1008:" if it is shared by two or more organisms but is absent from their common ancestor or from a later ancestor in the lineage leading to one of the organisms. It is therefore inferred to have evolved by convergence or reversal. Both mammals and birds are able to maintain a high constant body temperature (i.e., they are warm-blooded). However, the accepted cladogram explaining their significant features indicates that their common ancestor is in a group lacking this character state, so the state must have evolved independently in the two clades. Warm-bloodedness is separately a synapomorphy of mammals (or a larger clade) and of birds (or a larger clade), but it is not a synapomorphy of any group including both these clades. Hennig's Auxiliary Principle states that shared character states should be considered evidence of grouping unless they are contradicted by the weight of other evidence; thus, homoplasy of some feature among members of a group may only be inferred after a phylogenetic hypothesis for that group has been established.
1169:
them to have whittled down to just two. Only then one can theoretically assign proper last common ancestors of groupings which do not inadvertently include earlier branches. The process of true cladistic bifurcation can thus take a much more extended time than one is usually aware of. In practice, for recent radiations, cladistically guided findings only give a coarse impression of the complexity. A more detailed account will give details about fractions of introgressions between groupings, and even geographic variations thereof. This has been used as an argument for the use of paraphyletic groupings, but typically other reasons are quoted.
218:
775:
1013:
Tetrapoda: did all the earliest members of the
Tetrapoda inherit four limbs from a common ancestor, whereas all other vertebrates did not, or at least not homologously? By contrast, for a group within the tetrapods, such as birds, having four limbs is a plesiomorphy. Using these two terms allows a greater precision in the discussion of homology, in particular allowing clear expression of the hierarchical relationships among different homologous features.
826:, had a common ancestor all of whose descendants are or were primates, and so form a clade; the name Primates is therefore recognized for this clade. Within the primates, all anthropoids (monkeys, apes, and humans) are hypothesized to have had a common ancestor all of whose descendants are or were anthropoids, so they form the clade called Anthropoidea. The "prosimians", on the other hand, form a paraphyletic taxon. The name Prosimii is not used in
452:(OTUs), which may be genes, individuals, populations, species, or larger taxa that are presumed to be monophyletic and therefore to form, all together, one large clade; phylogenetic analysis infers the branching pattern within that clade. Different datasets and different methods, not to mention violations of the mentioned assumptions, often result in different cladograms. Only scientific investigation can show which is more likely to be correct.
1191:
found to have emerged in them. Naming changes are the direct result of changes in the recognition of mutual relationships, which often is still in flux, especially for extinct species. Hanging on to older naming and/or connotations is counter-productive, as they typically do not reflect actual mutual relationships precisely at all. E.g. Archaea, Asgard archaea, protists, slime molds, worms, invertebrata, fishes, reptilia, monkeys,
1304:: Cladistic methods have been used to reconstruct the phylogeny of manuscripts of the same work (and reconstruct the lost original) using distinctive copying errors as apomorphies. This differs from traditional historical-comparative linguistics in enabling the editor to evaluate and place in genetic relationship large groups of manuscripts with large numbers of variants that would be impossible to handle manually. It also enables
4451:
210:
1404:
856:
352:
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1113:: character states which have converged or reverted so as to be the same but which have not been inherited from a common ancestor. No systematist recognizes polyphyletic assemblages as taxonomically meaningful entities, although ecologists sometimes consider them meaningful labels for functional participants in ecological communities (e. g., primary producers, detritivores, etc.).
4128:
1414:
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202:
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Anything having to do with biology and sex is complicated and messy, and cladistics is no exception. Many species reproduce sexually, and are capable of interbreeding for millions of years. Worse, during such a period, many branches may have radiated, and it may take hundreds of millions of years for
1151:
The cladistic method does not identify fossil species as actual ancestors of a clade. Instead, fossil taxa are identified as belonging to separate extinct branches. While a fossil species could be the actual ancestor of a clade, there is no way to know that. Therefore, a more conservative hypothesis
1012:
The terms plesiomorphy and apomorphy are relative; their application depends on the position of a group within a tree. For example, when trying to decide whether the tetrapods form a clade, an important question is whether having four limbs is a synapomorphy of the earliest taxa to be included within
841:
Lemurs and tarsiers may have looked closely related to humans, in the sense of being close on the evolutionary tree to humans. However, from the perspective of a tarsier, humans and lemurs would have looked close, in the exact same sense. Cladistics forces a neutral perspective, treating all branches
1025:
to decide such questions; the conclusions reached often depend on the dataset and the methods. Such is the nature of empirical science, and for this reason, most cladists refer to their cladograms as hypotheses of relationship. Cladograms that are supported by a large number and variety of different
175:
Branches down to the divergence to the next significant (e.g. extant) sister are considered stem-groupings of the clade, but in principle each level stands on its own, to be assigned a unique name. For a fully bifurcated tree, adding a group to a tree also adds an additional (named) clade, and a new
1257:
use cladistic methods to reconstruct the protoversion of many myths. Mythological phylogenies constructed with mythemes clearly support low horizontal transmissions (borrowings), historical (sometimes
Palaeolithic) diffusions and punctuated evolution. They also are a powerful way to test hypotheses
436:
criterion has been abandoned by many phylogeneticists in favor of more "sophisticated" but less parsimonious evolutionary models of character state transformation. Cladists contend that these models are unjustified because there is no evidence that they recover more "true" or "correct" results from
1190:
If there is unclarity in mutual relationships, there are a lot of possible trees. Assigning names to each possible clade may not be prudent. Furthermore, established names are discarded in cladistics, or alternatively carry connotations which may no longer hold, such as when additional groups are
1223:
meaning is often adopted instead, but the group would need to be restricted to a single branch on the stem. Other branches then get their own name and level. This is commensurate to the fact that more senior stem branches are in fact closer related to the resulting group than the more basal stem
1016:
It can be difficult to decide whether a character state is in fact the same and thus can be classified as a synapomorphy, which may identify a monophyletic group, or whether it only appears to be the same and is thus a homoplasy, which cannot identify such a group. There is a danger of circular
171:
As a hypothesis, a clade can be rejected only if some groupings were explicitly excluded. It may then be found that the excluded group did actually descend from the last common ancestor of the group, and thus emerged within the group. ("Evolved from" is misleading, because in cladistics all
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can be based are not limited to the field of biology. Any group of individuals or classes that are hypothesized to have a common ancestor, and to which a set of common characteristics may or may not apply, can be compared pairwise. Cladograms can be used to depict the hypothetical descent
1094:, referring to an ancestral character state within the group. While paraphyletic assemblages are popular among paleontologists and evolutionary taxonomists, cladists do not recognize paraphyletic assemblages as having any formal information content – they are merely parts of clades.
938:. Since cold-bloodedness is a plesiomorphy, inherited from the common ancestor of traditional reptiles and birds, and thus a symplesiomorphy of turtles, snakes and crocodiles (among others), it does not mean that turtles, snakes and crocodiles form a clade that excludes the birds.
302:
Originally conceived, if only in essence, by Willi Hennig in a book published in 1950, cladistics did not flourish until its translation into
English in 1966 (Lewin 1997). Today, cladistics is the most popular method for inferring phylogenetic trees from morphological data.
1182:. This does typically not directly interfere with ancestry of the organism, but can complicate the determination of that ancestry. On another level, one can map the horizontal gene transfer processes, by determining the phylogeny of the individual genes using cladistics.
770:
If this is accurate, then the last common ancestor of turtles and birds lived later than the last common ancestor of lizards and birds. Since the cladograms show two mutually exclusive hypotheses to describe the evolutionary history, at most one of them is correct.
275:
in 1965, and "cladistics" in 1966. Hennig referred to his own approach as "phylogenetic systematics". From the time of his original formulation until the end of the 1970s, cladistics competed as an analytical and philosophical approach to systematics with
995:). Importantly, snakes and other tetrapods that do not have digits are nonetheless tetrapods: other characters, such as amniotic eggs and diapsid skulls, indicate that they descended from ancestors that possessed digits which are homologous with ours.
1994:
Many sources give a verbal definition of 'paraphyletic' that does not require the missing groups to be monophyletic. However, when diagrams are presented representing paraphyletic groups, these invariably show the missing groups as monophyletic. See
1088:: character states inherited from ancestors but not present in all of their descendants. As a consequence, a paraphyletic assemblage is truncated, in that it excludes one or more clades from an otherwise monophyletic taxon. An alternative name is
1080:
A paraphyletic assemblage is one that is constructed by taking a clade and removing one or more smaller clades. (Removing one clade produces a singly paraphyletic assemblage, removing two produces a doubly paraphylectic assemblage, and so on.)
424:) that is interpreted to represent the best hypothesis of phylogenetic relationships. Although traditionally such cladograms were generated largely on the basis of morphological characters and originally calculated by hand,
172:
descendants stay in the ancestral group). To keep only valid clades, upon finding that the group is paraphyletic this way, either such excluded groups should be granted to the clade, or the group should be abolished.
2335:
Emamalipour, Melissa; Seidi, Khaled; Zununi Vahed, Sepideh; Jahanban-Esfahlan, Ali; Jaymand, Mehdi; Majdi, Hasan; Amoozgar, Zohreh; Chitkushev, L. T.; Javaheri, Tahereh; Jahanban-Esfahlan, Rana; Zare, Peyman (2020).
3343:
930:, "together"). Symplesiomorphies do not mean that the taxa that exhibit that character state are necessarily closely related. For example, Reptilia is traditionally characterized by (among other things) being
1177:
Horizontal gene transfer is the mobility of genetic info between different organisms that can have immediate or delayed effects for the reciprocal host. There are several processes in nature which can cause
143:
can be observed. Theoretically, a last common ancestor and all its descendants constitute a (minimal) clade. Importantly, all descendants stay in their overarching ancestral clade. For example, if the terms
3033:
139:) that are not present in more distant groups and ancestors. However, from an empirical perspective, common ancestors are inferences based on a cladistic hypothesis of relationships of taxa whose
3196:
455:
Until recently, for example, cladograms like the following have generally been accepted as accurate representations of the ancestral relations among turtles, lizards, crocodilians, and birds:
236:(also the title of his 1966 book); but the terms "cladistics" and "clade" were popularized by other researchers. Cladistics in the original sense refers to a particular set of methods used in
842:(extant or extinct) in the same manner. It also forces one to try to make statements, and honestly take into account findings, about the exact historic relationships between the groups.
1132:
and subjective judgements. Of course, the potential unreliability of evidence is a problem for any systematic method, or for that matter, for any empirical scientific endeavor at all.
1034:
Mono-, para- and polyphyletic taxa can be understood based on the shape of the tree (as done above), as well as based on their character states. These are compared in the table below.
3372:
Reissued 1997 in paperback. Includes a reprint of Mayr's 1974 anti-cladistics paper at pp. 433–476, "Cladistic analysis or cladistic classification." This is the paper to which
2931:
Fraix-Burnet, D.; Choler, P.; Douzery, E.J.P.; Verhamme, A. (2006), "Astrocladistics: A Phylogenetic
Analysis of Galaxy Evolution II. Formation and Diversification of Galaxies",
1138:
arose in the late 1970s in an attempt to resolve some of these problems by removing a priori assumptions about phylogeny from cladistic analysis, but it has remained unpopular.
3282:
Maas, Philipp (2010–2011), Jürgen, Hanneder; Maas, Philipp (eds.), "Computer Aided
Stemmatics – The Case of Fifty-Two Text Versions of Carakasasaṃhitā Vimānasthāna 8.67-157",
2034:, Kristin Shrader-Frechette, and Kenneth Belitz. "Verification, validation, and confirmation of numerical models in the earth sciences." Science 263, no. 5147 (1994): 641-646.
1017:
reasoning: assumptions about the shape of a phylogenetic tree are used to justify decisions about character states, which are then used as evidence for the shape of the tree.
318:
traits of organisms, vastly expanding the amount of data available for phylogenetics. At the same time, cladistics rapidly became popular in evolutionary biology, because
1237:
relationships within groups of items in many different academic realms. The only requirement is that the items have characteristics that can be identified and measured.
3320:
3565:
176:
level on that branch. Specifically, also extinct groups are always put on a side-branch, not distinguishing whether an actual ancestor of other groupings was found.
1070:: derived character states present in the first member of the taxon, inherited by its descendants (unless secondarily lost), and not inherited by any other taxa.
955:. Features that are derived in individual taxa (a single species or a group that is represented by a single terminal in a given phylogenetic analysis) are called
3002:
922:
is a character state that a taxon has retained from its ancestors. When two or more taxa that are not nested within each other share a plesiomorphy, it is a
3151:
2606:
Baron, C. & Høeg, J.T. (2005), "Gould, Scharm and the paleontologocal perspective in evolutionary biology", in
Koenemann, S. & Jenner, R.A. (eds.),
1124:
Cladistics, either generally or in specific applications, has been criticized from its beginnings. Decisions as to whether particular character states are
2125:
Patterson, Colin. "Significance of fossils in determining evolutionary relationships." Annual Review of
Ecology and Systematics 12, no. 1 (1981): 195–223.
1578:
Schuh, Randall. 2000. Biological
Systematics: Principles and Applications, p.7 (citing Nelson and Platnick, 1981). Cornell University Press (books.google)
1160:
An otherwise extinct group with any extant descendants, is not considered (literally) extinct, and for instance does not have a date of extinction.
1847:
4066:
3187:
1247:: Cladistic methods have been used to reconstruct the development of cultures or artifacts using groups of cultural traits or artifact features.
3112:
1597:
Craw, RC (1992). "Margins of cladistics: Identity, differences and place in the emergence of phylogenetic systematics". In
Griffiths, PE (ed.).
2136:
3161:
1714:
Rindal, Eirik; Brower, Andrew V. Z. (2011), "Do model-based phylogenetic analyses perform better than parsimony? A test with empirical data",
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3210:
3106:
3083:
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2989:
2726:
2716:
2617:
2590:
2146:
1782:
1687:
1606:
1518:
2637:
4261:
2607:
1282:: Cladistic methods have been used to reconstruct the phylogeny of languages using linguistic features. This is similar to the traditional
3796:
168:
results in the generation of new subclades by bifurcation, but in practice sexual hybridization may blur very closely related groupings.
3885:
3253:
2829:
Farris, James S. (1977), "On the phenetic approach to vertebrate classification", in Hecht, M. K.; Goody, P. C.; Hecht, B. M. (eds.),
1587:
Folinsbee, Kaila et al. 2007. 5 Quantitative
Approaches to Phylogenetics, p. 172. Rev. Mex. Div. 225-52 (kfolinsb.public.iastate.edu)
4221:
1305:
1022:
895:
433:
391:
90:
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analysis of contaminated traditions of transmission that would be impossible to evaluate manually in a reasonable period of time.
4301:
1283:
4306:
4239:
1152:
is that the fossil taxon is related to other fossil and extant taxa, as implied by the pattern of shared apomorphic features.
4504:
4316:
4246:
877:
373:
1928:, p. 25: "Synapomorphies are invoked to defend the hypothesis; the hypothesis is invoked to defend the synapomorphies."
1217:
generally means generously keeping previously included groups, which then may come to include even living species. A pruned
217:
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4494:
3991:
3067:
Translated from manuscript in German eventually published in 1982 (Phylogenetische Systematik, Verlag Paul Parey, Berlin).
1344:
404:
The cladistic method interprets each shared character state transformation as a potential piece of evidence for grouping.
3505:
3191:
d'Huy, Julien (2013d) "A Cosmic Hunt in the Berber sky : a phylogenetic reconstruction of Palaeolithic mythology".
3919:
1314:
infers the history of relationships between galaxies to create branching diagram hypotheses of galaxy diversification.
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branches; that those stem branches only may have lived for a short time does not affect that assessment in cladistics.
605:
If this phylogenetic hypothesis is correct, then the last common ancestor of turtles and birds, at the branch near the
4226:
4133:
4089:
4059:
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Farris, James S. (1983), "The logical basis of phylogenetic analysis", in Platnick, Norman I.; Funk, Vicki A. (eds.),
1443:
1418:
1291:
873:
440:
Every cladogram is based on a particular dataset analyzed with a particular method. Datasets are tables consisting of
429:
369:
3795:
Wiley, E.O.; Siegel-Causey, D.; Brooks, D.R. & Funk, V.A. (1991), "Chapter 1 Introduction, terms and concepts",
3201:
Jerison, Harry J. (2003), "On Theory in Comparative Psychology", in Sternberg, Robert J.; Kaufman, James C. (eds.),
2500:
2058:
Platnick, Norman I. "Philosophy and the transformation of cladistics." Systematic Zoology 28, no. 4 (1979): 537–546.
449:
963:, "self"). Autapomorphies express nothing about relationships among groups; clades are identified (or defined) by
866:
362:
4416:
4342:
1364:
992:
952:
827:
307:
180:
35:
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1179:
225:
The original methods used in cladistic analysis and the school of taxonomy derived from the work of the German
3455:
Patterson, Colin (1982), "Morphological characters and homology", in Joysey, Kenneth A; Friday, A. E. (eds.),
908:
The following terms, coined by Hennig, are used to identify shared or distinct character states among groups:
3712:
4296:
4094:
614:
441:
244:
132:
3915:
3156:
d'Huy, Julien (2013a), "Polyphemus (Aa. Th. 1137)." "A phylogenetic reconstruction of a prehistoric tale".
2043:
Nils Møller Anderson, 2001 The impact of W. Hennig’s “phylogenetic systematics” on contemporary entomology
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165:
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OneZoom: Tree of Life – all living species as intuitive and zoomable fractal explorer (responsive design)
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1798:
179:
The techniques and nomenclature of cladistics have been applied to disciplines other than biology. (See
4431:
4109:
1250:
1240:
281:
2396:
34:. For phylogenetic nomenclature, often called "cladistic nomenclature" or "cladistic terminology", see
3093:
1063:, a monophyletic taxon, is a taxon that consists of the last common ancestor and all its descendants.
105:
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2950:
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252:
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31:
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2657:
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3900:
2397:"Naming taxa from cladograms: some confusions, misleading statements, and necessary clarifications"
951:
is an innovation. It can thus be used to diagnose a clade – or even to help define a clade name in
774:
417:
3146:
d'Huy, Julien (2012b), "Le motif de Pygmalion : origine afrasienne et diffusion en Afrique".
2737:
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can be singled out as consisting of the first vertebrate with such digits homologous to those of
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315:
285:
187:
161:
116:
1621:
Schuh, Randall. 2000. Biological Systematics: Principles and Applications, p.7. Cornell U. Press
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made it possible to process large quantities of data about organisms and their characteristics.
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409:
341:
190:, where the rank and (genus-)naming of established groupings may turn out to be inconsistent.
2580:
2067:
Brower, Andrew VZ. "Fifty shades of cladism." Biology & Philosophy 33, no. 1-2 (2018): 8.
1264:: Cladistic methods have been used in the classification of the surviving manuscripts of the
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cladistic framework, these terms would include humans. Many of these terms are normally used
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The cladogram to the right represents the current universally accepted hypothesis that all
164:', which are fruitless to precisely delineate, especially when including extinct species.
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kinds of characters are viewed as more robust than those based on more limited evidence.
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3534:
3339:
2768:
2704:
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2312:
2287:
1770:
1408:
1394:
1354:
1339:
1329:
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425:
412:(shared ancestral character states) are not. The outcome of a cladistic analysis is a
405:
136:
4483:
4321:
4291:
4198:
4075:
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2412:
2103:
2078:
2031:
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1018:
831:
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331:
260:
237:
100:
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2682:
2436:
2288:"The probability of reciprocal monophyly of gene lineages in three and four species"
2112:
1745:
4426:
4372:
4367:
4362:
4347:
4155:
4150:
3542:
3383:(1978), "Origin and history of some terms in systematic and evolutionary biology",
3049:
2998:
2977:
2970:
2813:
1843:
1311:
931:
914:
830:, which names only clades; the "prosimians" are instead divided between the clades
640:
510:
292:
288:
229:
226:
1128:, a precondition of their being synapomorphies, have been challenged as involving
3883:
3435:
1104:
A polyphyletic assemblage is one which is neither monophyletic nor paraphyletic.
243:
What is now called the cladistic method appeared as early as 1901 with a work by
4421:
4114:
2866:
Farris, James S. (1979b), "The information content of the phylogenetic system",
2338:"Horizontal Gene Transfer: From Evolutionary Flexibility to Disease Progression"
1379:
1244:
935:
855:
351:
311:
268:
3995:
3957:
3132:"Un ours dans les étoiles: recherche phylogénétique sur un mythe préhistorique"
2894:
Farris, James S. (1980), "The efficient diagnoses of the phylogenetic system",
2838:
Farris, James S. (1979a), "On the naturalness of phylogenetic classification",
1542:
1467:
1403:
4123:
3762:
3749:
Weygoldt, P. (February 1998), "Evolution and systematics of the Chelicerata",
3734:
3719:"Nicolai Hartmann and the Metaphysical Foundation of Phylogenetic Systematics"
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3380:
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1301:
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Mapping Our Ancestors: Phylogenetic Approaches in Anthropology and Prehistory
2821:
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Adrain, Jonathan M.; Edgecombe, Gregory D. & Lieberman, Bruce S. (2002),
2420:
2363:
2354:
2264:
2214:
2047:
1528:
408:(shared, derived character states) are viewed as evidence of grouping, while
17:
4436:
4400:
4395:
4390:
4285:
4167:
2205:
2188:
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1679:
The Advent of PhyloCode: The Continuing Evolution of Biological Nomenclature
1109:
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1075:
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1004:
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934:(i.e., not maintaining a constant high body temperature), whereas birds are
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783:
693:
529:
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335:
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lived earlier than the last common ancestor of lizards and birds, near the
201:
4127:
3928:
3497:
3264:
Lipo, Carl; O'Brien, Michael J.; Collard, Mark; et al., eds. (2006),
3168:"A phylogenetic approach of mythology and its archaeological consequences"
3003:"'Cladistic analysis or cladistic classification?': a reply to Ernst Mayr"
1508:
1413:
3903:
was created from a revision of this article dated 30 April 2005
3221:"Meaning of the Name Tetrapoda in the Scientific Literature: An Exchange"
2945:
1799:"Turtles all the way down: loggerheads at the root of the chelonian tree"
1438:
1374:
1254:
984:
723:
558:
445:
319:
240:
analysis, although it is now sometimes used to refer to the whole field.
120:
3474:
Patterson, Colin (1988), "Homology in classical and molecular biology",
2504:
2272:
2240:
271:
and Harrison in 1960, "cladist" (for an adherent of Hennig's school) by
4012:
3846:
3404:
3029:
2915:
2887:
2859:
2778:(1940), "Remarques sur un essai d'arbre généalogique du règne animal",
2734:
Bioinformatics: a practical guide to the analysis of genes and proteins
2256:
1980:
1963:
880: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
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803:
779:
625:
495:
376: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
193:
Cladistics is now the most commonly used method to classify organisms.
3707:
Tehrani, Jamshid J., 2013, "The Phylogeny of Little Red Riding Hood",
3417:
The growth of biological thought: diversity, evolution and inheritance
3718:
3632:"Population structure and cultural geography of a folktale in Europe"
3459:, Systematics Association Special Volume 21, London: Academic Press,
3101:, Ornithological Monographs, No. 66, American Ornithologists' Union,
2800:
Dupuis, Claude (1984), "Willi Hennig's impact on taxonomic thought",
991:
together with all descendants of this vertebrate (an apomorphy-based
681:
674:
647:
517:
482:
475:
110:
3694:
What do terms like monophyletic, paraphyletic and polyphyletic mean?
3396:
3021:
2907:
2879:
2851:
2638:"Stems, nodes, crown clades, and rank-free lists: is Linnaeus dead?"
2189:"Hybridization, Introgression, and the Nature of Species Boundaries"
3630:
Ross, Robert M.; Greenhill, Simon J.; Atkinson, Quentin D. (2013).
3167:
3131:
2241:"Paraphyletic groups as natural units of biological classification"
4256:
4184:
3182:
d'Huy, Julien (2013c) "Les mythes évolueraient par ponctuations".
1219:
1213:
1060:
823:
819:
799:
787:
773:
256:
216:
208:
200:
131:. The evidence for hypothesized relationships is typically shared
124:
3607:
3095:
Cladistics and the Origin of Birds: A Review and Two New Analyses
2984:, Urbana, IL: Univ. of Illinois Press (reprinted 1979 and 1999),
2982:
Phylogenetic systematics (tr. D. Dwight Davis and Rainer Zangerl)
2732:, in Baxevanis, Andreas D. & Ouellette, B.F. Francis (eds.),
2562:
4044:
794:
taxon (the prosimians, in blue, including the red patch), and a
729:
564:
4048:
3939:
3328:
Zeitschrift für Zoologische Systematik und Evolutionsforschung
1286:
of historical linguistics, but is more explicit in its use of
849:
345:
3944:
2461:
103:
3956:
Collins, Allen G.; Guralnick, Rob; Smith, Dave (1994–2005).
3881:
3300:
The Evolution of Cultural Diversity: A Phylogenetic Approach
3298:
Mace, Ruth; Clare, Clare J.; Shennan, Stephen, eds. (2005),
1996:
2755:
Cain, A. J.; Harrison, G. A. (1960), "Phyletic weighting",
838:, where the latter contains Tarsiiformes and Anthropoidea.
310:
techniques allowed the application of cladistic methods to
58:
3506:"Concepts and tests of homology in the cladistic paradigm"
1107:
A polyphyletic assemblage is characterized by one or more
1084:
A paraphyletic assemblage is characterized by one or more
3798:
The Compleat Cladist: A Primer of Phylogenetic Procedures
3608:"Cladistic analysis of an Old Norse manuscript tradition"
2187:
Harrison, Richard G.; Larson, Erica L. (1 January 2014).
76:
67:
3158:
Nouvelle Mythologie Comparée / New Comparative Mythology
2789:
2019:
432:
are now commonly used in phylogenetic analyses, and the
27:
Method of biological systematics in evolutionary biology
3636:
Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences
2135:
Ross, Robert M.; Allmon, Warren D. (18 December 1990).
1513:(Sixteenth ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Education.
3804:, The University of Kansas Museum of Natural History,
3419:, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press,
3361:, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press,
3092:
James, Frances C. & Pourtless IV, John A. (2009),
2286:
Mehta, Rohan S.; Rosenberg, Noah A. (1 October 2019).
3606:
Robinson, Peter M.W. & O'Hara, Robert J. (1996),
3359:
Evolution and the diversity of life (Selected essays)
91:
82:
79:
70:
52:
3673:
Schuh, Randall T. & Brower, Andrew V.Z. (2009),
2926:, Columbia University Press, New York, pp. 7–36
2725:
Brinkman, Fiona S.L. & Leipe, Detlef D. (2001),
2582:
Fossils, Phylogeny, and Form: An Analytical Approach
1939:
Biological Systematics: Principles and Applications
1797:
Lyson, Tyler; Gilbert, Scott F. (March–April 2009),
1258:
about cross-cultural relationships among folktales.
73:
64:
55:
4409:
4383:
4335:
4277:
4214:
4143:
4082:
3675:
Biological Systematics: Principles and Applications
3054:
Phylogenetic systematics (3rd edition of 1966 book)
1964:"Monophyly and paraphyly: A discourse without end?"
1290:
and allows much faster analysis of large datasets (
61:
3779:Species Concepts and Phylogenetic Theory: A Debate
3434:
2780:Comptes Rendus de l'Académie des Sciences de Paris
2551:
2138:Causes of Evolution: A Paleontological Perspective
2079:"Which side of the tree is more basal?: Editorial"
1599:Trees of life: Essays in the philosophy of biology
3960:. University of California Museum of Paleontology
3321:"Cladistic analysis or cladistic classification?"
3205:, Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.,
1925:
1874:
1872:
4013:"Report on the Textual Criticism Challenge 1991"
3994:. San Marcos CA: Palomar College. Archived from
2736:(2nd ed.), pp. 323–358, archived from
2449:
1888:
1886:
267:in 1940, "cladogenesis" in 1958, "cladistic" by
186:Cladistics findings are posing a difficulty for
3952:(scholarly journal of the Willi Hennig Society)
3833:Williams, P.A. (1992), "Confusion in cladism",
2792:(No direct URL). This is the paper credited by
2757:Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London
2234:
2232:
1941:(3rd edn.). Cornell University Press, Ithaca nY
1601:. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic. pp. 65–107.
617:, however, produces cladograms more like this:
284:. Phenetics was championed at this time by the
3894:
1903:
1232:The comparisons used to acquire data on which
983:is a synapomorphy within the vertebrates. The
971:, "together"). For example, the possession of
4060:
1640:
1638:
1566:
1211:meaning. For originally extinct stem groups,
790:: the simians or Anthropoidea, in yellow), a
8:
2524:
2522:
2141:. University of Chicago Press. p. 133.
1653:
4011:Robinson, Peter; O'Hara, Robert J. (1992).
2711:(3rd ed.), Oxford: Blackwell Science,
2539:
2342:Frontiers in Cell and Developmental Biology
2077:Krell, Frank-T; Cranston, Peter S. (2004).
306:In the 1990s, the development of effective
4067:
4053:
4045:
3677:(2nd ed.), Cornell University Press,
3564:de Queiroz, K. & Gauthier, J. (1992),
3284:Wiener Zeitschrift für die Kunde Südasiens
3655:
3524:
3487:
3239:
2944:
2656:
2528:
2371:
2353:
2311:
2239:Hörandl, Elvira; Stuessy, Tod F. (2010).
2204:
2102:
1979:
1950:
1878:
1863:
1817:
1727:
896:Learn how and when to remove this message
392:Learn how and when to remove this message
3911:, and does not reflect subsequent edits.
3573:Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics
3056:, Urbana: University of Illinois Press,
2802:Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics
1892:
1702:
1066:A clade is characterized by one or more
1036:
3958:"Journey into Phylogenetic Systematics"
3457:Problems in Phylogenetic Reconstruction
1757:
1644:Webster's 9th New Collegiate Dictionary
1429:
3373:
3268:, Piscataway: Transaction Publishers,
3219:Laurin, M. & Anderson, J. (2004),
2831:Major Patterns in Vertebrate Evolution
2796:for the first use of the term 'clade'.
2793:
2020:Adrain, Edgecombe & Lieberman 2002
2008:
1914:
1664:
1630:
1270:, and the manuscripts of the Sanskrit
448:and/or other characters and a list of
127:") based on hypotheses of most recent
3489:10.1093/oxfordjournals.molbev.a040523
2609:Crustacea and Arthropod Relationships
7:
4462:
3042:
3039:from the original on 9 October 2022,
2833:, Plenum, New York, pp. 823–850
2472:d'Huy 2012a, b; d'Huy 2013a, b, c, d
878:adding citations to reliable sources
798:taxon (the nocturnal primates – the
374:adding citations to reliable sources
160:, outside of cladistics, e.g. as a '
3977:. Seattle: University of Washington
3349:from the original on 9 October 2022
3259:from the original on 9 October 2022
3118:from the original on 9 October 2022
1853:from the original on 9 October 2022
700:
670:
636:
620:
535:
506:
471:
458:
3751:Experimental and Applied Acarology
3535:10.1111/j.1096-0031.1991.tb00045.x
3340:10.1111/j.1439-0469.1974.tb00160.x
2769:10.1111/j.1469-7998.1960.tb05828.x
2667:10.1111/j.1469-185X.2000.tb00055.x
1937:Brower, AVZ and Schuh, RT. 2021.
1507:Hickman, Cleveland P. Jr. (2014).
25:
3992:"Classification of Living Things"
1228:In disciplines other than biology
255:(for plants) in 1943. The term "
4461:
4450:
4449:
4302:Phylogenetic comparative methods
4126:
3927:
3893:
3612:Research in Humanities Computing
3585:10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.23.1.449
2413:10.1111/j.1096-0031.2007.00151.x
2104:10.1111/j.0307-6970.2004.00262.x
1828:10.1111/j.1525-142X.2009.00325.x
1777:, Blackwell, pp. 214, 233,
1729:10.1111/j.1096-0031.2010.00342.x
1676:Laurin, Michel (3 August 2023).
1510:Integrated principles of zoology
1412:
1402:
854:
846:Terminology for character states
350:
48:
30:For the scientific journal, see
4307:Phylogenetic niche conservatism
4028:Theobald, Douglas (1999–2004).
3476:Molecular Biology and Evolution
3078:, University of Chicago Press,
2395:Dubois, Alain (1 August 2007).
1962:Podani, János (1 August 2010).
1419:Evolutionary biology portal
865:needs additional citations for
361:needs additional citations for
295:, and evolutionary taxonomy by
213:Peter Chalmers Mitchell in 1920
2924:Advances in Cladistics, vol. 2
2814:10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.15.1.1
2450:Mace, Clare & Shennan 2005
2292:Theoretical Population Biology
247:for birds and subsequently by
1:
3781:, Columbia University Press,
3433:Oppenheimer, Stephen (2006),
3302:, Portland: Cavendish Press,
3203:The Evolution of Intelligence
2585:, New York: Kluwer Academic,
1926:James & Pourtless IV 2009
1345:Glossary of scientific naming
3990:O'Neil, Dennis (1998–2008).
2612:, CRC Press, pp. 3–14,
2163:"Introduction to Cladistics"
1488:Oxford Dictionary of English
1468:"Introduction to Cladistics"
1164:Hybridization, interbreeding
437:actual empirical data sets
263:after having been coined by
259:" was introduced in 1958 by
123:are categorized in groups ("
115:'branch') is an approach to
111:
4227:Phylogenetic reconciliation
4134:Evolutionary biology portal
4090:Computational phylogenetics
3717:Tremblay, Frederic (2013),
2045:Eur. J.Entomol. 98: 133-150
1806:Evolution & Development
1444:Online Etymology Dictionary
1292:computational phylogenetics
1048:Character-based definition
450:operational taxonomic units
430:computational phylogenetics
251:(for insects) in 1921, and
4521:
3437:The Origins of the British
2552:Robinson & O'Hara 1996
2542:, pp. 290–300, 340–56
2501:"Canterbury Tales Project"
1904:Laurin & Anderson 2004
1097:
1073:
1051:
339:
329:
104:
29:
4445:
4417:Phylogenetic nomenclature
4121:
4032:. The TalkOrigins Archive
3777:Wheeler, Quentin (2000),
3735:10.1007/s13752-012-0077-8
3241:10.1080/10635150490264716
2963:10.1007/s00357-006-0004-4
2933:Journal of Classification
2788:Available free online at
2304:10.1016/j.tpb.2018.04.004
1567:Brinkman & Leipe 2001
1543:"The Need for Cladistics"
1497:Oxford English Dictionary
1365:Scientific classification
953:phylogenetic nomenclature
828:phylogenetic nomenclature
727:
709:
698:
679:
668:
645:
634:
562:
544:
533:
515:
504:
480:
469:
308:polymerase chain reaction
181:phylogenetic nomenclature
117:biological classification
36:Phylogenetic nomenclature
3504:de Pinna, M.G.G (1991),
3292:10.1553/wzks2009-2010s63
3136:Préhistoire du Sud-Ouest
2709:Vertebrate Palaeontology
2563:Fraix-Burnet et al. 2006
2355:10.3389/fcell.2020.00229
1775:Vertebrate Palaeontology
1654:Cain & Harrison 1960
1207:cladistically, in their
1180:horizontal gene transfer
1173:Horizontal gene transfer
234:phylogenetic systematics
232:, who referred to it as
4297:Molecular phylogenetics
4247:Distance-matrix methods
4095:Molecular phylogenetics
3763:10.1023/A:1006037525704
3566:"Phylogenetic taxonomy"
3166:d'Huy, Julien (2013b).
3130:d'Huy, Julien (2012a).
2727:"Phylogenetic analysis"
993:phylogenetic definition
245:Peter Chalmers Mitchell
4317:Phylogenetics software
4231:Probabilistic methods
4180:Long branch attraction
4030:"Phylogenetics Primer"
3889:
3869:Listen to this article
3648:10.1098/rspb.2012.3065
1280:Historical linguistics
1136:Transformed cladistics
1045:Node-based definition
1021:uses various forms of
807:
222:
214:
206:
4505:Philosophy of biology
4110:Evolutionary taxonomy
3888:
3691:Taylor, Mike (2003),
3195:, 15, 2013d: 93–106.
3193:Les Cahiers de l'AARS
2206:10.1093/jhered/esu033
2083:Systematic Entomology
1547:www.ucmp.berkeley.edu
1457:Columbia Encyclopedia
1251:Comparative mythology
998:A character state is
947:("separate form") or
777:
286:numerical taxonomists
282:evolutionary taxonomy
220:
212:
204:
4495:Evolutionary biology
4269:Three-taxon analysis
4175:Phylogenetic network
3975:"Phylogeny Programs"
3945:Willi Hennig Society
3936:at Wikimedia Commons
3920:More spoken articles
3441:, London: Robinson,
3186:, 252, 2013c: 8–12.
3184:Mythologie française
3076:Science as a Process
1424:Notes and references
1385:Three-taxon analysis
1360:Phylogenetic network
1030:Terminology for taxa
874:improve this article
370:improve this article
249:Robert John Tillyard
221:Robert John Tillyard
32:Cladistics (journal)
4312:Phylogenetic signal
2955:2006JClas..23...57F
2193:Journal of Heredity
2095:2004SysEn..29..279K
1470:. Ucmp.berkeley.edu
1038:
1002:or "an instance of
152:were used within a
4240:Bayesian inference
4235:Maximum likelihood
3998:on 11 January 2010
3973:Felsenstein, Joe.
3890:
3847:10.1007/BF00484973
3821:on 3 December 2010
3642:(1756): 20123065.
3385:Systematic Zoology
3228:Systematic Biology
3010:Systematic Zoology
2896:Systematic Zoology
2868:Systematic Zoology
2840:Systematic Zoology
2743:on 20 October 2013
2645:Biological Reviews
2257:10.1002/tax.596001
1981:10.1002/tax.594002
1771:Benton, Michael J.
1409:Biology portal
1284:comparative method
1130:circular reasoning
1091:evolutionary grade
1037:
918:("close form") or
808:
628:
615:molecular evidence
498:
426:genetic sequencing
223:
215:
207:
4477:
4476:
4222:Maximum parsimony
4215:Inference methods
4163:Phylogenetic tree
3932:Media related to
3886:
3811:978-0-89338-035-9
3788:978-0-231-10143-1
3723:Biological Theory
3684:978-0-8014-4799-0
3466:978-0-12-391250-3
3448:978-0-7867-1890-0
3426:978-0-674-36446-2
3368:978-0-674-27105-0
3309:978-1-84472-099-6
3286:, 52–53: 63–120,
3275:978-0-202-30751-0
3212:978-0-12-385250-2
3172:Rock Art Research
3108:978-0-943610-85-6
3085:978-0-226-36051-5
3063:978-0-252-06814-0
2991:978-0-252-06814-0
2718:978-0-632-05637-8
2619:978-0-8493-3498-6
2592:978-0-306-46721-9
2481:Ross and al. 2013
2167:ucmp.berkeley.edu
2148:978-0-226-72824-7
1997:Wiley et al. 1991
1784:978-0-632-05637-8
1689:978-1-000-91257-9
1608:978-94-015-8038-0
1520:978-0-07-352421-4
1437:Harper, Douglas.
1335:Coalescent theory
1298:Textual criticism
1156:Extinction status
1117:
1116:
906:
905:
898:
778:Cladogram of the
767:
766:
758:
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749:
748:
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739:
602:
601:
593:
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584:
583:
575:
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444:, morphological,
420:-shaped diagram (
410:symplesiomorphies
402:
401:
394:
342:Phylogenetic tree
316:molecular genetic
205:Willi Hennig 1972
135:characteristics (
16:(Redirected from
4512:
4465:
4464:
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4252:Neighbor-joining
4206:Ghost population
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3841:(1–2): 135–152,
3829:
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3820:
3814:, archived from
3803:
3791:
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3745:
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3701:
3687:
3669:
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3594:on 20 March 2012
3593:
3587:, archived from
3570:
3560:
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3557:
3551:
3545:, archived from
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3510:
3500:
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3451:
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3117:
3100:
3088:
3066:
3040:
3038:
3007:
2994:
2973:
2948:
2946:astro-ph/0602580
2927:
2918:
2890:
2862:
2834:
2825:
2787:
2771:
2751:
2750:
2748:
2742:
2731:
2721:
2700:
2699:
2697:
2692:on 9 August 2017
2691:
2685:, archived from
2660:
2642:
2629:
2628:
2626:
2602:
2601:
2599:
2565:
2560:
2554:
2549:
2543:
2540:Oppenheimer 2006
2537:
2531:
2526:
2517:
2516:
2514:
2512:
2503:. Archived from
2497:
2491:
2488:
2482:
2479:
2473:
2470:
2464:
2462:Lipo et al. 2006
2459:
2453:
2447:
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2357:
2332:
2326:
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2251:(6): 1641–1653.
2236:
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2208:
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2023:
2022:, pp. 56–57
2017:
2011:
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1974:(4): 1011–1015.
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1464:
1458:
1455:
1449:
1448:
1434:
1417:
1416:
1407:
1406:
1370:Stratocladistics
1267:Canterbury Tales
1197:Australopithecus
1186:Naming stability
1039:
901:
894:
890:
887:
881:
858:
850:
701:
671:
665:
661:Archosauromorpha
637:
631:
621:
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608:
536:
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459:
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158:paraphyletically
141:character states
114:
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4353:Symplesiomorphy
4331:
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4083:Relevant fields
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3901:This audio file
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3672:
3629:
3621:
3619:
3605:
3597:
3595:
3591:
3568:
3563:
3555:
3553:
3552:on 22 July 2011
3549:
3526:10.1.1.487.2259
3508:
3503:
3473:
3467:
3454:
3449:
3432:
3427:
3411:
3397:10.2307/2412818
3379:
3369:
3353:
3346:
3323:
3315:
3310:
3297:
3281:
3276:
3263:
3256:
3223:
3218:
3213:
3200:
3165:
3129:
3121:
3119:
3115:
3109:
3098:
3091:
3086:
3070:
3064:
3048:
3036:
3022:10.2307/2412765
3005:
2997:
2992:
2976:
2930:
2921:
2908:10.2307/2992344
2893:
2880:10.2307/2412562
2865:
2852:10.2307/2412523
2837:
2828:
2799:
2774:
2754:
2746:
2744:
2740:
2729:
2724:
2719:
2703:
2695:
2693:
2689:
2658:10.1.1.573.4518
2640:
2632:
2624:
2622:
2620:
2605:
2597:
2595:
2593:
2578:
2574:
2569:
2568:
2561:
2557:
2550:
2546:
2538:
2534:
2527:
2520:
2510:
2508:
2499:
2498:
2494:
2489:
2485:
2480:
2476:
2471:
2467:
2460:
2456:
2448:
2444:
2394:
2393:
2389:
2334:
2333:
2329:
2285:
2284:
2280:
2238:
2237:
2230:
2199:(S1): 795–809.
2186:
2185:
2181:
2171:
2169:
2161:
2160:
2156:
2149:
2134:
2133:
2129:
2124:
2120:
2076:
2075:
2071:
2066:
2062:
2057:
2053:
2042:
2038:
2030:
2026:
2018:
2014:
2007:
2003:
1993:
1989:
1961:
1960:
1956:
1949:
1945:
1936:
1932:
1924:
1920:
1913:
1909:
1902:
1898:
1891:
1884:
1877:
1870:
1862:
1858:
1850:
1819:10.1.1.695.4249
1801:
1796:
1795:
1791:
1785:
1769:
1768:
1764:
1756:
1752:
1713:
1712:
1708:
1701:
1697:
1690:
1675:
1674:
1670:
1663:
1659:
1652:
1648:
1643:
1636:
1629:
1625:
1620:
1616:
1609:
1596:
1595:
1591:
1586:
1582:
1577:
1573:
1565:
1561:
1551:
1549:
1541:
1540:
1536:
1521:
1506:
1505:
1501:
1496:
1492:
1487:
1483:
1473:
1471:
1466:
1465:
1461:
1456:
1452:
1436:
1435:
1431:
1426:
1411:
1401:
1399:
1350:Language family
1320:
1273:Charaka Samhita
1230:
1188:
1175:
1166:
1158:
1149:
1144:
1122:
1032:
924:symplesiomorphy
920:ancestral state
902:
891:
885:
882:
871:
859:
848:
768:
759:
750:
741:
705:Crocodylomorpha
666:
663:
632:
629:
610:
606:
603:
594:
585:
576:
540:Crocodylomorpha
502:
499:
467:
464:
398:
387:
381:
378:
367:
355:
344:
338:
330:Main articles:
328:
199:
129:common ancestry
93:
51:
47:
39:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
4518:
4516:
4508:
4507:
4502:
4497:
4492:
4482:
4481:
4475:
4474:
4472:
4471:
4459:
4446:
4443:
4442:
4440:
4439:
4434:
4429:
4424:
4419:
4413:
4411:
4407:
4406:
4404:
4403:
4398:
4393:
4387:
4385:
4381:
4380:
4378:
4377:
4376:
4375:
4370:
4365:
4357:
4356:
4355:
4350:
4339:
4337:
4333:
4332:
4330:
4329:
4327:Phylogeography
4324:
4319:
4314:
4309:
4304:
4299:
4294:
4289:
4281:
4279:
4278:Current topics
4275:
4274:
4272:
4271:
4266:
4265:
4264:
4259:
4254:
4244:
4243:
4242:
4237:
4229:
4224:
4218:
4216:
4212:
4211:
4209:
4208:
4203:
4202:
4201:
4191:
4182:
4177:
4172:
4171:
4170:
4160:
4159:
4158:
4147:
4145:
4144:Basic concepts
4141:
4140:
4138:
4137:
4122:
4120:
4118:
4117:
4112:
4107:
4102:
4097:
4092:
4086:
4084:
4080:
4079:
4074:
4072:
4071:
4064:
4057:
4049:
4043:
4042:
4025:
4008:
3987:
3970:
3953:
3947:
3942:
3937:
3913:
3899:
3892:
3880:
3867:
3866:
3864:
3863:External links
3861:
3859:
3858:
3830:
3810:
3792:
3787:
3774:
3746:
3714:
3711:, 13 November.
3705:
3688:
3683:
3670:
3627:
3603:
3561:
3519:(4): 367–394,
3501:
3482:(6): 603–625,
3471:
3465:
3452:
3447:
3430:
3425:
3409:
3377:
3376:is a response.
3367:
3351:
3313:
3308:
3295:
3279:
3274:
3261:
3216:
3211:
3198:
3189:
3180:
3163:
3154:
3144:
3127:
3107:
3089:
3084:
3068:
3062:
3046:
3041:responding to
3016:(2): 244–256,
2995:
2990:
2974:
2928:
2919:
2902:(4): 386–401,
2891:
2874:(4): 483–519,
2863:
2846:(2): 200–214,
2835:
2826:
2797:
2776:Cuénot, Lucien
2772:
2752:
2722:
2717:
2701:
2651:(4): 633–648,
2630:
2618:
2603:
2591:
2575:
2573:
2570:
2567:
2566:
2555:
2544:
2532:
2529:Maas 2010–2011
2518:
2507:on 7 July 2009
2492:
2483:
2474:
2465:
2454:
2442:
2407:(4): 390–402.
2387:
2327:
2278:
2228:
2179:
2154:
2147:
2127:
2118:
2089:(3): 279–281.
2069:
2060:
2051:
2036:
2032:Oreskes, Naomi
2024:
2012:
2001:
1987:
1954:
1951:Patterson 1982
1943:
1930:
1918:
1907:
1896:
1882:
1879:Patterson 1988
1868:
1864:Patterson 1982
1856:
1812:(2): 133–135,
1789:
1783:
1762:
1750:
1722:(3): 331–334,
1706:
1695:
1688:
1668:
1657:
1646:
1634:
1623:
1614:
1607:
1589:
1580:
1571:
1559:
1534:
1519:
1499:
1490:
1481:
1459:
1450:
1428:
1427:
1425:
1422:
1398:
1397:
1395:Tree structure
1392:
1387:
1382:
1377:
1372:
1367:
1362:
1357:
1355:Patrocladogram
1352:
1347:
1342:
1340:Common descent
1337:
1332:
1330:Biomathematics
1327:
1325:Bioinformatics
1321:
1319:
1316:
1229:
1226:
1187:
1184:
1174:
1171:
1165:
1162:
1157:
1154:
1148:
1145:
1143:
1140:
1121:
1118:
1115:
1114:
1105:
1102:
1096:
1095:
1086:plesiomorphies
1082:
1078:
1072:
1071:
1064:
1057:
1050:
1049:
1046:
1043:
1031:
1028:
1010:
1009:
996:
979:with those of
965:synapomorphies
957:autapomorphies
939:
904:
903:
862:
860:
853:
847:
844:
816:strepsirrhines
765:
764:
761:
760:
756:
755:
752:
751:
747:
746:
743:
742:
738:
737:
734:
733:
726:
720:
719:
716:
715:
708:
699:
697:
690:
689:
686:
685:
678:
669:
667:
659:
656:
655:
652:
651:
644:
635:
633:
624:
619:
600:
599:
596:
595:
591:
590:
587:
586:
582:
581:
578:
577:
573:
572:
569:
568:
561:
555:
554:
551:
550:
543:
534:
532:
526:
525:
522:
521:
514:
505:
503:
494:
491:
490:
487:
486:
479:
470:
468:
462:
457:
406:Synapomorphies
400:
399:
358:
356:
349:
327:
324:
280:and so-called
198:
195:
137:synapomorphies
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4517:
4506:
4503:
4501:
4498:
4496:
4493:
4491:
4490:Phylogenetics
4488:
4487:
4485:
4470:
4469:
4460:
4458:
4457:
4448:
4447:
4444:
4438:
4435:
4433:
4430:
4428:
4425:
4423:
4420:
4418:
4415:
4414:
4412:
4408:
4402:
4399:
4397:
4394:
4392:
4389:
4388:
4386:
4382:
4374:
4371:
4369:
4366:
4364:
4361:
4360:
4358:
4354:
4351:
4349:
4346:
4345:
4344:
4341:
4340:
4338:
4334:
4328:
4325:
4323:
4322:Phylogenomics
4320:
4318:
4315:
4313:
4310:
4308:
4305:
4303:
4300:
4298:
4295:
4293:
4292:DNA barcoding
4290:
4288:
4287:
4283:
4282:
4280:
4276:
4270:
4267:
4263:
4262:Least squares
4260:
4258:
4255:
4253:
4250:
4249:
4248:
4245:
4241:
4238:
4236:
4233:
4232:
4230:
4228:
4225:
4223:
4220:
4219:
4217:
4213:
4207:
4204:
4200:
4199:Ghost lineage
4197:
4196:
4195:
4192:
4190:
4186:
4183:
4181:
4178:
4176:
4173:
4169:
4166:
4165:
4164:
4161:
4157:
4154:
4153:
4152:
4149:
4148:
4146:
4142:
4135:
4129:
4124:
4116:
4113:
4111:
4108:
4106:
4103:
4101:
4098:
4096:
4093:
4091:
4088:
4087:
4085:
4081:
4077:
4076:Phylogenetics
4070:
4065:
4063:
4058:
4056:
4051:
4050:
4047:
4031:
4026:
4015:. rjohara.net
4014:
4009:
3997:
3993:
3988:
3976:
3971:
3959:
3954:
3951:
3948:
3946:
3943:
3941:
3938:
3935:
3930:
3926:
3925:
3921:
3917:
3902:
3862:
3856:
3852:
3848:
3844:
3840:
3836:
3831:
3817:
3813:
3807:
3800:
3799:
3793:
3790:
3784:
3780:
3775:
3772:
3768:
3764:
3760:
3756:
3752:
3747:
3744:
3740:
3736:
3732:
3728:
3724:
3720:
3715:
3713:
3710:
3706:
3696:
3695:
3689:
3686:
3680:
3676:
3671:
3667:
3663:
3658:
3653:
3649:
3645:
3641:
3637:
3633:
3628:
3617:
3613:
3609:
3604:
3590:
3586:
3582:
3578:
3574:
3567:
3562:
3548:
3544:
3540:
3536:
3532:
3527:
3522:
3518:
3514:
3507:
3502:
3499:
3495:
3490:
3485:
3481:
3477:
3472:
3468:
3462:
3458:
3453:
3450:
3444:
3439:
3438:
3431:
3428:
3422:
3418:
3414:
3410:
3406:
3402:
3398:
3394:
3390:
3386:
3382:
3378:
3375:
3370:
3364:
3360:
3356:
3352:
3345:
3341:
3337:
3333:
3329:
3322:
3318:
3314:
3311:
3305:
3301:
3296:
3293:
3289:
3285:
3280:
3277:
3271:
3267:
3262:
3255:
3251:
3247:
3242:
3237:
3233:
3229:
3222:
3217:
3214:
3208:
3204:
3199:
3197:
3194:
3190:
3188:
3185:
3181:
3178:(1): 115–118.
3177:
3173:
3169:
3164:
3162:
3159:
3155:
3152:
3149:
3145:
3141:
3137:
3133:
3128:
3114:
3110:
3104:
3097:
3096:
3090:
3087:
3081:
3077:
3073:
3069:
3065:
3059:
3055:
3051:
3050:Hennig, Willi
3047:
3044:
3035:
3031:
3027:
3023:
3019:
3015:
3011:
3004:
3000:
2999:Hennig, Willi
2996:
2993:
2987:
2983:
2979:
2978:Hennig, Willi
2975:
2972:
2968:
2964:
2960:
2956:
2952:
2947:
2942:
2938:
2934:
2929:
2925:
2920:
2917:
2913:
2909:
2905:
2901:
2897:
2892:
2889:
2885:
2881:
2877:
2873:
2869:
2864:
2861:
2857:
2853:
2849:
2845:
2841:
2836:
2832:
2827:
2823:
2819:
2815:
2811:
2807:
2803:
2798:
2795:
2791:
2785:
2781:
2777:
2773:
2770:
2766:
2762:
2758:
2753:
2739:
2735:
2728:
2723:
2720:
2714:
2710:
2706:
2705:Benton, M. J.
2702:
2688:
2684:
2680:
2676:
2672:
2668:
2664:
2659:
2654:
2650:
2646:
2639:
2635:
2634:Benton, M. J.
2631:
2621:
2615:
2611:
2610:
2604:
2594:
2588:
2584:
2583:
2577:
2576:
2571:
2564:
2559:
2556:
2553:
2548:
2545:
2541:
2536:
2533:
2530:
2525:
2523:
2519:
2506:
2502:
2496:
2493:
2487:
2484:
2478:
2475:
2469:
2466:
2463:
2458:
2455:
2451:
2446:
2443:
2438:
2434:
2430:
2426:
2422:
2418:
2414:
2410:
2406:
2402:
2398:
2391:
2388:
2383:
2379:
2374:
2369:
2365:
2361:
2356:
2351:
2347:
2343:
2339:
2331:
2328:
2323:
2319:
2314:
2309:
2305:
2301:
2297:
2293:
2289:
2282:
2279:
2274:
2270:
2266:
2262:
2258:
2254:
2250:
2246:
2242:
2235:
2233:
2229:
2224:
2220:
2216:
2212:
2207:
2202:
2198:
2194:
2190:
2183:
2180:
2168:
2164:
2158:
2155:
2150:
2144:
2140:
2139:
2131:
2128:
2122:
2119:
2114:
2110:
2105:
2100:
2096:
2092:
2088:
2084:
2080:
2073:
2070:
2064:
2061:
2055:
2052:
2049:
2046:
2040:
2037:
2033:
2028:
2025:
2021:
2016:
2013:
2010:
2005:
2002:
1998:
1991:
1988:
1982:
1977:
1973:
1969:
1965:
1958:
1955:
1952:
1947:
1944:
1940:
1934:
1931:
1927:
1922:
1919:
1916:
1911:
1908:
1905:
1900:
1897:
1894:
1893:de Pinna 1991
1889:
1887:
1883:
1880:
1875:
1873:
1869:
1865:
1860:
1857:
1849:
1845:
1841:
1837:
1833:
1829:
1825:
1820:
1815:
1811:
1807:
1800:
1793:
1790:
1786:
1780:
1776:
1772:
1766:
1763:
1760:, p. 254
1759:
1754:
1751:
1747:
1743:
1739:
1735:
1730:
1725:
1721:
1717:
1710:
1707:
1704:
1703:Weygoldt 1998
1699:
1696:
1691:
1685:
1682:. CRC Press.
1681:
1680:
1672:
1669:
1666:
1661:
1658:
1655:
1650:
1647:
1641:
1639:
1635:
1632:
1627:
1624:
1618:
1615:
1610:
1604:
1600:
1593:
1590:
1584:
1581:
1575:
1572:
1569:, p. 323
1568:
1563:
1560:
1548:
1544:
1538:
1535:
1530:
1526:
1522:
1516:
1512:
1511:
1503:
1500:
1494:
1491:
1485:
1482:
1469:
1463:
1460:
1454:
1451:
1446:
1445:
1440:
1433:
1430:
1423:
1421:
1420:
1415:
1410:
1405:
1396:
1393:
1391:
1388:
1386:
1383:
1381:
1378:
1376:
1373:
1371:
1368:
1366:
1363:
1361:
1358:
1356:
1353:
1351:
1348:
1346:
1343:
1341:
1338:
1336:
1333:
1331:
1328:
1326:
1323:
1322:
1317:
1315:
1313:
1309:
1307:
1303:
1299:
1295:
1293:
1289:
1285:
1281:
1277:
1275:
1274:
1269:
1268:
1263:
1259:
1256:
1252:
1248:
1246:
1242:
1238:
1235:
1227:
1225:
1222:
1221:
1220:sensu stricto
1216:
1215:
1210:
1206:
1202:
1198:
1194:
1185:
1183:
1181:
1172:
1170:
1163:
1161:
1155:
1153:
1146:
1141:
1139:
1137:
1133:
1131:
1127:
1119:
1112:
1111:
1106:
1103:
1101:
1098:
1093:
1092:
1087:
1083:
1079:
1077:
1074:
1069:
1065:
1062:
1058:
1056:
1052:
1047:
1044:
1041:
1040:
1035:
1029:
1027:
1024:
1020:
1019:Phylogenetics
1014:
1007:
1006:
1001:
997:
994:
990:
986:
982:
978:
974:
970:
966:
962:
958:
954:
950:
949:derived state
946:
945:
940:
937:
933:
929:
925:
921:
917:
916:
911:
910:
909:
900:
897:
889:
879:
875:
869:
868:
863:This section
861:
857:
852:
851:
845:
843:
839:
837:
833:
829:
825:
821:
817:
813:
805:
801:
797:
793:
789:
785:
781:
776:
772:
763:
762:
754:
753:
745:
744:
736:
735:
732:
731:
725:
722:
721:
718:
717:
714:
713:
707:
706:
703:
702:
696:
695:
692:
691:
688:
687:
684:
683:
677:
676:
673:
672:
662:
658:
657:
654:
653:
650:
649:
643:
642:
639:
638:
627:
623:
622:
618:
616:
598:
597:
589:
588:
580:
579:
571:
570:
567:
566:
560:
557:
556:
553:
552:
549:
548:
542:
541:
538:
537:
531:
528:
527:
524:
523:
520:
519:
513:
512:
509:
508:
497:
493:
492:
489:
488:
485:
484:
478:
477:
474:
473:
461:
460:
456:
453:
451:
447:
443:
438:
435:
431:
427:
423:
419:
415:
411:
407:
396:
393:
385:
375:
371:
365:
364:
359:This section
357:
353:
348:
347:
343:
337:
333:
332:Phylogenetics
325:
323:
321:
317:
313:
309:
304:
300:
298:
294:
290:
287:
283:
279:
274:
270:
266:
265:Lucien Cuénot
262:
261:Julian Huxley
258:
254:
253:W. Zimmermann
250:
246:
241:
239:
235:
231:
228:
219:
211:
203:
196:
194:
191:
189:
184:
182:
177:
173:
169:
167:
163:
159:
155:
151:
147:
142:
138:
134:
130:
126:
122:
118:
113:
107:
102:
101:Ancient Greek
98:
97:
87:
45:
41:
37:
33:
19:
18:Cladistically
4466:
4454:
4427:Sister group
4410:Nomenclature
4373:Autapomorphy
4368:Synapomorphy
4348:Plesiomorphy
4336:Group traits
4284:
4156:Cladogenesis
4151:Phylogenesis
4099:
4034:. Retrieved
4017:. Retrieved
4000:. Retrieved
3996:the original
3979:. Retrieved
3962:. Retrieved
3838:
3834:
3823:, retrieved
3816:the original
3797:
3778:
3757:(2): 63–79,
3754:
3750:
3729:(1): 56–68,
3726:
3722:
3708:
3698:, retrieved
3693:
3674:
3639:
3635:
3620:, retrieved
3615:
3611:
3596:, retrieved
3589:the original
3576:
3572:
3554:, retrieved
3547:the original
3516:
3512:
3479:
3475:
3456:
3436:
3416:
3391:(1): 83–88,
3388:
3384:
3358:
3331:
3327:
3299:
3283:
3265:
3234:(1): 68–80,
3231:
3227:
3202:
3192:
3183:
3175:
3171:
3157:
3150:, 23: 49-59
3147:
3142:(1): 91–106.
3139:
3135:
3120:, retrieved
3094:
3075:
3053:
3013:
3009:
2981:
2939:(1): 57–78,
2936:
2932:
2923:
2899:
2895:
2871:
2867:
2843:
2839:
2830:
2805:
2801:
2783:
2779:
2760:
2756:
2745:, retrieved
2738:the original
2733:
2708:
2694:, retrieved
2687:the original
2648:
2644:
2623:, retrieved
2608:
2596:, retrieved
2581:
2572:Bibliography
2558:
2547:
2535:
2509:. Retrieved
2505:the original
2495:
2490:Tehrani 2013
2486:
2477:
2468:
2457:
2445:
2404:
2400:
2390:
2345:
2341:
2330:
2295:
2291:
2281:
2248:
2244:
2196:
2192:
2182:
2170:. Retrieved
2166:
2157:
2137:
2130:
2121:
2086:
2082:
2072:
2063:
2054:
2044:
2039:
2027:
2015:
2004:
1990:
1971:
1967:
1957:
1946:
1938:
1933:
1921:
1910:
1899:
1859:
1809:
1805:
1792:
1774:
1765:
1758:Jerison 2003
1753:
1719:
1715:
1709:
1698:
1678:
1671:
1660:
1649:
1626:
1617:
1598:
1592:
1583:
1574:
1562:
1550:. Retrieved
1546:
1537:
1509:
1502:
1493:
1484:
1472:. Retrieved
1462:
1453:
1442:
1432:
1400:
1312:Astrophysics
1310:
1296:
1278:
1271:
1265:
1260:
1249:
1241:Anthropology
1239:
1231:
1218:
1212:
1208:
1205:Homo sapiens
1204:
1203:all contain
1201:Homo erectus
1200:
1196:
1193:Ardipithecus
1192:
1189:
1176:
1167:
1159:
1150:
1134:
1123:
1108:
1089:
1085:
1067:
1053:Holophyly,
1033:
1015:
1011:
1003:
999:
989:Homo sapiens
988:
981:Homo sapiens
980:
968:
964:
960:
956:
948:
942:
936:warm-blooded
932:cold-blooded
927:
923:
919:
915:plesiomorphy
913:
907:
892:
883:
872:Please help
867:verification
864:
840:
832:Strepsirhini
814:, including
809:
796:polyphyletic
792:paraphyletic
784:monophyletic
782:, showing a
769:
728:
712:crocodilians
710:
680:
646:
641:Lepidosauria
604:
563:
547:crocodilians
545:
516:
511:Lepidosauria
481:
463:
454:
439:
403:
388:
379:
368:Please help
363:verification
360:
305:
301:
293:Robert Sokal
289:Peter Sneath
242:
238:phylogenetic
233:
230:Willi Hennig
227:entomologist
224:
192:
185:
178:
174:
170:
153:
149:
145:
43:
42:
40:
4422:Crown group
4384:Group types
4115:Systematics
3825:13 December
3700:13 December
3622:13 December
3579:: 449–480,
3413:Mayr, Ernst
3381:Mayr, Ernst
3374:Hennig 1975
3355:Mayr, Ernst
3317:Mayr, Ernst
3122:14 December
3072:Hull, David
2794:Hennig 1979
2452:, p. 1
2298:: 133–147.
2009:Taylor 2003
1999:, p. 4
1915:Hennig 1966
1665:Dupuis 1984
1631:Cuénot 1940
1380:Systematics
1245:archaeology
1110:homoplasies
1068:apomorphies
1000:homoplastic
694:Archosauria
530:Archosauria
446:ethological
326:Methodology
312:biochemical
269:Arthur Cain
4484:Categories
4100:Cladistics
4036:21 January
4019:21 January
4002:21 January
3981:21 January
3964:21 January
3950:Cladistics
3934:Cladistics
3916:Audio help
3907:2005-04-30
3556:24 October
3513:Cladistics
3334:: 94–128,
2747:19 October
2625:15 October
2401:Cladistics
1716:Cladistics
1390:Tree model
1302:stemmatics
1262:Literature
1234:cladograms
1214:sensu lato
1209:sensu lato
1126:homologous
977:homologous
886:April 2016
836:Haplorhini
724:Dinosauria
675:Testudines
559:Dinosauria
476:Testudines
422:dendrogram
382:April 2016
340:See also:
297:Ernst Mayr
273:Ernst Mayr
44:Cladistics
4437:Supertree
4401:Polyphyly
4396:Paraphyly
4391:Monophyly
4363:Apomorphy
4343:Primitive
4286:PhyloCode
4168:Cladogram
3618:: 115–137
3521:CiteSeerX
3043:Mayr 1974
2822:0066-4162
2696:2 October
2653:CiteSeerX
2598:15 August
2421:0748-3007
2364:2296-634X
2265:0040-0262
2215:0022-1503
1814:CiteSeerX
1552:12 August
1529:846846729
1474:6 January
1306:parsimony
1288:parsimony
1147:Ancestors
1120:Criticism
1100:Polyphyly
1076:Paraphyly
1055:Monophyly
1023:parsimony
1005:homoplasy
985:tetrapods
975:that are
944:apomorphy
818:like the
806:– in red)
786:taxon (a
442:molecular
434:parsimony
428:data and
414:cladogram
336:Cladogram
320:computers
278:phenetics
166:Radiation
121:organisms
119:in which
4456:Category
4359:Derived
4105:Taxonomy
3918: ·
3855:46974048
3835:Synthese
3771:35595726
3743:84932063
3709:PLOS ONE
3666:23390109
3415:(1982),
3357:(1976),
3344:archived
3319:(1974),
3254:archived
3250:14965901
3113:archived
3074:(1988),
3052:(1999),
3034:archived
3001:(1975),
2980:(1966),
2808:: 1–24,
2786:: 23–27.
2763:: 1–31,
2707:(2004),
2683:17851383
2675:11117201
2636:(2000),
2437:59437223
2429:34905840
2382:32509768
2322:29729946
2273:41059863
2223:25149255
2113:82371239
1848:archived
1836:19245543
1773:(2005),
1746:84907350
1738:34875779
1375:Subclade
1318:See also
1255:folktale
812:primates
804:tarsiers
802:and the
780:primates
626:Diapsida
496:Diapsida
188:taxonomy
4500:Zoology
4468:Commons
4194:Lineage
3905: (
3876:minutes
3657:3574383
3598:28 July
3543:3551391
3498:3065587
3405:2412818
3030:2412765
2971:2537194
2951:Bibcode
2916:2992344
2888:2412562
2860:2412523
2790:Gallica
2373:7248198
2348:: 229.
2313:6215533
2091:Bibcode
1844:3121166
1439:"clade"
824:lorises
800:lorises
682:turtles
648:lizards
613:. Most
518:lizards
483:turtles
197:History
133:derived
99:; from
3853:
3808:
3785:
3769:
3741:
3681:
3664:
3654:
3541:
3523:
3496:
3463:
3445:
3423:
3403:
3365:
3306:
3272:
3248:
3209:
3148:Sahara
3105:
3082:
3060:
3028:
2988:
2969:
2914:
2886:
2858:
2820:
2715:
2681:
2673:
2655:
2616:
2589:
2511:4 July
2435:
2427:
2419:
2380:
2370:
2362:
2320:
2310:
2271:
2263:
2221:
2213:
2145:
2111:
2048:online
1842:
1834:
1816:
1781:
1744:
1736:
1686:
1605:
1527:
1517:
1142:Issues
973:digits
967:(from
959:(from
926:(from
820:lemurs
154:strict
150:fishes
125:clades
112:kládos
106:κλάδος
4432:Basal
4257:UPGMA
4189:Grade
4185:Clade
3851:S2CID
3819:(PDF)
3802:(PDF)
3767:S2CID
3739:S2CID
3592:(PDF)
3569:(PDF)
3550:(PDF)
3539:S2CID
3509:(PDF)
3401:JSTOR
3347:(PDF)
3324:(PDF)
3257:(PDF)
3224:(PDF)
3116:(PDF)
3099:(PDF)
3037:(PDF)
3026:JSTOR
3006:(PDF)
2967:S2CID
2941:arXiv
2912:JSTOR
2884:JSTOR
2856:JSTOR
2741:(PDF)
2730:(PDF)
2690:(PDF)
2679:S2CID
2641:(PDF)
2433:S2CID
2269:JSTOR
2245:Taxon
2172:8 May
2109:S2CID
1968:Taxon
1851:(PDF)
1840:S2CID
1802:(PDF)
1742:S2CID
1061:clade
1042:Term
961:auto-
788:clade
730:birds
565:birds
257:clade
162:grade
146:worms
4038:2010
4021:2010
4004:2010
3983:2010
3966:2010
3827:2010
3806:ISBN
3783:ISBN
3702:2010
3679:ISBN
3662:PMID
3624:2010
3600:2012
3558:2017
3494:PMID
3461:ISBN
3443:ISBN
3421:ISBN
3363:ISBN
3304:ISBN
3270:ISBN
3246:PMID
3207:ISBN
3124:2010
3103:ISBN
3080:ISBN
3058:ISBN
2986:ISBN
2818:ISSN
2749:2013
2713:ISBN
2698:2011
2671:PMID
2627:2008
2614:ISBN
2600:2012
2587:ISBN
2513:2009
2425:PMID
2417:ISSN
2378:PMID
2360:ISSN
2318:PMID
2261:ISSN
2219:PMID
2211:ISSN
2174:2022
2143:ISBN
1995:e.g.
1832:PMID
1779:ISBN
1734:PMID
1684:ISBN
1603:ISBN
1554:2018
1525:OCLC
1515:ISBN
1476:2014
1253:and
1243:and
969:syn-
928:syn-
834:and
822:and
418:tree
416:– a
334:and
314:and
291:and
96:-iks
94:DIST
92:klə-
4187:vs
3843:doi
3759:doi
3731:doi
3652:PMC
3644:doi
3640:280
3581:doi
3531:doi
3484:doi
3393:doi
3336:doi
3288:doi
3236:doi
3160:1,
3018:doi
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2904:doi
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2308:PMC
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