents were difficult to differentiate and when Jivagan did it, Gunamelai agreed to marry him. Sudarshana Jakshadeva, who
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commentary, the 2,700 verses were composed by
Thiruthakkadevar (Tiruttakkatevar) of the Chola race who in his youth became a Jain ascetic and moved to Madurai. The authorship of the remaining quatrains is unknown. According to a Jain tradition, 2 of the quatrains were composed by the teacher and
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is probably a compilation of many older, fantasy-filled unreal Tamil folk stories. The poet skillfully couples the martial adventures of the extraordinarily talented superman with graphic sexual descriptions of his affairs, along with lyrical interludes of his virtues such as kindness, duty,
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The epic hints of no persecution or violence between the Tamil Shaiva and Jaina community. Its composition, reception, and influence in the Hindu community suggest that the Jain–Hindu relations in the Tamil region were cordial and collaborative at least through the 10th century.
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counselor of
Thiruthakkadevar, while the rest were anonymously added. The larger Tamil tradition believes that 445 quatrains were composed by Kantiyar, a poetess and inserted into the original. The entire epic is sometimes credited to just Thiruthakkadevar by casual writers.
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relates to the exploits of young Jivakan; his bravery detailed when he attacks the gang of freebooters who loot the city; his marriage to Kovindeyar, the daughter of a citizen in the city named Pasukavalam who gets impressed by his bravery. The section has 84
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contains 408 verses detailing the story prior to the birth of the hero, Jivakan. It also details his birth, his mother fleeing from the assassin who murdered her husband, the king and the rescue of baby Jivakan from the forest by a merchant
971:(great vows) for ascetics in Jainism is strict abstinence from sex in "action, words and thought", but the epic is loaded with sexually-explicit verses. According to the tradition, Thiruthakkadevar proved his ascetic purity by an ordeal.
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The Tamil epic is notable for the high number of Sanskrit loan words, likely because it is a late medieval text. It is also notable, according to Vaidyanathan for chronologically being the first Tamil text where the caste-related term
1068:, an Indian string instrument was almost unrivalled. She was resolute not to marry anyone until her challenge is surpassed. Jivaka won the competition. She and Jivaka marry. The events are accounted in 358 stanzas in this section.
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According to a note in 1857 by the colonial-era missionary P Percival, his acquaintances informed him that Thiruthakkadevar, also called Tirudevar, was a learned Jain scholar who lived 2,000 years ago, and who was acquainted with
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and Tecikar's note was in the context of understanding and interpreting Sutra 7 given the standard Tamil references for grammar and interpretation. A careful reread suggests Tecikar did not mean it that way, states Wilden.
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has 107 stanzas, where Jivaka proceeds to Nanaadu where he meets his mother in Tandakarenyam and salutes her. When he returns to the city, a merchant, who gets wealthy on account of Jivaka bestows his daughter Vimalei in
957:– as it has survived into the modern era – is an epic of 3,145 stanzas, each stanza of four highly lyrical lines. According to the final verses of the epic, it consists of 2,700 (86%) verses. According to the 14th-century
1090:
contains 145 verses and it describes the visit of Jivaka to Kshemadesam where he performs austerities that gains him admiration from the king. Kshema Sundari and Jivaka get married.
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narrates the travel of Jivaka to foreign lands in 246 verses. Jivaka saves Pathumai when she was bitten by a serpent while collecting flowers. They get married.
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king who was its patron and was well received at his Chola court. It has been admired for its poetic form, appealing story-line, and theological message.
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1225:, they encouraged the Jain education and arts. The epic was influential on other Tamil poets, and it "may have served as a poetic model for both
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The epic concludes that all the worldly pleasures Jivaka enjoyed was nothing but illusions distracting him from the path of spiritual salvation.
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got transformed to a dog due to a sin is restored to his former form by Jivaka. Chirumanji is rescued by Jivaka from an angry charging elephant.
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Some non-Jaina Tamil poets, states Zvelebil, have questioned whether Thiruthakkadevar was really a Jain ascetic, since one of the mandatory five
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Verses 1–1164 were translated by James Ryan, the remaining translations were a collaborative work and appeared in two volumes in 2012 and 2019.
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1305:(1855-1942 CE) – a practicing Shaiva Brahmin and Tamil scholar, discovered two copies of the epic in 1880 at the encouragement of his
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contains 51 stanzas that narrates the conquest of Jivaka of the dominions of his father's assassin. The country was called Emangadesam.
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995:. His epic, said Percival, was quoted by Tamil grammarians because it was believed to be of "undoubted authority" on Tamil language.
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Later Tamil literature scholarship places Thiruthakkadevar about 1,000 years later than Percival's colonial-era note. The story in
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epic is found in Tamil poetic literature that followed among Hindu and Jain scholars, attesting to its literary significance.
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is a story of a prince who is the perfect master of all arts, perfect warrior and perfect lover with numerous wives. The
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Mutaliyar was from the Vellalar community, traditionally farmers and the champions of Tamil literary arts and learning.
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is the last canto of the epic. Jivaka renounces, partitions his dominions to his sons, and becomes an ascetic.
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1012:. The latter text can be firmly dated to 897–898 CE (derived from Hindu calendar) based on the notes in its
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tenderness and affection for all living beings. The epic's love scenes are sensuous and loaded with
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contains 221 verses describing the nuptials of Jivaga and his maternal uncle's daughter, Illakanei.
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epic was composed in the early 10th century on a foundation of the 9th-century Sanskrit originals.
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1016:. Therefore, the epic was composed after 898 CE. It is now broadly accepted by scholars that the
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Peter Percival (1857), Madras Literary Society and Auxiliary of the Royal Asiatic Society, p. 45
2003:
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Between 2005 and 2019, James Ryan and G Vijayavenugopal published the English translation of
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Percival noted that the Jivaka story is also found in the older Sanskrit Jaina text, called
1113:, Jivaka marries Suramanjari, who once vowed not to marry anyone during the perfume episode.
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poetic meter. Its Jain author is credited with 2,700 of these quatrains, the rest by his
1932:
Civakacintamani: The Hero Civakan, the Gem that Fulfills All Wishes (Verses 1889 - 3145)
1905:
Civakacintamani: The Hero Civakan, the Gem That Fulfills All Wishes (Verses 1166 - 1888)
1768:
Percival, Madras Literary Society and Auxiliary of the Royal Asiatic Society 1856, p. 45
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Percival, Madras Literary Society and Auxiliary of the Royal Asiatic Society 1856, p. 49
1747:
Percival, Madras Literary Society and Auxiliary of the Royal Asiatic Society 1856, p. 48
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Percival, Madras Literary Society and Auxiliary of the Royal Asiatic Society 1856, p. 47
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987:, the celebrated Tamil grammar works. He is also believed to have deep acquaintance in
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Cīvakacintāmaṇi: The Hero Cīvakan̲, the Gem that Fulfills All Wishes (Verses 1 - 1165)
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Civakacintamani: The Hero Civakan, the Gem That Fulfills All Wishes: Verses 1166-1888
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and that the Jains did not consider it to be a part of their 18 celebrated Puranas.
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2005:
The Encyclopaedia Of Indian Literature (Volume Five) (Sasay To Zorgot), Volume 5
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Madras Literary Society and Auxiliary of the Royal Asiatic Society 1856, p. 46
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967:
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2029:. Madras: Madras Literary Society and Auxiliary of the Royal Asiatic Society.
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candidates for the creation of a text of highly erotic character such as the
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Ryan, James. 1998. "Erotic Excess and Sexual Danger in the Civakacintamani."
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Vaidyanathan, S. (1967). "Indo-Aryan Loan Words in the Cīvakacintāmaṇi".
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According to Arathoon, the work stands as a proof of secular outlook of
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1002:, states Kamil Zvelebil, is the story found in the older Sanskrit text
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155:
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The work contains 3147 quatrains and is divided into 13 cantos called
2637:
1240:
1222:
1036:). The 13 cantos were summarized in 1857 by the Christian missionary
792:
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451:
2157:
Civakacintamani: The Hero Civakan, the Gem that Fulfills All Wishes.
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Passions of the Tongue: Language Devotion in Tamil India, 1891–1970
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The Tamil Epic Chintamani, Madras Journal of Literature and Science
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is derived from the celebrated musician, Tatteyar whose skill on
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Open Boundaries: Jain Communities and Cultures in Indian History
1781:
Open Boundaries: Jain Communities and Cultures in Indian History
1688:. University of California Press. pp. 272 with footnote 1.
1609:, Comparative Civilizations Review, Volume 7, Issue 7, pp. 54–68
1562:
Open Boundaries: Jain Communities and Cultures in Indian History
1509:
Open Boundaries: Jain Communities and Cultures in Indian History
320:
258:
2259:
2187:
Manuscript, Print and Memory: Relics of the Cankam in Tamilnadu
1368:
According to James Ryan, Tiruttakkatevar was an ascetic of the
1254:
according to later Tamil literary tradition, the others being
1685:
Literary Cultures in History: Reconstructions from South Asia
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1529:
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299:'book of marriages'). The epic is organized into 13
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1606:
Renaissance in the Life of Saminata Aiyar: A Tamil Scholar
1599:
1597:
2211:
A History of Indian literature Vol.10 (Tamil Literature)
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by Vadibhasinha, which itself was based on Gunabhadra's
261:
ascetic Tiruttakkatēvar in the early 10th century, the
203:
2141:. State University of New York Press. pp. 67–83.
1565:. State University of New York Press. pp. 67–70.
1512:. State University of New York Press. pp. 68–72.
39:
1820:. University of California, Berkeley. pp. 73–79.
241:'Jivaka, the Fabulous Gem'), also spelled as
1121:
Jivaga wins and ascends the throne of his ancestors.
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2037:A Dictionary of Indian Literature: Beginnings-1850
1966:. New Delhi: Dorling Kindersley (India) Pvt. Ltd.
1784:. State University of New York Press. p. 67.
1207:Erotic Excess and Sexual Danger in Civakacintamani
1588:
1618:
1170:
2271:
1817:The Cīvakacintāmaṇi in Historical Perspective
1682:Norman Cutler (2003). Sheldon Pollock (ed.).
1633:
1484:
1461:
935:
8:
2061:. Asian Educational Services. p. 115.
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1221:kings during the period. Though they were
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928:
350:
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1839:(4). American Oriental Society: 430–434.
2534:Commentaries in Tamil literary tradition
1833:Journal of the American Oriental Society
1657:
1539:
1432:
1778:James Ryan (1998). John E. Cort (ed.).
1559:James Ryan (1998). John E. Cort (ed.).
1506:James Ryan (1998). John E. Cort (ed.).
1408:
1342:
362:
335:and metaphors. The poetic style of the
36:Cīvaka Cintāmaṇi book in printed format
2486:World Classical Tamil Conference 2010
2159:Fremont, CA: Jain Publishing Company.
2040:. New Delhi: Orient Longman Limited.
1443:
1441:
1231:and Cekkilar", states David Shulman.
7:
2002:Lal, Mohan; Sāhitya Akādemī (2001).
191:Tamil history from Sangam literature
2111:Historical dictionary of the Tamils
2114:. United States: Scarecrow Press.
2093:. University of California Press.
2076:Pillai, M. S. Purnalingam (1904).
2055:Pillai, M. S. Purnalingam (1994).
1278:. In its form, it anticipates the
1192:and the honeybees were scared off,
1186:of the enthusiasm of intercourse,
25:
2949:Ancient manuscript digitalisation
27:One of the five great Tamil epics
1190:her beautiful anklets cried out,
909:
370:
2929:Standardisation of Tamil script
1194:as the young couple made love.
2008:. New Delhi: Sāhitya Akādemī.
1981:Kulasrestha, Mahendra (2008).
1180:the saffron on him was ruined,
315:and another anonymous author.
257:. Authored by a Madurai-based
1:
2169:. Harvard University Press.
2079:A Primer of Tamil Literature
1298:Manuscripts and translations
1290:was much appreciated by the
1250:It is considered one of the
2803:Megalithic graffiti symbols
2562:Nālāyira Tivviya Pirapantam
2241:. Jain Publishing Company.
1908:. Jain Publishing Company.
1881:. Jain Publishing Company.
1447:Ramaswamy 2007, pp. 102-103
751:Uttaradhyayana (Śvetāmbara)
527:Aparigraha (non-possession)
288:
230:
3011:
2944:Printing in Tamil language
2155:Ryan, James, trans. 2005.
2108:Ramaswamy, Vijaya (2007).
2087:Sumathi Ramaswamy (1997).
1987:. New Delhi: Lotus Press.
737:Dravyasamgraha (Digambara)
716:Pravachanasara (Digambara)
144:Naalayira Divya Prabandham
2980:Tamil-language literature
2184:Eva Maria Wilden (2014).
2034:Mukherjee, Sujit (1999).
1247:) in verse 1287, line 4.
280:
222:
201:
168:
135:
99:
57:
50:
42:
2691:Tamil Lexicon dictionary
2371:Bangalore Tamil dialects
2235:Tiruttakkatevar (2012).
1929:Tiruttakkatevar (2019).
1902:Tiruttakkatēvar (2012).
1875:Tiruttakkatēvar (2005).
1372:subtradition of Jainism.
1205:Translator: James Ryan,
1182:his chaplet was charred,
891:Parasparopagraho Jivanam
744:Kalpa Sūtra (Śvetāmbara)
534:Anuvratas (further vows)
2939:Simplified Tamil script
2587:Thiruvilaiyadal Puranam
2082:. Madras: Ananda Press.
1173:Sex in Civaka Cintamani
500:Mahavratas (major vows)
124:Udayana Kumara Kaviyam
2676:Purapporul Venbamaalai
2481:World Tamil Conference
2163:David Shulman (2016).
1865:Mukherjee 1999, p. 277
1814:James D. Ryan (1985).
1603:Dennis Hudson (1981),
1589:Sumathi Ramaswamy 1997
1252:five great Tamil epics
1197:
798:Mahavir Janma Kalyanak
709:Samayasāra (Digambara)
522:Brahmacarya (chastity)
37:
2995:Tamil Jain literature
2707:Yāḻpāna Vaipava Mālai
2376:Central Tamil dialect
2326:Proto-South Dravidian
2190:. Walter de Gruyter.
1619:Eva Maria Wilden 2014
1303:U. V. Swaminatha Iyer
1202:Civaka Cintamani 1349
517:Asteya (non-stealing)
507:Ahiṃsā (non-violence)
35:
2772:Indo-Aryan languages
2597:Tamil Ganaptya texts
2529:List of Sangam poets
2474:Global organizations
2214:, Otto Harrasowitz,
1804:Arathoon 2008, p. 69
1645:Arathoon 2008, p. 42
1178:His garlands ripped,
676:Schools and Branches
101:The Five Minor Epics
2990:Epic poems in Tamil
2777:Dravidian languages
2577:Tirumurukāṟṟuppaṭai
2023:P Percival (1857).
1935:. Jain Publishing.
1636:, pp. 176–177.
1621:, pp. 347–349.
1591:, pp. 179–184.
1542:, pp. 136–138.
1487:, pp. 176–178.
1464:, pp. 176–182.
1435:, pp. 136–137.
916:Religion portal
606:The 24 Tirthankaras
303:and contains 3,145
269:is also called the
196:Ancient Tamil music
120:Naga Kumara Kaviyam
2934:Tanittamil Iyakkam
2887:Tamil onomatopoeia
2514:Tamil books of Law
2166:Tamil: A Biography
1963:Our Story So Far 4
1634:David Shulman 2016
1485:David Shulman 2016
1462:David Shulman 2016
1316:in three volumes.
1188:her girdles broke,
723:Agama (Śvetāmbara)
129:Yashodhara Kaviyam
38:
2967:
2966:
2954:Formation of CICT
2748:
2747:
2725:Asthana Kolahalam
2509:Sangam literature
2469:
2468:
2248:978-0-89581-847-8
2197:978-3-11-035276-4
2176:978-0-674-97465-4
2121:978-0-470-82958-5
2100:978-0-520-20805-6
2068:978-81-206-0955-6
1994:978-81-8382-013-4
1973:978-81-7758-905-4
1960:Arathoon (2008).
1942:978-0-89581-848-5
1915:978-0-89581-847-8
1888:978-0-89581-854-6
1791:978-0-7914-3786-5
1695:978-0-520-22821-4
1572:978-0-7914-3786-5
1519:978-0-7914-3786-5
1060:Kandarvatatteyar
952:
951:
571:Micchami Dukkadam
566:Bhaktamara Stotra
495:Ethics of Jainism
298:
286:
244:Jivaka Chintamani
240:
228:
210:
209:
206:
137:Bhakti Literature
52:Sangam Literature
16:(Redirected from
3002:
2861:Tamil honorifics
2592:Vinayagar Agaval
2557:Kampa Irāmāyaṉam
2519:Five Great Epics
2499:
2361:
2280:
2273:
2266:
2257:
2252:
2224:
2201:
2180:
2152:
2125:
2104:
2083:
2072:
2058:Tamil Literature
2051:
2030:
2019:
1998:
1977:
1947:
1946:
1926:
1920:
1919:
1899:
1893:
1892:
1872:
1866:
1863:
1857:
1856:
1828:
1822:
1821:
1811:
1805:
1802:
1796:
1795:
1775:
1769:
1766:
1760:
1757:
1748:
1745:
1730:
1727:
1714:
1711:
1700:
1699:
1679:
1673:
1670:
1661:
1655:
1646:
1643:
1637:
1631:
1622:
1616:
1610:
1601:
1592:
1586:
1577:
1576:
1556:
1543:
1537:
1524:
1523:
1503:
1488:
1482:
1465:
1459:
1448:
1445:
1436:
1430:
1396:
1393:
1387:
1379:
1373:
1366:
1360:
1356:
1350:
1347:
1331:Five Great Epics
1314:Civaka Cintamani
1288:Cīvaka Cintāmaṇi
1243:appears (Tamil:
1209:
1004:Kshattracudamani
959:Naccinarkkiniyar
955:Civaka Cintamani
944:
937:
930:
914:
913:
851:Shravanabelagola
758:Cīvaka Cintāmaṇi
730:Tattvartha Sutra
374:
351:
293:
291:
285:romanized:
284:
282:
267:Civaka Cintamani
247:, is one of the
235:
233:
231:Cīvaka Cintāmaṇi
227:romanized:
226:
224:
214:Civaka Cintamani
184:Sangam landscape
80:Civaka Cintamani
60:Five Great Epics
45:Tamil literature
40:
21:
18:Civaka Cintamani
3010:
3009:
3005:
3004:
3003:
3001:
3000:
2999:
2970:
2969:
2968:
2963:
2959:Project Madurai
2917:
2901:Transliteration
2896:
2882:Tamil phonology
2870:
2848:
2842:
2823:Pallava grantha
2791:
2755:other languages
2754:
2744:
2718:natural science
2717:
2716:Mathematics and
2711:
2695:
2658:
2652:
2601:
2544:
2538:
2524:Ponniyin Selvan
2490:
2465:
2444:
2440:Malaysian Tamil
2433:Southeast Asian
2428:
2400:
2352:
2321:Proto-Dravidian
2289:
2284:
2249:
2234:
2231:
2229:Further reading
2222:
2206:Zvelebil, Kamil
2204:
2198:
2183:
2177:
2162:
2149:
2131:
2122:
2107:
2101:
2086:
2075:
2069:
2054:
2048:
2033:
2022:
2016:
2001:
1995:
1980:
1974:
1959:
1956:
1951:
1950:
1943:
1928:
1927:
1923:
1916:
1901:
1900:
1896:
1889:
1874:
1873:
1869:
1864:
1860:
1830:
1829:
1825:
1813:
1812:
1808:
1803:
1799:
1792:
1777:
1776:
1772:
1767:
1763:
1758:
1751:
1746:
1733:
1728:
1717:
1712:
1703:
1696:
1681:
1680:
1676:
1671:
1664:
1656:
1649:
1644:
1640:
1632:
1625:
1617:
1613:
1602:
1595:
1587:
1580:
1573:
1558:
1557:
1546:
1538:
1527:
1520:
1505:
1504:
1491:
1483:
1468:
1460:
1451:
1446:
1439:
1431:
1410:
1405:
1400:
1399:
1394:
1390:
1380:
1376:
1367:
1363:
1357:
1353:
1348:
1344:
1339:
1322:
1300:
1228:Kamban Ramayana
1211:
1204:
1199:
1196:
1193:
1191:
1189:
1187:
1185:
1183:
1181:
1179:
1168:
1156:
1026:
1018:Civakacintamani
1000:Civakacintamani
948:
908:
901:
900:
866:
865:
856:
855:
823:
822:
813:
812:
788:
787:
778:
777:
703:
702:
700:Jain literature
691:
690:
673:
672:
663:
662:
601:
600:
591:
590:
581:Ṇamōkāra mantra
561:
560:
551:
550:
492:
491:
482:
481:
412:
411:
349:
347:Author and date
337:Civakacintamani
333:double entendre
328:Civakacintamani
326:The Tamil epic
149:Kamba Ramayanam
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3008:
3006:
2998:
2997:
2992:
2987:
2982:
2972:
2971:
2965:
2964:
2962:
2961:
2956:
2951:
2946:
2941:
2936:
2931:
2925:
2923:
2919:
2918:
2916:
2915:
2910:
2904:
2902:
2898:
2897:
2895:
2894:
2889:
2884:
2878:
2876:
2872:
2871:
2869:
2868:
2866:Tamil numerals
2863:
2858:
2852:
2850:
2844:
2843:
2841:
2840:
2835:
2830:
2825:
2820:
2815:
2810:
2805:
2799:
2797:
2793:
2792:
2790:
2789:
2784:
2779:
2774:
2769:
2764:
2758:
2756:
2750:
2749:
2746:
2745:
2743:
2742:
2737:
2735:Kaṇita Tīpikai
2732:
2730:Kaṇakkatikāram
2727:
2721:
2719:
2713:
2712:
2710:
2709:
2703:
2701:
2697:
2696:
2694:
2693:
2688:
2683:
2678:
2673:
2668:
2662:
2660:
2654:
2653:
2651:
2650:
2645:
2640:
2635:
2630:
2625:
2620:
2615:
2609:
2607:
2603:
2602:
2600:
2599:
2594:
2589:
2584:
2579:
2574:
2569:
2564:
2559:
2554:
2548:
2546:
2540:
2539:
2537:
2536:
2531:
2526:
2521:
2516:
2511:
2505:
2503:
2496:
2492:
2491:
2489:
2488:
2483:
2477:
2475:
2471:
2470:
2467:
2466:
2464:
2463:
2458:
2452:
2450:
2446:
2445:
2443:
2442:
2436:
2434:
2430:
2429:
2427:
2426:
2421:
2416:
2410:
2408:
2402:
2401:
2399:
2398:
2393:
2388:
2383:
2378:
2373:
2367:
2365:
2358:
2354:
2353:
2351:
2350:
2349:
2348:
2343:
2338:
2328:
2323:
2318:
2313:
2308:
2303:
2297:
2295:
2291:
2290:
2287:Tamil language
2285:
2283:
2282:
2275:
2268:
2260:
2254:
2253:
2247:
2230:
2227:
2226:
2225:
2220:
2202:
2196:
2181:
2175:
2160:
2153:
2147:
2135:, ed. (1998).
2129:
2126:
2120:
2105:
2099:
2084:
2073:
2067:
2052:
2046:
2031:
2020:
2014:
1999:
1993:
1978:
1972:
1955:
1952:
1949:
1948:
1941:
1921:
1914:
1894:
1887:
1867:
1858:
1845:10.2307/597587
1823:
1806:
1797:
1790:
1770:
1761:
1749:
1731:
1715:
1701:
1694:
1674:
1662:
1660:, p. 137.
1647:
1638:
1623:
1611:
1593:
1578:
1571:
1544:
1525:
1518:
1489:
1466:
1449:
1437:
1407:
1406:
1404:
1401:
1398:
1397:
1388:
1374:
1361:
1351:
1341:
1340:
1338:
1335:
1334:
1333:
1328:
1321:
1318:
1299:
1296:
1263:Silappadikaram
1176:
1169:
1167:
1164:
1155:
1152:
1144:
1143:
1136:
1129:
1122:
1114:
1107:
1099:
1093:Kanagamaleyar
1091:
1084:
1077:
1069:
1058:
1050:
1038:Peter Percival
1025:
1022:
950:
949:
947:
946:
939:
932:
924:
921:
920:
919:
918:
903:
902:
899:
898:
893:
888:
883:
878:
873:
867:
863:
862:
861:
858:
857:
854:
853:
848:
843:
838:
833:
824:
820:
819:
818:
815:
814:
811:
810:
805:
800:
795:
789:
785:
784:
783:
780:
779:
776:
775:
768:
765:Silappatikaram
761:
754:
747:
740:
733:
726:
719:
712:
704:
698:
697:
696:
693:
692:
689:
688:
683:
674:
670:
669:
668:
665:
664:
661:
660:
655:
650:
645:
640:
635:
630:
623:
618:
613:
608:
602:
598:
597:
596:
593:
592:
589:
588:
583:
578:
573:
568:
562:
558:
557:
556:
553:
552:
549:
548:
543:
537:
536:
530:
529:
524:
519:
514:
509:
503:
502:
493:
489:
488:
487:
484:
483:
480:
479:
474:
469:
464:
459:
454:
449:
444:
439:
434:
429:
424:
419:
413:
407:
406:
405:
402:
401:
400:
399:
394:
389:
384:
376:
375:
367:
366:
360:
359:
348:
345:
223:சீவக சிந்தாமணி
208:
207:
199:
198:
193:
187:
186:
181:
175:
174:
166:
165:
163:
158:
152:
151:
146:
140:
139:
133:
132:
130:
126:
125:
122:
116:
115:
110:
104:
103:
97:
96:
94:
88:
87:
82:
76:
75:
70:
68:Silappatikaram
64:
63:
55:
54:
48:
47:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3007:
2996:
2993:
2991:
2988:
2986:
2983:
2981:
2978:
2977:
2975:
2960:
2957:
2955:
2952:
2950:
2947:
2945:
2942:
2940:
2937:
2935:
2932:
2930:
2927:
2926:
2924:
2920:
2914:
2911:
2909:
2906:
2905:
2903:
2899:
2893:
2892:Tamil prosody
2890:
2888:
2885:
2883:
2880:
2879:
2877:
2873:
2867:
2864:
2862:
2859:
2857:
2856:Tamil grammar
2854:
2853:
2851:
2845:
2839:
2836:
2834:
2833:Tamil Braille
2831:
2829:
2828:Modern script
2826:
2824:
2821:
2819:
2816:
2814:
2811:
2809:
2806:
2804:
2801:
2800:
2798:
2794:
2788:
2785:
2783:
2780:
2778:
2775:
2773:
2770:
2768:
2765:
2763:
2760:
2759:
2757:
2751:
2741:
2738:
2736:
2733:
2731:
2728:
2726:
2723:
2722:
2720:
2714:
2708:
2705:
2704:
2702:
2698:
2692:
2689:
2687:
2684:
2682:
2679:
2677:
2674:
2672:
2669:
2667:
2664:
2663:
2661:
2655:
2649:
2646:
2644:
2641:
2639:
2636:
2634:
2631:
2629:
2626:
2624:
2621:
2619:
2616:
2614:
2611:
2610:
2608:
2604:
2598:
2595:
2593:
2590:
2588:
2585:
2583:
2580:
2578:
2575:
2573:
2570:
2568:
2565:
2563:
2560:
2558:
2555:
2553:
2550:
2549:
2547:
2541:
2535:
2532:
2530:
2527:
2525:
2522:
2520:
2517:
2515:
2512:
2510:
2507:
2506:
2504:
2500:
2497:
2493:
2487:
2484:
2482:
2479:
2478:
2476:
2472:
2462:
2459:
2457:
2456:Brahmin Tamil
2454:
2453:
2451:
2447:
2441:
2438:
2437:
2435:
2431:
2425:
2422:
2420:
2417:
2415:
2412:
2411:
2409:
2407:
2403:
2397:
2394:
2392:
2391:Madurai Tamil
2389:
2387:
2386:Madras Bashai
2384:
2382:
2379:
2377:
2374:
2372:
2369:
2368:
2366:
2362:
2359:
2355:
2347:
2344:
2342:
2341:Second Sangam
2339:
2337:
2334:
2333:
2332:
2331:Tamil Sangams
2329:
2327:
2324:
2322:
2319:
2317:
2314:
2312:
2309:
2307:
2304:
2302:
2299:
2298:
2296:
2292:
2288:
2281:
2276:
2274:
2269:
2267:
2262:
2261:
2258:
2250:
2244:
2240:
2239:
2233:
2232:
2228:
2223:
2221:3-447-01582-9
2217:
2213:
2212:
2207:
2203:
2199:
2193:
2189:
2188:
2182:
2178:
2172:
2168:
2167:
2161:
2158:
2154:
2150:
2148:0-7914-3785-X
2144:
2140:
2139:
2134:
2130:
2127:
2123:
2117:
2113:
2112:
2106:
2102:
2096:
2092:
2091:
2085:
2081:
2080:
2074:
2070:
2064:
2060:
2059:
2053:
2049:
2047:81-250-1453-5
2043:
2039:
2038:
2032:
2028:
2027:
2021:
2017:
2015:81-260-1221-8
2011:
2007:
2006:
2000:
1996:
1990:
1986:
1985:
1984:Culture India
1979:
1975:
1969:
1965:
1964:
1958:
1957:
1953:
1944:
1938:
1934:
1933:
1925:
1922:
1917:
1911:
1907:
1906:
1898:
1895:
1890:
1884:
1880:
1879:
1871:
1868:
1862:
1859:
1854:
1850:
1846:
1842:
1838:
1834:
1827:
1824:
1819:
1818:
1810:
1807:
1801:
1798:
1793:
1787:
1783:
1782:
1774:
1771:
1765:
1762:
1756:
1754:
1750:
1744:
1742:
1740:
1738:
1736:
1732:
1726:
1724:
1722:
1720:
1716:
1710:
1708:
1706:
1702:
1697:
1691:
1687:
1686:
1678:
1675:
1669:
1667:
1663:
1659:
1658:Zvelebil 1974
1654:
1652:
1648:
1642:
1639:
1635:
1630:
1628:
1624:
1620:
1615:
1612:
1608:
1607:
1600:
1598:
1594:
1590:
1585:
1583:
1579:
1574:
1568:
1564:
1563:
1555:
1553:
1551:
1549:
1545:
1541:
1540:Zvelebil 1974
1536:
1534:
1532:
1530:
1526:
1521:
1515:
1511:
1510:
1502:
1500:
1498:
1496:
1494:
1490:
1486:
1481:
1479:
1477:
1475:
1473:
1471:
1467:
1463:
1458:
1456:
1454:
1450:
1444:
1442:
1438:
1434:
1433:Zvelebil 1974
1429:
1427:
1425:
1423:
1421:
1419:
1417:
1415:
1413:
1409:
1402:
1392:
1389:
1385:
1384:Civacintamani
1378:
1375:
1371:
1365:
1362:
1355:
1352:
1346:
1343:
1336:
1332:
1329:
1327:
1324:
1323:
1319:
1317:
1315:
1310:
1308:
1304:
1297:
1295:
1293:
1289:
1285:
1281:
1277:
1276:
1271:
1270:
1265:
1264:
1259:
1258:
1253:
1248:
1246:
1242:
1236:
1232:
1230:
1229:
1224:
1220:
1215:
1210:
1208:
1203:
1195:
1175:
1174:
1165:
1163:
1160:
1153:
1151:
1149:
1141:
1137:
1134:
1130:
1127:
1123:
1119:
1115:
1112:
1109:In the ninth
1108:
1104:
1100:
1096:
1092:
1089:
1085:
1082:
1078:
1074:
1070:
1067:
1063:
1059:
1055:
1051:
1047:
1043:
1042:
1041:
1039:
1035:
1031:
1023:
1021:
1019:
1015:
1011:
1010:
1005:
1001:
996:
994:
990:
986:
985:
980:
979:
972:
970:
969:
963:
960:
956:
945:
940:
938:
933:
931:
926:
925:
923:
922:
917:
912:
907:
906:
905:
904:
897:
894:
892:
889:
887:
884:
882:
879:
877:
874:
872:
869:
868:
860:
859:
852:
849:
847:
844:
842:
839:
837:
834:
832:
829:
828:
827:
817:
816:
809:
806:
804:
801:
799:
796:
794:
791:
790:
782:
781:
774:
773:
769:
767:
766:
762:
760:
759:
755:
753:
752:
748:
746:
745:
741:
739:
738:
734:
732:
731:
727:
725:
724:
720:
718:
717:
713:
711:
710:
706:
705:
701:
695:
694:
687:
684:
682:
679:
678:
677:
667:
666:
659:
656:
654:
651:
649:
648:Samantabhadra
646:
644:
641:
639:
636:
634:
631:
629:
628:
624:
622:
619:
617:
614:
612:
609:
607:
604:
603:
599:Major figures
595:
594:
587:
584:
582:
579:
577:
576:Navkar Mantra
574:
572:
569:
567:
564:
563:
555:
554:
547:
544:
542:
539:
538:
535:
532:
531:
528:
525:
523:
520:
518:
515:
513:
512:Satya (truth)
510:
508:
505:
504:
501:
498:
497:
496:
486:
485:
478:
475:
473:
470:
468:
465:
463:
460:
458:
455:
453:
450:
448:
445:
443:
440:
438:
435:
433:
430:
428:
425:
423:
420:
418:
415:
414:
410:
404:
403:
398:
395:
393:
390:
388:
385:
383:
380:
379:
378:
377:
373:
369:
368:
365:
361:
357:
353:
352:
346:
344:
340:
338:
334:
329:
324:
322:
316:
314:
310:
306:
302:
296:
290:
278:
274:
273:
268:
264:
260:
256:
253:
250:
246:
245:
238:
232:
220:
216:
215:
205:
200:
197:
194:
192:
189:
188:
185:
182:
180:
177:
176:
173:
172:
167:
164:
162:
159:
157:
154:
153:
150:
147:
145:
142:
141:
138:
134:
131:
128:
127:
123:
121:
118:
117:
114:
111:
109:
106:
105:
102:
98:
95:
93:
90:
89:
86:
83:
81:
78:
77:
74:
71:
69:
66:
65:
62:
61:
56:
53:
49:
46:
41:
34:
30:
19:
2808:Tamil-Brahmi
2686:Caturakarāti
2659:dictionaries
2657:Grammars and
2552:Cīrappurānam
2396:Nellai Tamil
2346:Third Sangam
2336:First Sangam
2316:Manipravalam
2311:Modern Tamil
2306:Middle Tamil
2237:
2210:
2186:
2165:
2156:
2137:
2133:John E. Cort
2110:
2089:
2078:
2057:
2036:
2025:
2004:
1983:
1962:
1954:Bibliography
1931:
1924:
1904:
1897:
1877:
1870:
1861:
1836:
1832:
1826:
1816:
1809:
1800:
1780:
1773:
1764:
1684:
1677:
1641:
1614:
1604:
1561:
1508:
1391:
1383:
1377:
1364:
1354:
1345:
1313:
1311:
1306:
1301:
1287:
1273:
1267:
1261:
1255:
1249:
1244:
1237:
1233:
1226:
1216:
1212:
1206:
1201:
1198:
1177:
1172:
1171:
1166:Significance
1161:
1157:
1147:
1145:
1139:
1132:
1131:Ilakaneiyar
1125:
1117:
1110:
1102:
1094:
1087:
1086:Kemasariyar
1080:
1079:Pathumeiyar
1072:
1071:Gundmaleyar
1061:
1053:
1045:
1040:as follows:
1033:
1029:
1027:
1017:
1013:
1009:Uttarapurana
1007:
1003:
999:
997:
982:
976:
973:
966:
964:
954:
953:
886:Jain symbols
770:
763:
757:
756:
749:
742:
735:
728:
721:
714:
707:
625:
586:Jai Jinendra
559:Jain prayers
533:
499:
447:Kevala Jnana
417:Anekantavada
341:
336:
327:
325:
317:
312:
308:
271:
270:
266:
243:
242:
213:
212:
211:
171:Tamil people
169:
136:
100:
58:
29:
2681:Tolkāppiyam
2582:Thiruppugal
2381:Kongu Tamil
1275:Kundalakesi
1269:Valayapathi
1257:Manimekalai
1148:Maha Purana
1052:Kovindiyar
1030:illambakams
984:Tolkappiyam
896:Topics list
821:Pilgrimages
772:Valayapathi
671:Major sects
658:Yashovijaya
462:Brahmacarya
92:Kundalakesi
85:Valayapathi
73:Manimekalai
2985:Jain texts
2974:Categories
2818:Vatteluttu
2545:literature
2543:Devotional
2495:Literature
2449:Sociolects
2419:Batticaloa
2406:Sri Lankan
1403:References
1326:Tamil Jain
1184:– because
1140:Illambagam
1133:Illambagam
1126:Illambagam
1116:Manamagal
1101:Kimaleyar
1062:Illambagam
968:mahāvratas
808:Samvatsari
803:Paryushana
686:Śvetāmbara
653:Haribhadra
643:Siddhasena
638:Kundakunda
546:Sallekhana
472:Gunasthana
467:Aparigraha
409:Philosophy
249:five great
43:Topics in
2875:Phonology
2847:Lexis and
2813:Koleḻuttu
2753:Tamil and
2666:Agattiyam
2623:Iraichchi
2572:Tirumurai
2567:Tēmpāvaṉi
2301:Old Tamil
1370:Digambara
1124:Purmagal
1118:Ilambagam
1111:ilambagam
1106:marriage.
1103:Ilambagam
1095:Ilambagam
1088:Ilambagam
1081:Ilambagam
1073:Ilambagam
1054:Ilambagam
1046:Ilambagam
978:Akattiyam
881:Jain flag
871:Ekendriya
846:Shikharji
786:Festivals
681:Digambara
633:Ganadhara
422:Cosmology
323:ascetic.
305:quatrains
272:Mana Nool
161:Tirumurai
108:Neelakesi
2740:Yerambam
2502:Classics
2357:Dialects
2208:(1974),
1320:See also
1280:Ramayana
1245:cūttiraṇ
1098:stanzas.
1057:stanzas.
1044:Namagal
1024:Contents
1014:prasasti
989:Sanskrit
836:Palitana
621:Mahavira
611:Rishabha
541:Sāmāyika
392:Timeline
356:a series
354:Part of
309:viruttam
289:Maṇa nūl
113:Culamani
2849:grammar
2796:Scripts
2767:Sinhala
2762:English
2700:History
2643:Ullurai
2414:Negombo
2294:History
1049:Chitty.
1034:lambaka
876:Temples
627:Arihant
477:Saṃsāra
387:History
364:Jainism
297:
281:மண நூல்
239:
156:Tevaram
2922:Events
2787:Korean
2671:Nannūl
2638:Thinai
2606:Poetry
2424:Jaffna
2364:Indian
2245:
2218:
2194:
2173:
2145:
2118:
2097:
2065:
2044:
2012:
1991:
1970:
1939:
1912:
1885:
1853:597587
1851:
1788:
1692:
1569:
1516:
1284:Kambar
1241:Shudra
1223:Hindus
1138:Mutti
1032:(Skt:
841:Girnar
793:Diwali
616:Pārśva
490:Ethics
457:Tattva
452:Dravya
437:Dharma
427:Ahimsa
301:cantos
179:Sangam
2782:Malay
2633:Puram
2618:Venpa
2613:Kural
1849:JSTOR
1337:Notes
1292:Chola
1219:Chola
1154:Story
1066:Veena
993:Vedas
864:Other
826:Tirth
442:Mokṣa
432:Karma
397:Index
382:Jains
277:Tamil
255:epics
252:Tamil
219:Tamil
204:edit
2913:Moḻi
2838:Arwi
2628:Akam
2461:Arwi
2243:ISBN
2216:ISBN
2192:ISBN
2171:ISBN
2143:ISBN
2116:ISBN
2095:ISBN
2063:ISBN
2042:ISBN
2010:ISBN
1989:ISBN
1968:ISBN
1937:ISBN
1910:ISBN
1883:ISBN
1786:ISBN
1690:ISBN
1567:ISBN
1514:ISBN
1307:guru
1272:and
991:and
981:and
321:Jain
313:guru
295:lit.
263:epic
259:Jain
237:lit.
2908:ISO
2648:Ulā
1841:doi
1282:of
831:Abu
307:in
2976::
1847:.
1837:87
1835:.
1752:^
1734:^
1718:^
1704:^
1665:^
1650:^
1626:^
1596:^
1581:^
1547:^
1528:^
1492:^
1469:^
1452:^
1440:^
1411:^
1386:."
1286:.
1266:,
1260:,
358:on
292:,
283:,
279::
234:,
225:,
221::
2279:e
2272:t
2265:v
2251:.
2200:.
2179:.
2151:.
2124:.
2103:.
2071:.
2050:.
2018:.
1997:.
1976:.
1945:.
1918:.
1891:.
1855:.
1843::
1794:.
1698:.
1575:.
1522:.
1200:—
943:e
936:t
929:v
275:(
217:(
20:)
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