248:
1332:
323:
794:
160:
918:, said that civil protection requires "not just more resources, but first and foremost better governance of the resources that are available including better synergies between humanitarian aid and civil protection". In recent years there has been emphasis on preparedness for technological disasters resulting from terrorist attack. Within EU countries the term "crisis-management" emphasizes the political and security dimension rather than measures to satisfy the immediate needs of the population.
680:
813:" (MAD) by making provisions for survivors. It was also considered that a full-fledged total defense would have not been worth the very large expense. For whatever reason, the public saw efforts at civil defense as fundamentally ineffective against the powerful destructive forces of nuclear weapons, and therefore a waste of time and money, although detailed scientific research programs did underlie the much-mocked government civil defense pamphlets of the 1950s and 1960s.
621:
707:(1961–63) launched an ambitious effort to install fallout shelters throughout the United States. These shelters would not protect against the blast and heat effects of nuclear weapons, but would provide some protection against the radiation effects that would last for weeks and even affect areas distant from a nuclear explosion. In order for most of these preparations to be effective, there had to be some degree of warning. In 1951,
472:. Like the Civil Air Patrol, the Coast Guard Auxiliary was established in the run up to World War II. Auxiliarists were sometimes armed during the war, and extensively participated in port security operations. After the war, the Auxiliary shifted its focus to promoting boating safety and assisting the Coast Guard in performing search and rescue and marine safety and environmental protection.
491:
1104:
380:
40:
711:(Control of Electromagnetic Radiation) was established. Under the system, a few primary stations would be alerted of an emergency and would broadcast an alert. All broadcast stations throughout the country would be constantly listening to an upstream station and repeat the message, thus passing it from station to station.
2284:
1291:
showed that lightly trained (40 hours or less) civilians in organised teams can perform up to 95% of emergency activities when trained, liaised and supported by local government. In this plan, the populace rescues itself from most situations, and provides information to a central office to prioritize
718:
analysis, looking at varying levels of war escalation, warning and pre-emptive attacks in the late 1950s early 1960s, it was estimated that approximately 27 million US citizens would have been saved with civil defense education. At the time, however, the cost of a full-scale civil defense program was
595:
caused international controversy when it announced plans to disband its Civil
Defence committee because the councillors had decided that hydrogen bombs meant that there could be no recovery from a nuclear attack. The British government opposed such a move and held a provocative Civil Defence exercise
475:
In the United States a federal civil defense program existed under Public Law 920 of the 81st
Congress, as amended, from 1951 to 1994. That statutory scheme was made so-called all-hazards by Public Law 103–160 in 1993 and largely repealed by Public Law 103–337 in 1994. Parts now appear in Title VI of
404:
failed to break the morale of the
British people, destroy the Royal Air Force or significantly hinder British industrial production. Despite a significant investment in civil and military defense, British civilian losses during the Blitz were higher than in most strategic bombing campaigns throughout
1267:
Staffing a response is always full of problems in a civil defense emergency. After an attack, conventional full-time emergency services are dramatically overloaded, with conventional fire fighting response times often exceeding several days. Some capability is maintained by local and state agencies,
1021:
Shelter intended to protect against nuclear blast effects would include thick concrete and other sturdy elements which are resistant to conventional explosives. The biggest threats from a nuclear attack are effects from the blast, fires and radiation. One of the most prepared countries for a nuclear
1322:
Preparation for recovery can be very helpful. If mitigating resources are dispersed before the attack, cascades of social failures can be prevented. One hedge against bridge damage in riverine cities is to subsidize a "tourist ferry" that performs scenic cruises on the river. When a bridge is down,
414:
during the war proved slightly less lethal than what was observed in the UK, with an estimated 400,000-600,000 German civilian fatalities for approximately 1.35 million tons of bombs dropped on
Germany, an estimated resulting rate therefore of 0.30-0.44 civilian fatalities per ton of bombs dropped.
220:
there would be 9,000 casualties in the first two days and then a continuing rate of 17,500 casualties a week. These rates were thought conservative. It was believed that there would be "total chaos and panic" and hysterical neurosis as the people of London would try to flee the city. To control the
399:
As the war progressed, the military effectiveness of
Germany's aerial bombardment was very limited. Thanks to the Luftwaffe's shifting aims, the strength of British air defenses, the use of early warning radar and the life-saving actions of local civil defense units, the aerial "Blitz" during the
1318:
Recovery consists of rebuilding damaged infrastructure, buildings and production. The recovery phase is the longest and ultimately most expensive phase. Once the immediate "crisis" has passed, cooperation fades away and recovery efforts are often politicized or seen as economic opportunities.
1151:
and pre-positioning information, supplies, and emergency infrastructure. For example, most larger cities in the U.S. now have underground emergency operations centers that can perform civil defense coordination. FEMA also has many underground facilities for the same purpose located near major
376:. The ARP also helped rescue people after air raids and other attacks, and some women became ARP Ambulance Attendants whose job was to help administer first aid to casualties, search for survivors, and in many grim instances, help recover bodies, sometimes those of their own colleagues.
952:
In the United States, the federal civil defense program was authorized by statute and ran from 1951 to 1994. Originally authorized by Public Law 920 of the 81st
Congress, it was repealed by Public Law 93–337 in 1994. Small portions of that statutory scheme were incorporated into the
968:
was the so-called "Crisis
Relocation Program" administered as part of the federal civil defense program. That effort largely lapsed under President Ronald Reagan, who discontinued the Carter initiative because of opposition from areas potentially hosting the relocated population.
758:
planned to minimize, as far as possible, the effects of nuclear weapon strikes on its territory, and therefore spent considerably more thought on civil defense preparations than in U.S., with defense plans that have been assessed to be far more effective than those in the U.S.
889:, the triangle CD logo continues to be widely used. Created in 1939 by Charles Coiner of the N. W. Ayer Advertising Agency, it was used throughout World War II and the Cold War era. In the U.S., 2006 saw the retirement of the old triangle logo, to be replaced with a stylised
1042:", uses an explosive to spread radioactive material. This is a theoretical risk, and such weapons have not been used by terrorists. Depending on the quantity of the radioactive material, the dangers may be mainly psychological. Toxic effects can be managed by standard
449:. The CAP was created on December 1, 1941, with the main civil defense mission of search and rescue. The CAP also sank two Axis submarines and provided aerial reconnaissance for Allied and neutral merchant ships. In 1946, the Civil Air Patrol was barred from combat by
945:, a country's population is more valuable than all of the land, factories and other assets that it possesses. People rebuild a country after its destruction, and it is therefore important for the economic security of a country that it protect its people. According to
258:
The organization of civil defense was the responsibility of the local authority. Volunteers were ascribed to different units depending on experience or training. Each local civil defense service was divided into several sections. Wardens were responsible for local
1030:(shelter) against the initial nuclear bomb and explosion followed by the fall-out. Because of this, many people use it as a safe to protect valuables, photos, financial information and so on. Switzerland also has air-raid and nuclear-raid sirens in every village.
607:
and the perceived likelihood of such an attack precipitated a greater response than had yet been required of civil defense. Civil defense, previously considered an important and commonsense step, became divisive and controversial in the charged atmosphere of the
961:(Public Law 93-288). In the portions of the civil defense statute incorporated into the Stafford Act, the primary modification was to use the term "Emergency Preparedness" wherever the term "Civil Defence" had previously appeared in the statutory language.
100:, the focus of civil defense has largely shifted from responding to military attack to dealing with emergencies and disasters in general. The new concept is characterised by a number of terms, each of which has its own specific shade of meaning, such as
2411:
616:
created a 162-page document outlining a model civil defense structure for the U.S. Called the "Blue Book" by civil defense professionals in reference to its solid blue cover, it was the template for legislation and organization for the next 40 years.
913:
to refer to government-approved systems and resources tasked with protecting the non-combat population, primarily in the event of natural and technological disasters. For example, the EU's humanitarian aid policy director on the Ebola Crisis,
409:
dropped only an estimated 30,000 tons of ordinance during the battle. Granted, this resulting 0.47-0.67 civilian fatalities per ton of bombs dropped was lower than the earlier 121 casualties per ton prediction. However, in comparison, Allied
221:
population harsh measures were proposed: bringing London under almost military control, and physically cordoning off the city with 120,000 troops to force people back to work. A different government department proposed setting up camps for
345:, local authorities dug trenches to provide shelter. After the crisis, the British Government decided to make these a permanent feature, with a standard design of precast concrete trench lining. They also decided to issue the
1979:
1347:
Civil
Defense is also the name of a number of organizations around the world dedicated to protecting civilians from military attacks, as well as to providing rescue services after natural and human-made disasters alike.
905:
Homeland
Security/Office of Civil Defense. In Great Britain, a charity providing a Civil Defense response was launched during 2015 to fill the gap since the disbandment of the Government run Civil Defense service.
476:
the Robert T. Stafford
Disaster Relief and Emergency Assistance Act, Public Law 100-107 . The term EMERGENCY PREPAREDNESS was largely codified by that repeal and amendment. See 42 USC Sections 5101 and following.
1352:
688:
337:, because of the apparently irreconcilable conflict between the need to send the public underground for shelter and the need to keep them above ground for protection against gas attacks. In February 1936 the
2207:
2070:
596:
on the streets of Coventry which Labour council members protested against. The government also decided to implement its own committee at the city's cost until the council reinstituted its committee.
263:
and reporting, and leadership, organization, guidance and control of the general public. Wardens would also advise survivors of the locations of rest and food centers, and other welfare facilities.
1171:, the dispersal of lorry-transportable bridges, water purification, mobile refineries, mobile de-contamination facilities, mobile general and special purpose disaster mortuary facilities such as
588:
Each division was divided into several sections, including the Headquarters, Intelligence and Operations, Scientific and Reconnaissance, Warden & Rescue, Ambulance and First Aid and Welfare.
805:. As of 2006, there were about 300,000 shelters in private and public buildings for a total of 8.6 million places, a level of coverage corresponding to 114% of the Swiss population.
1307:, under the Department of Homeland Security, which certifies training programs by local governments, and registers "certified disaster service workers" who complete such training.
1932:
1761:
954:
750:, with its stops and starts in civil defense depending on the whims of each newly elected government, the military strategy in the comparatively more ideologically consistent
3555:
871:
maintain a national Civil Defence Corps, usually having a wide brief for assisting in large scale civil emergencies such as flood, earthquake, invasion, or civil disorder.
293:
teams to the scenes of reported bombing. If local services were deemed insufficient to deal with the incident then the controller could request assistance from surrounding
3711:
247:
937:
Relatively small investments in preparation can speed up recovery by months or years and thereby prevent millions of deaths by hunger, cold and disease. According to
81:
and recovery. Programs of this sort were initially discussed at least as early as the 1920s and were implemented in some countries during the 1930s as the threat of
949:, it is important for people to feel as though they are in control of their own destiny, and preparing for uncertainty via civil defense may help to achieve this.
1696:
2159:
1287:
However, the traditional response to massed attack on civilian population centers is to maintain a mass-trained force of volunteer emergency workers. Studies in
1528:
1452:
is still very much an active organization and is occasionally called upon for its Auxiliary Fire Service and ambulance/rescue services when emergencies such as
557:. As a civilian volunteer organization, it was tasked to take control in the aftermath of a major national emergency, principally envisaged as being a Cold War
244:(NFS)), fire watchers, rescue, first aid post, stretcher party and industry. Over 1.9 million people served within the CD; nearly 2,400 died from enemy action.
3503:
897:). A reference to the old CD logo (without the red CD letters) can be seen above the eagle's head in the FEMA seal. The name and logo continue to be used by
820:
was stood down in Great Britain in 1968 due to the financial crisis of the mid-1960s. Its neighbors, however, remained committed to Civil Defence, namely the
2218:
2081:
1231:
To set up and implement training programs for intervention and coordination teams as well as assessment experts including joint courses and exchange systems
3530:
1172:
1168:
179:
1331:
778:
Civil Defense Brigade. The task force performed some high-risk tasks including, with the failure of their robotic machinery, the manual removal of highly-
3706:
3250:
2335:
Recruitment continued well into the 1960s, until the financial crisis of the mid 1960s resulted in the standing-down of the Civil Defence Corps in 1968.
1736:
1303:. The program was widely adopted, providing standard terms for organization. In the U.S., this is now official federal policy, and it is implemented by
2599:
926:
3488:
3335:
1543:
1213:
To establish a framework for effective and rapid cooperation between different civil protection services when mutual assistance is needed (police,
3523:
2186:
405:
the war. For example, there were 14,000-20,000 UK civilian fatalities during the Battle of Britain, a relatively high number considering that the
266:
Rescue Parties were required to assess and then access bombed-out buildings and retrieve injured or dead people. In addition they would turn off
1234:
To enhance the coherence of actions undertaken at international level in the field of civil protection, especially in the context of cooperation
809:
In Western countries, strong civil defense policies were never properly implemented, because it was fundamentally at odds with the doctrine of "
1488:
2723:
2589:
2014:
1995:
National Security Resources Board. United States Civil Defense. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office (GPO), 1950. LCCN 51060552.
1896:
1866:
1672:
411:
2454:
1378:. In most countries, however, civil defense is a government-managed, volunteer-staffed organization, separate from the fire brigade and the
2586:– Features much historical information about Civil Defense history, its equipment and methods, and many historical photographs and posters.
2032:
1132:
787:
322:
632:
Perhaps the most memorable aspect of the Cold War civil defense effort was the educational effort made or promoted by the government. In
2323:
1769:
832:
1385:
As the threat of Cold War eased, a number of such civil defense organizations have been disbanded or mothballed (as in the case of the
1135:
gathering and direct action against terrorist groups. Mitigation may also be reflected in long-term planning such as the design of the
3428:
3330:
2608:
1523:
1340:
840:
699:
US & "Russian" strategic weapons (ready for use) were far less than this, reaching a maximum of about 10,000 apiece in the 1980s.
507:
308:
by dousing it with buckets of sand or water or by smothering. Additionally, 'Gas Decontamination Teams' kitted out with gas-tight and
141:
refers to the commitment of a wide range of national resources to defense, including the protection of all aspects of civilian life.
2499:
3545:
3540:
2421:
1414:
1304:
613:
319:. They were trained to decontaminate buildings, roads, rail and other material that had been contaminated by liquid or jelly gases.
2636:
2623:
2510:
3535:
3300:
836:
821:
285:
The expected stream of information that would be generated during an attack was handled by 'Report and Control' teams. A local
2691:
3550:
3518:
3468:
2107:
1553:
566:
565:, with a centralized administrative establishment, the corps was administered locally by Corps Authorities. In general every
44:
3245:
2007:"In Case Atom Bombs Fall": An Anthology of Governmental Explanations, Instructions and Warnings from the 1940s to the 1960s
3701:
2975:
2626:– A site with details of the UK's Civil Defence preparations, including those implemented during the Cold War such as the
1503:
1371:
3508:
2950:
1844:. Office of the Federal Register, National Archives and Records Service, General Services Administration. pp. 752–.
1425:
1164:
673:
652:
625:
209:
Committee (ARP) was established in 1924 to investigate ways for ensuring the protection of civilians from the danger of
2398:
Civil protection and humanitarian aid in the Ebola response: lessons for the humanitarian system from the EU experience
2134:"Previously Classified Interviews with Former Soviet Officials Reveal U.S. Strategic Intelligence Failure Over Decades"
1088:
1009:
designed to protect only from radiation and fallout would be much more vulnerable to conventional explosives. See also
851:
have caused attention to be focused away from traditional civil defense and into new forms of civil protection such as
3513:
3340:
3092:
2163:
1558:
1394:
1336:
1296:
958:
664:
424:
3280:
387:
in 1942. The group served as ARP Fire Wardens, equipped with water hoses and buckets, some wearing FW (Fire Watcher)
2677:
3453:
3295:
3290:
3235:
2965:
2672:
1601:
925:. In most former Soviet countries civil defense is the responsibility of governmental ministries, such as Russia's
810:
676:
including children's songs and distributed them to radio stations to educate the public in case of nuclear attack.
434:
329:
were widely distributed in the United Kingdom by civil defense authorities, in preparation for aerial bombardment.
3260:
1933:"'No protection against the H-bomb': press and popular reactions to the Coventry civil defence controversy, 1954"
724:
469:
2583:
2542:
1205:
To support and supplement efforts at national, regional and local level with regard to disaster prevention, the
3626:
3498:
2716:
2653:
2568:
2473:
1586:
1518:
1473:
1198:. Another measure is to cover the nose, mouth and eyes with a piece of cloth and sunglasses to protect against
1124:
868:
793:
774:(as in a case of war) from throughout the USSR to join the Chernobyl task force and formed on the basis of the
210:
2285:"Architects of Armageddon: the Home Office Scientific Advisers' Branch and civil defence in Britain, 1945–68†"
1397:), while others have changed their focuses into providing rescue services after natural disasters (as for the
2536:
3112:
2985:
2732:
2494:
1621:
1591:
1493:
1398:
922:
458:
454:
2945:
2683:
1639:
3696:
3265:
2904:
1548:
783:
438:
237:
159:
2372:
1339:
logo. The triangle emphasized the 3-step Civil Defense philosophy used before the foundation of FEMA and
878:
in 2001, in the United States the concept of civil defense has been revisited under the umbrella term of
174:
The advent of civil defense was stimulated by the experience of the bombing of civilian areas during the
3663:
3270:
2347:
1513:
1449:
1128:
825:
762:
Soviet Civil Defense Troops played the main role in the massive disaster relief operation following the
720:
634:
592:
546:
465:
241:
229:
31:
2522:
1626:
Enterprise vs Bureaucracy – The Development of Structural Air Raid Precautions during the 2nd World War
1461:
2052:
1665:
Warfare and armed conflicts : a statistical encyclopedia of casualty and other figures, 1492–2015
534:
during the 1950s and 1960s, many civil defense practices took place to prepare for the aftermath of a
441:
and established similar groups to the British ARP. One of these groups that still exists today is the
3675:
3448:
3433:
3413:
3397:
2709:
2558:
2548:
1533:
1386:
915:
894:
875:
852:
251:
206:
108:
78:
70:
3631:
3355:
3350:
3240:
3022:
2594:
1508:
1445:
1120:
817:
740:
715:
554:
312:
89:
grew. Civil-defense structures became widespread after authorities recognised the threats posed by
957:(Public Law 100–707) which partly superseded in part, partly amended, and partly supplemented the
679:
3653:
3638:
3463:
3157:
2899:
2894:
2304:
1971:
1690:
1136:
982:
763:
658:
373:
304:
and pass on news of any fires that had broken out to the NFS. They could deal with an individual
2029:
784:
decorated with medals for their work at containing the release of radiation into the environment
300:
Fire Guards were responsible for a designated area/building and required to monitor the fall of
1737:"There Are Still Thousands of Tons of Unexploded Bombs in Germany, Left Over From World War II"
1242:
To contribute to informing the public, in view of increasing citizens' level of self-protection
1176:
1054:
The threat here is primarily from disease-causing microorganisms such as bacteria and viruses.
349:
free to poorer households and to provide steel props to create shelters in suitable basements.
3571:
3219:
2753:
2417:
2010:
1963:
1892:
1886:
1862:
1839:
1678:
1668:
1581:
1576:
1437:
1108:
994:
879:
856:
732:
704:
669:
574:
450:
401:
198:
bombers surpassed the zeppelins. The most devastating raids inflicted 121 casualties for each
102:
86:
2573:
1856:
1248:
To pool information on national civil protection capabilities, military and medical resources
997:
involves studying each threat so that preventative measures can be built into civilian life.
453:. The CAP then received its current mission: search and rescue for downed aircraft. When the
3648:
3423:
3360:
3345:
3209:
3152:
3147:
3062:
3012:
2960:
2940:
2909:
2296:
2137:
1955:
1947:
1813:
1187:
1067:
986:
844:
647:
442:
437:
was established in May 1941 to coordinate civilian defense efforts. It coordinated with the
369:
365:
361:
353:
346:
334:
326:
305:
236:
in 1935. Its remit included the pre-existing ARP as well as wardens, firemen (initially the
194:
bombing operations of the First World War were surprisingly effective, especially after the
118:
66:
2605:
620:
3275:
3082:
2980:
2970:
2919:
2830:
2778:
2695:
2657:
2640:
2612:
2590:
Annotated bibliography for civil defense from the Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues
2526:
2514:
2266:
2191:
2036:
1571:
1538:
1281:
1273:
1261:
1183:
1043:
1010:
978:
798:
639:
558:
535:
301:
290:
175:
164:
74:
48:
754:
held that, amongst other things, a winnable nuclear war was possible. To this effect the
341:
appointed a technical Committee on Structural Precautions against Air Attack. During the
2633:
2507:
1803:
Texas Wing Civil Air Patrol 2014 Summer Encampment Standard Operating Instructions (SOI)
1209:
of those responsible for civil protection and the intervention in the event of disaster
3621:
3616:
3611:
3320:
3310:
3177:
2852:
1453:
1421:
1390:
1277:
1222:
1199:
1116:
910:
643:
604:
570:
515:
338:
260:
187:
90:
205:
After the war, attention was turned toward civil defense in the event of war, and the
3690:
3596:
3315:
3182:
3172:
3142:
3127:
3117:
3072:
3037:
2955:
2914:
2862:
2857:
2773:
2308:
2030:
Hans M. Kristensen 2012, "Estimated US-Russian Nuclear Warhead Inventories 1977–2018.
1975:
1498:
1410:
1406:
1269:
1157:
1153:
1148:
1092:
1006:
938:
779:
511:
485:
430:
388:
357:
342:
138:
137:
Some countries treat civil defense as a key part of defense in general. For example,
62:
1791:"History of Civil Air Patrol – Civil Air Patrol – United States Air Force Auxiliary"
1206:
3576:
3438:
3392:
3305:
3204:
2884:
2795:
2688:
2214:
2077:
1441:
1375:
1288:
1214:
965:
771:
684:
519:
275:
1163:
Other measures would include continual government inventories of grain silos, the
1103:
549:
was disbanded in 1945, followed by the ARP in 1946. With the onset of the growing
2249:
2133:
1951:
167:
poster, bringing attention to the threat posed by aerial bombardment from German
3658:
3643:
3591:
3581:
3325:
3255:
3214:
3192:
3132:
2783:
1838:
United States. President; United States. Office of the Federal Register (1958).
1596:
1023:
831:
In the United States, the various civil defense agencies were replaced with the
802:
562:
527:
523:
490:
286:
271:
233:
17:
1711:
1268:
and an emergency reserve is provided by specialized military units, especially
3670:
3443:
3285:
2935:
2879:
2835:
2758:
2437:
2300:
1300:
1218:
1139:
system and the placement of military bases further away from populated areas.
1039:
946:
767:
379:
316:
309:
2160:"Soviet Civil Defense U.S.S.R. preparations for industrial-base war survival"
1967:
1682:
1456:
occur and require additional manpower. The organization has units of trained
43:
The international distinctive sign of civil defense, defined by the rules of
3586:
3458:
3167:
3052:
3042:
2825:
2815:
2810:
2667:
2620:– The official preparedness site of the U.S. Department of Homeland Security
2270:
1402:
1379:
1367:
1225:
1063:
942:
848:
728:
672:
combined hit music with civil defense advice. Government institutes created
406:
392:
384:
279:
2441:
1888:
United States Code, 2006, Supplement 1, January 4, 2007 to January 8, 2008
278:, and repair or pull down unsteady buildings. Medical services, including
39:
3199:
3187:
3097:
3077:
3067:
3047:
3027:
3017:
2889:
2820:
2805:
1251:
To ensure efficient information sharing between the different authorities
921:
In Australia, civil defense is the responsibility of the volunteer-based
839:. The focus was shifted from nuclear war to an "all-hazards" approach of
736:
708:
692:
609:
582:
550:
499:
267:
183:
168:
97:
1959:
1790:
1131:. In the case of counter-terrorism, mitigation would include diplomacy,
202:
of bombs dropped; this figure was then used as a basis for predictions.
3493:
3418:
3365:
3102:
3057:
2872:
2763:
1457:
1405:). However, the ideals of Civil Defense have been brought back in the
1191:
1115:
Mitigation is the process of actively preventing war or the release of
457:
was created, in 1947, the Civil Air Patrol became the auxiliary of the
446:
294:
222:
195:
191:
2532:
Special Event Amateur Ham Radio Station operated from Bangalore, INDIA
3601:
3137:
3122:
3107:
3032:
2842:
2800:
2768:
1433:
1363:
1195:
1096:
898:
886:
755:
531:
217:
2650:
2602:– Cold War community getaway in case of nuclear war located in Idaho
1424:
Civil Defence work is carried out by Emergency Responders under the
1179:, and other aids such as temporary housing to speed civil recovery.
289:
would have an ARP controller who would direct rescue, first aid and
372:), the upkeep of local public shelters, and the maintenance of the
3087:
2847:
2562:
2554:
2208:"Why the Soviet Union Thinks It Could Fight and Win a Nuclear War"
2071:"Why the Soviet Union Thinks It Could Fight and Win a Nuclear War"
1353:
United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs
1330:
1102:
1086:
1071:
792:
678:
619:
578:
489:
378:
321:
246:
158:
38:
2132:
Burr, William; Savranskaya, Svetlana, eds. (September 11, 2009).
1814:"About the Coast Guard Auxiliary and District 11 Southern Region"
1182:
On an individual scale, one means of preparation for exposure to
3162:
2867:
2790:
2606:
Comprehensive Emergency Management Reference Material Repository
2108:"Why the Soviet Union thinks it can fight and win a Nuclear War"
1818:
United States Coast Guard Auxiliary -District 11 Southern Region
1356:
990:
909:
The term "civil protection" is currently widely used within the
902:
775:
751:
747:
27:
Protection of citizens from natural disaster and military attack
2705:
1260:
Response consists first of warning civilians so they can enter
955:
Robert T. Stafford Disaster Relief and Emergency Assistance Act
2701:
2645:
2531:
2376:
1374:), civil defense is essentially the same organization as the
1119:. It includes policy analysis, diplomacy, political measures,
1087:
445:, which was originally created as a civilian auxiliary to the
391:. Men are in uniform while women wear plain clothes. Composer
199:
82:
2351:
2519:
2662:
2651:
The official Civil Defense site of São Paulo State – Brazil
2646:
The official Civil Defence site for the Republic of Ireland
731:) system, and as the Soviet adversary was increasing their
61:
is an effort to protect the citizens of a state (generally
1245:
To collect and disseminate validated emergency information
2574:
Civil Defense Logo dies at 67, and Some Mourn its Passing
2324:"Civil Defence: From the First World War to the Cold War"
2162:. Air University Review, March–April 1977. Archived from
2617:
2500:
Large gallery of Bulgaria's Civil Defense Mechanization
2373:"Guam Homeland Security | Office of Civil Defense"
2250:"Chernobyl: Disaster, Response & Fallout - HISTORY"
1429:
746:
Contrary to the largely noncommittal approach taken in
2680:– online resources for emergency planners and managers
1190:(KI) tablets as a safety measure to protect the human
2187:"War Survival in Soviet Strategy: USSR Civil Defense"
1640:"Battle of Britain | European history [1940]"
668:
were also commonplace. The transcribed radio program
2047:
2045:
1912:
McReynolds, David (2008). "Ralph DiGia, 1914–2008".
977:
Threats to civilians and civilian life include NBC (
3564:
3556:
Southern African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy
3481:
3406:
3385:
3378:
3228:
3005:
2998:
2928:
2746:
2739:
2508:
The UK Civil Defence Project – History & Photos
689:
total number of nuclear bombs/warheads in existence
526:, and especially in the neutral countries, such as
225:for a few days before sending them back to London.
2630:Central Government War HQ., at Corsham, Wiltshire.
2273:, 23 October 2009 (page visited on 5 August 2015).
1855:Nuclear Regulatory Commission (U S ) (July 2009).
282:Parties, provided on the spot medical assistance.
216:The Committee produced figures estimating that in
254:testing his equipment in Brisbane in October 1942
2185:Leon Gouré Reviewed by John C. Campbell (1977).
1428:, with assistance from voluntary groups such as
993:(Chemical Biological Radiological and Nuclear).
835:(FEMA) in 1979. In 2002 this became part of the
1880:
1878:
1194:gland from the uptake of dangerous radioactive
2289:The British Journal for the History of Science
1667:(Fourth ed.). Jefferson, North Carolina.
1295:In the 1990s, this concept was revived by the
1062:Various chemical agents are a threat, such as
1026:. Almost every building in Switzerland has an
395:stands next to the woman with a black sweater.
2717:
1891:. Government Printing Office. pp. 137–.
1529:Effects of nuclear explosions on human health
1238:Preparing also includes sharing information:
356:, the ARP was responsible for the issuing of
8:
2520:National Civil Defence College, Nagpur INDIA
1861:. Government Printing Office. pp. 52–.
964:An important concept initiated by President
306:magnesium alloy ("Elektron") incendiary bomb
3531:Institute of Materials, Minerals and Mining
2673:Dutch civil defense instructions in English
2551:(originally a Civil Defence team in the UK)
2400:. Humanitarian Practice Network. pp. nr 64.
1173:Disaster Mortuary Operational Response Team
782:debris. Many of their personnel were later
333:Little progress was made over the issue of
3504:History of hard rock miners' organizations
3382:
3002:
2743:
2724:
2710:
2702:
2689:German Federal Agency for Technical Relief
2009:. Jefferson, NC: McFarland & Company.
1695:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
538:, which seemed quite likely at that time.
468:performs a similar role in support of the
3712:1948 establishments in the United Kingdom
847:and the emergence of new threats such as
553:, the service was revived in 1949 as the
3489:American Society of Reclamation Sciences
3336:North American Aerospace Defense Command
1544:International Civil Defence Organization
1038:A "radiologically enhanced weapon", or "
989:) and others, like the more modern term
77:, mitigation, preparation, response, or
1613:
1464:based in key areas around the country.
1351:Worldwide protection is managed by the
1299:to cope with civil emergencies such as
2595:The American Civil Defense Association
2053:"Net Evaluation Subcommittee. page 27"
1841:Code of federal regulations: President
1688:
1489:The American Civil Defense Association
1123:and more military responses such as a
882:and all-hazards emergency management.
695:and post-Cold War era. However, total
561:. Although under the authority of the
2438:Presidential Review Memorandum/NSC-32
2410:Sharma, M. D.; Sharma, M. C. (2008).
1712:"How dangerous are unexploded bombs?"
1202:, which are only an internal hazard.
1005:Refers to conventional explosives. A
628:, was common during the Cold War Era.
228:A special government department, the
182:began on 19 January 1915 when German
7:
2474:"Swiss still braced for nuclear war"
2455:"Swiss Renew Push for Bomb Shelters"
2348:"Hawaii Emergency Management Agency"
569:was a Corps Authority, as were most
2442:Presidential Decision Memorandum 42
2322:Thomas, Roger J.C. (October 2016).
833:Federal Emergency Management Agency
3429:Journey to the Center of the Earth
3331:Naples underground geothermal zone
2634:Emergency Planning in Lincolnshire
2580:, 1 December 2006 by David Dunlap.
1710:Leatherdale, Duncan (2015-08-11).
1663:Clodfelter, Micheal (2017-05-09).
1524:Critical infrastructure protection
1341:comprehensive emergency management
1305:community emergency response teams
1091:Civil defense logo on an Air raid
841:comprehensive emergency management
624:Civil Defense literature, such as
508:North Atlantic Treaty Organization
494:Civil Defense literature, such as
25:
3707:Organizations established in 1948
3546:Research Centre for Deep Drilling
3541:International Union of Speleology
2663:Doctors for Disaster Preparedness
2584:Cold War Era Civil Defense Museum
1415:Community Emergency Response Team
1292:professional emergency services.
1147:Preparation consists of building
614:National Security Resources Board
2569:Civil Protection Villena – Spain
2005:Scheibach, Michael, ed. (2009).
1985:from the original on 2020-03-06.
1931:Barnett, Nicholas (2015-07-03).
1478:Mexico: Defensa Civil Municipal
927:Ministry of Emergency Situations
3536:Institution of Mining Engineers
3301:Underground Great Wall of China
837:Department of Homeland Security
822:Isle of Man Civil Defence Corps
788:the 56 deaths from the accident
764:1986 Chernobyl nuclear accident
687:/Russia nuclear stockpiles, in
3551:Society of Economic Geologists
3519:National Speleological Society
3469:Wonderland (fictional country)
2472:Foulkes, Imogen (2007-02-10).
2396:Fink-Hooijer, Florika (2015).
2283:Smith, Melissa (1 June 2010).
1858:Nuclear Regulatory Legislation
1554:State Council of Civil Defense
1152:railheads such as the ones in
719:regarded as less effective in
551:tensions between East and West
383:Jewish Civil Defense group in
45:international humanitarian law
1:
2976:Subterranean rivers of London
1504:Civil-defense Geiger counters
1372:Singapore Civil Defence Force
1323:the ferry takes up the load.
506:In most of the states of the
180:bombing of the United Kingdom
3509:National Mine Map Repository
2951:Jewel Cave National Monument
2668:Physicians for Civil Defense
2453:Ball, Deborah (2011-06-25).
2413:Paramilitary Forces of India
2158:Captain John W. Dorough Jr.
1952:10.1080/14682745.2014.968558
1426:Civil Contingencies Act 2004
1165:Strategic National Stockpile
790:being Civil defense troops.
674:public service announcements
653:Survival Under Atomic Attack
626:Survival Under Atomic Attack
412:strategic bombing of Germany
69:. It uses the principles of
3514:National Mining Association
3341:Raven Rock Mountain Complex
2698:– THW Technisches Hilfswerk
2684:The Norwegian Civil Defence
2678:Emergency Management Portal
2311:– via Cambridge Core.
1559:List of civil defense ranks
1395:United States civil defense
1362:In a few countries such as
1337:United States civil defense
1327:Civil defense organizations
1297:Los Angeles Fire Department
1169:Strategic Petroleum Reserve
959:Disaster Relief Act of 1974
801:of the civil protection in
665:Nuclear War Survival Skills
425:United States civil defense
3728:
3454:Tunnels in popular culture
3296:Underground City, Montreal
3291:Underground City (Beijing)
3236:816 Nuclear Military Plant
2966:Mammoth Cave National Park
1602:Weapon of mass destruction
1471:
811:mutual assured destruction
483:
435:Office of Civilian Defense
422:
190:area, killing six people.
30:For the Russian band, see
29:
3261:Cheyenne Mountain Complex
2440:(September 30, 1977) and
2416:. Gyan Publishing House.
2301:10.1017/S0007087409990392
1885:Congress (October 2009).
797:The reinforced door of a
725:ballistic missile defense
642:advocated that children "
232:, was established by the
3627:Underground construction
3499:Cave Research Foundation
1587:Industrial antiterrorism
1519:Continuity of government
1474:Civil defense by country
1125:National Missile Defense
1107:Civil Defense logo on a
901:State Civil Defense and
714:In a once classified US
498:, was common during the
3113:Missile launch facility
2986:Wind Cave National Park
2549:SEBEV Search and Rescue
2459:The Wall Street Journal
1766:humanities.exeter.ac.uk
1644:Encyclopedia Britannica
1592:Infrastructure security
1494:French Civil Protection
1399:State Emergency Service
1167:, the uncapping of the
923:State Emergency Service
828:(Republic of Ireland).
739:of both would follow a
240:(AFS) and latterly the
3266:Chicago Tunnel Company
2905:Subterranean waterfall
2206:Richard Pipes (1977).
2106:Richard Pipes (1977).
2069:Richard Pipes (1977).
1762:"University of Exeter"
1549:Mass fatality incident
1344:
1112:
1100:
806:
700:
683:The United States and
629:
503:
439:Department of the Army
396:
330:
315:were to deal with any
255:
238:Auxiliary Fire Service
171:
114:emergency preparedness
65:) from human-made and
51:
3281:Kőbánya cellar system
3271:Houston tunnel system
3251:Almadén Mercury Mines
3246:The Caves of Ægissíða
2539:Italian Civil Defense
2267:"À chacun son bunker"
1514:Collective protection
1430:Joint Civil Aid Corps
1334:
1228:, voluntary agencies)
1129:air defense artillery
1106:
1090:
826:Civil Defence Ireland
796:
721:cost-benefit analysis
682:
650:." Booklets such as
646:" when they "see the
623:
603:, the sheer power of
593:Coventry City Council
547:Civil Defence Service
493:
466:Coast Guard Auxiliary
382:
325:
250:
242:National Fire Service
230:Civil Defence Service
186:dropped bombs on the
162:
96:Since the end of the
42:
32:Grazhdanskaya Oborona
3702:Emergency management
3676:Subterranean warfare
3449:Subterranea (comics)
3434:Moria (Middle-earth)
3414:Allegory of the cave
3398:Subterranean fiction
2559:Ministry of Interior
2543:Dublin Civil Defence
2224:on December 14, 2013
2166:on December 17, 2013
2087:on December 14, 2013
1735:Higginbotham, Adam.
1608:Notes and references
1534:Emergency management
1387:Royal Observer Corps
1264:and protect assets.
916:Florika Fink-Hooijer
895:emergency management
876:September 11 attacks
853:emergency management
207:Air Raid Precautions
119:contingency planning
109:emergency management
79:emergency evacuation
71:emergency management
47:and to be used as a
3632:Tunnel construction
3356:Subterranean Toledo
3351:Subterranean London
3241:Caves of Maastricht
2600:Civil Defense Caves
1914:The Catholic Worker
1509:Civil defense siren
1121:nuclear disarmament
818:Civil Defence Corps
786:, with a number of
741:diminishing returns
555:Civil Defence Corps
313:protective clothing
3654:Mining engineering
3639:Underground living
3464:Underland (Narnia)
3379:Fictional features
3158:Underground hangar
2900:Subterranean river
2895:Subterranean fauna
2694:2014-05-11 at the
2656:2006-09-02 at the
2639:2006-05-19 at the
2611:2014-01-31 at the
2578:The New York Times
2525:2009-02-12 at the
2513:2010-01-25 at the
2326:. Historic England
2035:2015-01-12 at the
1760:Robinson, Debbie.
1462:medical responders
1345:
1137:interstate highway
1113:
1101:
807:
701:
659:Fallout Protection
630:
504:
496:Fallout Protection
397:
331:
256:
172:
87:aerial bombardment
52:
3684:
3683:
3572:Cave conservation
3477:
3476:
3374:
3373:
3220:Ventilation shaft
2999:Man-made features
2994:
2993:
2537:Protezione Civile
2504:
2265:Daniele Mariani,
2016:978-0-7864-4541-7
1920:(March–April): 6.
1898:978-0-16-083512-4
1868:978-0-16-083614-5
1674:978-0-7864-7470-7
1582:Nuclear terrorism
1577:Nuclear holocaust
1438:Search and Rescue
995:Threat assessment
973:Threat assessment
880:homeland security
857:homeland security
845:Natural disasters
733:nuclear stockpile
705:President Kennedy
670:Stars for Defense
575:England and Wales
522:, as well as the
480:Post–World War II
451:Public Law 79-476
402:Battle of Britain
370:Morrison shelters
366:Anderson shelters
362:air-raid shelters
360:, pre-fabricated
335:air-raid shelters
327:Anderson shelters
124:civil contingency
103:crisis management
67:natural disasters
16:(Redirected from
3719:
3649:Mine exploration
3424:Greek Underworld
3383:
3361:Turda Salt Mines
3346:Shanghai tunnels
3210:Smuggling tunnel
3153:Underground base
3148:Underground city
3063:Dugout (shelter)
3013:Air raid shelter
3003:
2961:Lechuguilla Cave
2941:Castellana Caves
2910:Underground lake
2744:
2740:Natural features
2726:
2719:
2712:
2703:
2555:Civil Protection
2502:
2482:
2481:
2469:
2463:
2462:
2450:
2444:
2434:
2428:
2427:
2407:
2401:
2394:
2388:
2387:
2385:
2384:
2375:. Archived from
2369:
2363:
2362:
2360:
2359:
2350:. Archived from
2344:
2338:
2337:
2332:
2331:
2319:
2313:
2312:
2280:
2274:
2264:
2260:
2254:
2253:
2246:
2240:
2234:
2233:
2231:
2229:
2223:
2217:. Archived from
2212:
2203:
2197:
2196:
2182:
2176:
2175:
2173:
2171:
2155:
2149:
2148:
2146:
2144:
2138:Washington, D.C.
2129:
2123:
2122:
2120:
2118:
2103:
2097:
2096:
2094:
2092:
2086:
2080:. Archived from
2075:
2066:
2060:
2059:
2057:
2049:
2040:
2027:
2021:
2020:
2002:
1996:
1993:
1987:
1986:
1984:
1940:Cold War History
1937:
1928:
1922:
1921:
1909:
1903:
1902:
1882:
1873:
1872:
1852:
1846:
1845:
1835:
1829:
1828:
1826:
1825:
1810:
1804:
1801:
1795:
1794:
1787:
1781:
1780:
1778:
1777:
1768:. Archived from
1757:
1751:
1750:
1748:
1747:
1732:
1726:
1725:
1723:
1722:
1707:
1701:
1700:
1694:
1686:
1660:
1654:
1653:
1651:
1650:
1636:
1630:
1629:
1628:, Pergamon Press
1622:Baker, Lord John
1618:
1282:combat engineers
1262:fallout shelters
1188:potassium iodide
1109:Thunderbolt 1003
987:Chemical warfare
770:were officially
766:. Defense Troop
470:U.S. Coast Guard
443:Civil Air Patrol
354:Second World War
347:Anderson shelter
302:incendiary bombs
132:civil protection
59:civil protection
21:
18:Civil protection
3727:
3726:
3722:
3721:
3720:
3718:
3717:
3716:
3687:
3686:
3685:
3680:
3560:
3473:
3402:
3370:
3276:Kosvinsky Kamen
3224:
3083:Fallout shelter
3053:Crypt Mausoleum
2990:
2981:Veryovkina Cave
2971:Reed Flute Cave
2924:
2831:Solutional cave
2779:Communal burrow
2735:
2730:
2696:Wayback Machine
2658:Wayback Machine
2641:Wayback Machine
2624:"Civil Defence"
2613:Wayback Machine
2527:Wayback Machine
2515:Wayback Machine
2503:(archived link)
2491:
2486:
2485:
2471:
2470:
2466:
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2435:
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2409:
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2329:
2327:
2321:
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2282:
2281:
2277:
2262:
2261:
2257:
2248:
2247:
2243:
2237:
2227:
2225:
2221:
2210:
2205:
2204:
2200:
2192:Foreign Affairs
2184:
2183:
2179:
2169:
2167:
2157:
2156:
2152:
2142:
2140:
2131:
2130:
2126:
2116:
2114:
2105:
2104:
2100:
2090:
2088:
2084:
2073:
2068:
2067:
2063:
2055:
2051:
2050:
2043:
2037:Wayback Machine
2028:
2024:
2017:
2004:
2003:
1999:
1994:
1990:
1982:
1935:
1930:
1929:
1925:
1911:
1910:
1906:
1899:
1884:
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1876:
1869:
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1572:Nuclear warfare
1563:
1539:Fallout shelter
1484:
1476:
1470:
1329:
1316:
1310:
1278:Judge Advocates
1274:Military Police
1258:
1200:alpha particles
1184:nuclear fallout
1145:
1117:nuclear weapons
1095:control box in
1085:
1080:
1074:, and so on.).
1011:fallout shelter
975:
935:
865:
799:fallout shelter
691:throughout the
640:Bert the Turtle
612:. In 1950, the
605:nuclear weapons
571:county boroughs
488:
482:
427:
421:
291:decontamination
252:Air Raid Warden
176:First World War
165:First World War
157:
152:
147:
91:nuclear weapons
49:protective sign
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3725:
3723:
3715:
3714:
3709:
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3656:
3651:
3646:
3641:
3636:
3635:
3634:
3624:
3622:Trench warfare
3619:
3617:Tunnel network
3614:
3612:Tunnel warfare
3609:
3604:
3599:
3594:
3589:
3584:
3579:
3574:
3568:
3566:
3565:Related topics
3562:
3561:
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3558:
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3528:
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3348:
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3333:
3328:
3323:
3321:Mount Yamantau
3318:
3313:
3311:Mines of Paris
3308:
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3178:Secret passage
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2948:
2946:Hang Sơn Đoòng
2943:
2938:
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635:Duck and Cover
559:nuclear attack
543:United Kingdom
516:United Kingdom
510:, such as the
481:
478:
423:Main article:
420:
417:
389:Brodie helmets
339:Home Secretary
276:water supplies
261:reconnaissance
188:Great Yarmouth
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63:non-combatants
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3316:Mustang Caves
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3173:Subway system
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3143:Utility vault
3141:
3139:
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3128:Rock-cut tomb
3126:
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3118:Passage grave
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2956:Kazumura Cave
2954:
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2915:Volcanic pipe
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2863:Maternity den
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2858:Magma chamber
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2774:Burrow fossil
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2423:9788178357089
2419:
2415:
2414:
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2399:
2393:
2390:
2379:on 2010-02-04
2378:
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2354:on 2010-01-28
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2079:
2076:. Commentary
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2018:
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1411:Citizen Corps
1409:under FEMA's
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1158:Mount Weather
1155:
1154:Denton, Texas
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1007:blast shelter
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988:
984:
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972:
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967:
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419:United States
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394:
390:
386:
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368:, as well as
367:
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139:total defence
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92:
88:
84:
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72:
68:
64:
60:
56:
55:Civil defense
50:
46:
41:
37:
33:
19:
3606:
3577:Cave dweller
3439:Nome Kingdom
3393:Hollow Earth
3306:Maginot Line
3205:Storm cellar
3023:Burial vault
2885:Rock shelter
2796:Glacier cave
2627:
2577:
2477:
2467:
2458:
2448:
2432:
2412:
2405:
2397:
2392:
2381:. Retrieved
2377:the original
2367:
2356:. Retrieved
2352:the original
2342:
2334:
2328:. Retrieved
2317:
2292:
2288:
2278:
2258:
2244:
2238:
2228:September 4,
2226:. Retrieved
2219:the original
2215:Reed College
2213:. Commentary
2201:
2190:
2180:
2170:September 4,
2168:. Retrieved
2164:the original
2153:
2127:
2115:. Retrieved
2111:
2101:
2091:September 4,
2089:. Retrieved
2082:the original
2078:Reed College
2064:
2025:
2006:
2000:
1991:
1960:10026.1/9392
1943:
1939:
1926:
1917:
1913:
1907:
1887:
1857:
1850:
1840:
1833:
1822:. Retrieved
1820:. 2016-05-14
1817:
1808:
1799:
1785:
1774:. Retrieved
1770:the original
1765:
1755:
1744:. Retrieved
1740:
1730:
1719:. Retrieved
1715:
1705:
1664:
1658:
1647:. Retrieved
1643:
1634:
1625:
1616:
1565:
1564:
1477:
1442:4x4 Response
1419:
1384:
1376:fire brigade
1361:
1350:
1346:
1321:
1317:
1309:
1294:
1289:World War II
1286:
1266:
1259:
1237:
1215:fire service
1207:preparedness
1204:
1181:
1175:(DMORT) and
1162:
1160:, Virginia.
1146:
1133:intelligence
1114:
1061:
1053:
1046:techniques.
1037:
1027:
1020:
1004:
1001:Conventional
976:
966:Jimmy Carter
963:
951:
936:
920:
908:
890:
884:
873:
866:
830:
815:
808:
761:
745:
713:
702:
696:
685:Soviet Union
663:
657:
651:
633:
631:
600:
598:
590:
587:
542:
540:
520:West Germany
505:
495:
474:
463:
428:
398:
351:
332:
299:
287:headquarters
284:
265:
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227:
215:
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173:
136:
131:
127:
123:
117:
113:
107:
101:
95:
58:
54:
53:
36:
3659:Mole people
3644:Mine rescue
3592:Cave rescue
3582:Cave diving
3326:Mogao Caves
3256:Coober Pedy
3215:Spider hole
3193:Septic tank
3133:Root cellar
2784:Paleoburrow
2733:Subterranea
2263:(in French)
1741:Smithsonian
1597:Survivalism
1301:earthquakes
1143:Preparation
1024:Switzerland
803:Switzerland
780:radioactive
563:Home Office
536:nuclear war
528:Switzerland
524:Soviet Bloc
352:During the
317:gas attacks
272:electricity
234:Home Office
3691:Categories
3671:Speleology
3664:in fiction
3444:Pellucidar
3286:Kome Caves
2936:Balve Cave
2880:Pit crater
2836:Talus cave
2759:Ant colony
2628:Burlington
2383:2010-01-25
2358:2010-01-25
2330:2021-04-01
2141:Retrieved
2112:Commentary
1824:2016-08-19
1776:2018-10-07
1746:2018-10-07
1721:2018-10-07
1649:2018-10-07
1468:By country
1440:Teams and
1219:healthcare
1083:Mitigation
1050:Biological
1040:dirty bomb
1034:Dirty Bomb
1022:attack is
983:Biological
947:psychology
941:theory in
933:Importance
874:After the
768:reservists
577:and large
486:Leon Gouré
484:See also:
310:waterproof
75:prevention
3587:Cave gate
3459:Underdark
3407:Exemplars
3229:Exemplars
3168:Wine cave
3043:Catacombs
2929:Exemplars
2826:Show cave
2816:Lava tube
2811:Lava cave
2618:Ready.gov
2309:145729137
2271:Swissinfo
2143:April 21,
2117:April 21,
1976:154550156
1968:1468-2745
1691:cite book
1683:959922692
1403:Australia
1382:service.
1380:ambulance
1368:Singapore
1221:service,
1177:DMORT-WMD
1064:nerve gas
943:economics
869:countries
849:terrorism
772:mobilized
729:Nike Zeus
459:Air Force
455:Air Force
407:Luftwaffe
393:Josef Tal
385:Jerusalem
364:(such as
358:gas masks
280:First Aid
211:air-raids
184:zeppelins
169:Zeppelins
128:civil aid
3200:Stepwell
3188:Sewerage
3098:Hypogeum
3078:Erdstall
3068:Dry well
3048:Casemate
3028:Borehole
3018:Basement
2890:Sinkhole
2821:Pit Cave
2806:Ice cave
2692:Archived
2654:Archived
2637:Archived
2609:Archived
2523:Archived
2511:Archived
2478:BBC News
2033:Archived
1980:Archived
1716:BBC News
1624:(1978),
1566:General:
1482:See also
1417:(CERT).
1393:and the
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737:efficacy
716:war game
709:CONELRAD
697:deployed
693:Cold War
610:Cold War
591:In 1954
583:Scotland
500:Cold War
374:blackout
295:boroughs
223:refugees
163:British
98:Cold War
3494:Bergamt
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3366:Yaodong
3103:Manhole
3093:Foxhole
3058:Dungeon
2764:Aquifer
2545:Ireland
1458:firemen
1446:Ireland
1420:In the
1389:in the
1192:thyroid
1017:Nuclear
979:Nuclear
756:Soviets
743:trend.
723:than a
703:The US
599:In the
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530:and in
429:In the
150:Origins
145:History
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3138:Tunnel
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1097:Kansas
1078:Stages
1044:hazmat
985:, and
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887:Europe
735:, the
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567:county
545:, the
532:Sweden
514:, the
433:, the
218:London
192:German
178:. The
3386:Types
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3006:Types
2848:Karst
2747:Types
2563:Spain
2305:S2CID
2222:(PDF)
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1936:(PDF)
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863:Today
648:flash
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1964:ISSN
1918:LXXV
1893:ISBN
1863:ISBN
1697:link
1679:OCLC
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