Effects of climate change on biomes

948:

fish living in cold or cool water can see a reduction in population of up to 50% in the majority of U.S. freshwater streams, according to most climate change models. The increase in metabolic demands due to higher water temperatures, in combination with decreasing amounts of food will be the main contributors to their decline. Additionally, many fish species (such as salmon) use seasonal water levels of streams as a means of reproducing, typically breeding when water flow is high and migrating to the ocean after spawning. Because snowfall is expected to be reduced due to climate change, water runoff is expected to decrease which leads to lower flowing streams, affecting the spawning of millions of salmon. To add to this, rising seas will begin to flood coastal river systems, converting them from fresh water habitats to saline environments where indigenous species will likely perish. In southeast Alaska, the sea rises by 3.96 cm/year, redepositing sediment in various river channels and bringing salt water inland. This rise in sea level not only contaminates streams and rivers with saline water, but also the reservoirs they are connected to, where species such as

526:, which leads to a whole host of subsequent issues. Climate change has a direct impact on the productivity of the boreal forest, as well as health and regeneration. As a result of the rapidly changing climate, trees show declines in growth at the southern limit of their range, and are migrating to higher latitudes and altitudes (northward) to remain their climatic habitat, but some species may not be migrating fast enough. The number of days with extremely cold temperatures (e.g., −20 to −40 °C (−4 to −40 °F) has decreased irregularly but systematically in nearly all the boreal region, allowing better survival for tree-damaging insects. The 10-year average of 1018:, as opposed to 84% being able to do so now, with the figure dropping to 0% by 2 °C (3.6 °F) and beyond. However, it was found in 2021 that each square meter of coral reef area contains about 30 individual corals, and their total number is estimated at half a trillion - equivalent to all the trees in the Amazon, or all the birds in the world. As such, most individual coral reef species are predicted to avoid extinction even as coral reefs would cease to function as the ecosystems we know. A 2013 study found that 47–73 coral species (6–9%) are vulnerable to climate change while already threatened with extinction according to the 508: 251: 578: 871: 449: 744: 725:(the weather and temperature). However, as climate change causes mountain areas to become warmer and drier, pine beetles have more power to infest and destroy the forest ecosystems, such as the whitebark pine forests of the Rocky Mountains. Increased temperatures also allow the pine beetle to increase their life cycle by 100%: it only takes a single year instead of two for the pine beetle to develop. As the Rockies have not adapted to deal with pine beetle 996: 625: 7025: 274:. Agriculture suffers as a result. This means even regions where overall rainfall is expected to remain relatively stable will experience these impacts. These regions include central and northern Europe. Without climate change mitigation, around one third of land areas are likely to experience moderate or more severe drought by 2100. Due to global warming droughts are more frequent and intense than in the past. 7013: 30: 7049: 7037: 910: 1022:, and 74–174 (9–22%) coral species were not vulnerable to extinction at the time of publication, but could be threatened under continued climate change, making them a future conservation priority. The authors of the recent coral number estimates suggest that those older projections were too high, although this has been disputed. 3205:

Engler, Robin; Randin, Cristophe F.; Thuiler, Wilfried; Dullinger, Stefan; Zimmermann, Niklaus E.; Araujo, Miguel B.; Pearman, Peter B.; Le Lay, Gwenaelle; Piedallu, Christian; Albert, Cecile H.; Choler, Philippe; Coldea, Gheorghe; De Lamo, Xavier; Dirnböck, Thomas; Gegout, Jean-Claude; Gomez-Garcia,

631: 630: 627: 626: 90:

is complex, and there is no single metric which can define all aspects. However, more intense climate change is still expected to increase the current extent of drylands on the Earth's continents. Most of the expansion will be seen over regions such as "southwest North America, the northern fringe of

5315:

Foden, Wendy B.; Butchart, Stuart H. M.; Stuart, Simon N.; Vié, Jean-Christophe; Akçakaya, H. Resit; Angulo, Ariadne; DeVantier, Lyndon M.; Gutsche, Alexander; Turak, Emre; Cao, Long; Donner, Simon D.; Katariya, Vineet; Bernard, Rodolphe; Holland, Robert A.; Hughes, Adrian F.; O’Hanlon, Susannah E.;

1744:

Olson, D. M., Dinerstein, E., Wikramanayake, E. D., Burgess, N. D., Powell, G. V. N., Underwood, E. C., D'Amico, J. A., Itoua, I., Strand, H. E., Morrison, J. C., Loucks, C. J., Allnutt, T. F., Ricketts, T. H., Kura, Y., Lamoreux, J. F., Wettengel, W. W., Hedao, P., Kassem, K. R. (2001). Terrestrial

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scenario, ecosystems in the tropical oceans would be the first to experience abrupt disruption before 2030, with tropical forests and polar environments following by 2050. In total, 15% of ecological assemblages would have over 20% of their species abruptly disrupted if as warming eventually reaches

632: 483:

and RCP8.5. However, for RCP8.5, that rebound would be deceptive, followed by the same collapse in biodiversity at the end of the century as simulated in the earlier papers. This is because on average, every degree of warming reduces total species population growth by 7%, and the rebound was driven

423:

Studies suggest a warmer climate would cause lower-elevation habitats to expand into the higher alpine zone. Such a shift would encroach on rare alpine meadows and other high-altitude habitats. High-elevation plants and animals have limited space available for new habitat as they move higher on the

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again. Warming over land increases the severity and frequency of droughts around much of the world. In some tropical and subtropical regions of the world, there will probably be less rain due to global warming. This will make them more prone to drought. Droughts are set to worsen in many regions of

3588:

Seidl, Rupert; Thom, Dominik; Kautz, Markus; Martin-Benito, Dario; Peltoniemi, Mikko; Vacchiano, Giorgio; Wild, Jan; Ascoli, Davide; Petr, Michal; Honkaniemi, Juha; Lexer, Manfred J.; Trotsiuk, Volodymyr; Mairota, Paola; Svoboda, Miroslav; Fabrika, Marek; Nagel, Thomas A.; Reyer, Christopher P. O.

585:

It has been hypothesized that the boreal environments have only a few states which are stable in the long term - a treeless tundra/steppe, a forest with >75% tree cover and an open woodland with ~20% and ~45% tree cover. Thus, continued climate change would be able to force at least some of the

185:

found that half of all species with long-term data had shifted their ranges poleward (or upward for mountain species). Two-thirds have had their spring events occur earlier. For instance, the range of hundreds of North American birds has shifted northward at an average rate of 1.5 km/year over the

3245:

Dullinger, Stefan; Gattringer, Andreas; Thuiler, Wilfried; Moser, Dietmar; Zimmermann, Niklaus E.; Guisan, Antoine; Willner, Wolfgang; Plutzar, Cristoph; Leitner, Michael; Mang, Thomas; Caccianiga, Marco; Dirnböck, Thomas; Ertl, Siegrun; Fischer, Anton; Lenoir, Jonathan; Svenning, Jens-Christian;

1768:

Abell, R., M. Thieme, C. Revenga, M. Bryer, M. Kottelat, N. Bogutskaya, B. Coad, N. Mandrak, S. Contreras-Balderas, W. Bussing, M. L. J. Stiassny, P. Skelton, G. R. Allen, P. Unmack, A. Naseka, R. Ng, N. Sindorf, J. Robertson, E. Armijo, J. Higgins, T. J. Heibel, E. Wikramanayake, D. Olson, H. L.

947:

can be strongly affected by heatwaves. However, the impact could vary strongly depending on the presence or absence of predators in the stream community. In their absence, the impacts are much more severe and the local extinction of most species could occur, homogenizing the community. Species of

615:

Forest expansion is likely to take longer than decline, as juveniles of boreal species are the worst-affected by the climate shifs, while the temperate species capable of replacing them have slower growth rates. Disappearance of forest also causes detectable carbon emissions, while gain acts as a

374:

The Arctic was historically described as warming twice as fast as the global average, but this estimate was based on older observations which missed the more recent acceleration. By 2021, enough data was available to show that the Arctic had warmed three times as fast as the globe - 3.1°C between

197:

mismatch. The disruption of species-species associations is a potential consequence of climate-driven movements of each individual species in opposite directions. Climate change may, thus, lead to another extinction, more silent and mostly overlooked: the extinction of species' interactions. As a

663:

A 2018 study found that trees grow faster due to increased carbon dioxide levels; however, the trees are also 8–12 percent lighter and denser since 1900. The authors note, "Even though a greater volume of wood is being produced today, it now contains less material than just a few decades ago."

611:

areas to boreal forest - as separate examples of such, which would likely become unstoppable around 4 °C (7.2 °F), though they would still take at least 50 years, if not a century or more. However, the certainty level is still limited; there's an outside possibility that 1.5 °C

325:

on plant growth will vary with local climate patterns, species adaptations to water limitations, and nitrogen availability. Studies indicate that nutrient depletion may happen faster in drier regions, and with factors like plant community composition and grazing. Nitrogen deposition from air

291:

Grasslands often occur in areas with annual precipitation is between 600 mm (24 in) and 1,500 mm (59 in) and average mean annual temperatures ranges from −5 and 20 °C. However, some grasslands occur in colder (−20 °C) and hotter (30 °C) climatic conditions.

233:

is complex, and there is no single metric which can define all aspects. However, more intense climate change is still expected to increase the current extent of drylands on the Earth's continents: from 38% in late 20th century to 50% or 56% by the end of the century, under the "moderate" and

802:

has been the greatest threat to it, and the main reason why, as of 2022, about 20% of it had been deforested and another 6% "highly degraded". Yet, climate change is also a threat as it exacerbates wildfire and interferes with precipitation. It is considered likely that hitting 3.5 °C

712:

were too cold for their survival. Under normal seasonal freezing weather conditions in the lower elevations, the forest ecosystems that pine beetles inhabit are kept in balance by factors such as tree defense mechanisms, beetle defense mechanisms, and freezing temperatures. It is a simple

308:

grasslands, where woody encroachment is prevented as low nutrient levels in the soil may inhibit the growth of forest and shrub species. Another common predicament often experienced by the ill-fated grassland creatures is the constant burning of plants, fueled by oxygen and many expired

270:

the world. These include Central America, the Amazon and south-western South America. They also include West and Southern Africa. The Mediterranean and south-western Australia are also some of these regions. Higher temperatures increase evaporation. This dries the soil and increases

629: 391:: weather stations located on its path record decadal warming up to seven times faster than the global average. This has fuelled concerns that unlike the rest of the Arctic sea ice, ice cover in the Barents Sea may permanently disappear even around 1.5 degrees of global warming. 416:, and accelerates snowmelt, which makes more water available earlier in the year and reduces availability later in the year, while the reduction in snow cover insulation can paradoxically increase cold damage from springtime frost events. It also causes remarkable changes in 479:. In 2022, it was found that those earlier studies simulated abrupt, "stepwise" climate shifts, while more realistic gradual warming would see a rebound in alpine plant diversity after mid-century under the "intermediate" and most intense global warming scenarios 470:

found that depending on the climate scenario, 36–55% of alpine species, 31–51% of subalpine species and 19–46% of montane species would lose more than 80% of their suitable habitat by 2070–2100. In 2012, it was estimated that for the 150 plant species in the

3206:

Daniel; Grythes, John-Arvid; Heegaard, Einar; Hoistad, Fride; Nogues-Bravo, David; Normand, Signe; Puscas, Mihai; Sebastia, Maria-Theresa; Stanisci, Angela; Theurillat, Jean-Paul; Trivedi, Mandar R.; Vittoz, Pascal; Guisan, Antoine (24 December 2010).

530:

burned in North America, after several decades of around 10,000 km (2.5 million acres), has increased steadily since 1970 to more than 28,000 km (7 million acres) annually., and records in Canada show increases in wildfire from 1920 to 1999.

586:

presently existing taiga forests into one of the two woodland states or even into a treeless steppe - but it could also shift tundra areas into woodland or forest states as they warm and become more suitable for tree growth. Consistent with that, a

403:

cover approximately 25 percent of earth's surface and provide a home to more than one-tenth of global human population. Changes in global climate pose a number of potential risks to mountain habitats. Climate change can adversely affect both

833:, this means that liana become the prevalent species; and because they decompose much faster than trees their carbon content is more quickly returned to the atmosphere. Slow growing trees incorporate atmospheric carbon for decades. 598:

trees is stunted by unusually warm summers, while trees on some of the coldest fringes of the forest are experiencing faster growth than previously. At a certain stage, such shifts could become effectively irreversible, making them

803:(6.3 °F) of global warming would trigger the collapse of rainforest to savannah over the course of around a century (50-200) years, although it occur at between 2 °C (3.6 °F) to 6 °C (11 °F) of warming. 424:

mountains in order to adapt to long-term changes in regional climate. Such uphill shifts of both ranges and abundances have been recorded for various groups of species across the world. In some mountain areas, such as the

3073:

Brandt, Jodi S.; Haynes, Michelle A.; Kuemmerle, Tobias; Waller, Donald M.; Radeloff, Volker C. (February 2013). "Regime shift on the roof of the world: Alpine meadows converting to shrublands in the southern Himalayas".

475:, their range would, on average, decline by 44%-50% by the end of the century - moreover, lags in their shifts would mean that around 40% of their remaining range would soon become unsuitable as well, often leading to an 4994:

Ross, Samuel R. P.-J.; García Molinos, Jorge; Okuda, Atsushi; Johnstone, Jackson; Atsumi, Keisuke; Futamura, Ryo; Williams, Maureen A.; Matsuoka, Yuichi; Uchida, Jiro; Kumikawa, Shoji; Sugiyama, Hiroshi (January 2022).

2294:

Amstrup, Steven C.; Stirling, Ian; Smith, Tom S.; Perham, Craig; Thiemann, Gregory W. (27 April 2006). "Recent observations of intraspecific predation and cannibalism among polar bears in the southern Beaufort Sea".

684:

infestation, which had killed 33 million acres or 135,000 km by 2008; a level an order of magnitude larger than any previously recorded outbreak. Such losses can match an average year of forest fires in all of

651:

In the western U.S., since 1986, longer, warmer summers have resulted in a fourfold increase in major wildfires and a sixfold increase in the area of forest burned, compared to the period from 1970 to 1986. While

3117:

Debinski, Diane M.; Wickham, Hadley; Kindscher, Kelly; Caruthers, Jennet C.; Germino, Matthew (2010). "Montane meadow change during drought varies with background hydrologic regime and plant functional group".

97:

cover approximately 25 percent of the Earth's surface and provide a home to more than one-tenth of the global human population. Changes in global climate pose a number of potential risks to mountain habitats.

2212:

Craven, Dylan; Isbell, Forest; Manning, Pete; Connolly, John; Bruelheide, Helge; Ebeling, Anne; Roscher, Christiane; van Ruijven, Jasper; Weigelt, Alexandra; Wilsey, Brian; Beierkuhnlein, Carl (2016-05-19).

612:(2.7 °F) would be enough to lock in either of the two shifts; on the other hand, reversion to grassland may require 5 °C (9.0 °F), and the replacement of tundra 7.2 °C (13.0 °F). 2132:

Douville, H., K. Raghavan, J. Renwick, R.P. Allan, P.A. Arias, M. Barlow, R. Cerezo-Mota, A. Cherchi, T.Y. Gan, J. Gergis, D. Jiang, A. Khan, W. Pokam Mba, D. Rosenfeld, J. Tierney, and O. Zolina, 2021:

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live. Although this species of Salmon can survive in both salt and fresh water, the loss of a body of fresh water stops them from reproducing in the spring, as the spawning process requires fresh water.

696:. This is because temperature is a factor which determines insect development and population success. Prior to climatic and temperature changes, the mountain pine beetle predominately lived and attacked 590:

analysis of 100,000 undisturbed sites found that the areas with low tree cover became greener in response to warming, but areas with a lot of trees got more "brown" as some of them died due to the same.

628: 119:. Updated 2022 estimates show that even at a global average increase of 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) over pre-industrial temperatures, only 0.2% of the world's coral reefs would still be able to withstand 6749: 4459:

Kurz, W. A.; Dymond, C. C.; Stinson, G.; Rampley, G. J.; Neilson, E. T.; Carroll, A. L.; Ebata, T.; Safranyik, L. (April 2008). "Mountain pine beetle and forest carbon feedback to climate change".

1110:"IPCC Special Report on Climate Change, Desertification, Land Degradation, Sustainable Land Management, Food Security, and Greenhouse gas fluxes in Terrestrial Ecosystems:Summary for Policymakers" 4139: 4169:

Armstrong McKay, David; Abrams, Jesse; Winkelmann, Ricarda; Sakschewski, Boris; Loriani, Sina; Fetzer, Ingo; Cornell, Sarah; Rockström, Johan; Staal, Arie; Lenton, Timothy (9 September 2022).

2634:

Armstrong McKay, David; Abrams, Jesse; Winkelmann, Ricarda; Sakschewski, Boris; Loriani, Sina; Fetzer, Ingo; Cornell, Sarah; Rockström, Johan; Staal, Arie; Lenton, Timothy (9 September 2022).

1014:. Updated 2022 estimates show that even at a global average increase of 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) over pre-industrial temperatures, only 0.2% of the world's coral reefs would still be able to withstand 1769:

Lopez, R. E. d. Reis, J. G. Lundberg, M. H. Sabaj Perez, and P. Petry. (2008). Freshwater ecoregions of the world: A new map of biogeographic units for freshwater biodiversity conservation.

6925: 6593: 6050: 810:

have dramatically increased since 1997 as well. These fires are often actively started to clear forest for agriculture. They can set fire to the large peat bogs in the region and the CO

692:

Climate change and the associated changing weather patterns occurring worldwide have a direct effect on biology, population ecology, and the population of eruptive insects, such as the

334:

as faster-growing plants outcompete others. A study of a California grassland found that global change may speed reductions in diversity and forb species are most prone to this process.

2784:

Forrest, Jessica; Inouye, David W.; Thomson, James D. (February 2010). "Flowering phenology in subalpine meadows: Does climate variation influence community co-flowering patterns?".

924:-fed waters to ensure a cold water habitat that they have adapted to. Some species of freshwater fish need cold water to survive and to reproduce, and this is especially true with 6766: 970:

are ice-free for three weeks longer than they were thirty years ago, affecting polar bears, which prefer to hunt on sea ice. Species that rely on cold weather conditions such as

794:

as air moves across the forest; tree losses interfere with that capability, to the point where if enough is lost, much of the rest will likely die off and transform into a dry

6202: 6018: 5144: 383:

itself (above the 66th parallel) has been nearly four times faster than the global average. Within the Arctic Circle itself, even greater Arctic amplification occurs in the

6197: 56:. Climate change represents long-term changes in temperature and average weather patterns. This leads to a substantial increase in both the frequency and the intensity of 4562:

Sambaraju, Kishan R.; Carroll, Allan L.; Zhu, Jun; et al. (2012). "Climate change could alter the distribution of mountain pine beetle outbreaks in western Canada".

1475:

Nogués-Bravoa D.; Araújoc M.B.; Erread M.P.; Martínez-Ricad J.P. (August–October 2007). "Exposure of global mountain systems to climate warming during the 21st Century".

466:

Alpine and mountain plant species are known to be some of the most vulnerable to climate change. In 2010, a study looking at 2,632 species located in and around European

112:, which leads to a whole host of subsequent impacts. Climate change has a direct impact on the productivity of the boreal forest, as well as its health and regeneration. 6065: 4780: 4788:

Graphic 2: Current State of the Amazon by country, by percentage / Source: RAISG (Red Amazónica de Información Socioambiental Georreferenciada) Elaborated by authors.

2397: 1799: 6045: 5992: 4027: 881:. It found that if their water temperature increases by 4 °C (7.2 °F) in July (said to occur under approximately the same amount of global warming), then 313:

concentration in the air increases plant growth, similarly as water use efficiency, which is very important in drier regions. However, the advantages of elevated CO

1451: 1201:

Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Working Group I contribution to the WGI Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

570:. At the same time, eastern Canadian forests have been much less affected; yet some research suggests it would also reach a tipping point around 2080, under the 5701: 2139:

Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

581:

The response of six tree species common in Quebec's forests to 2 °C (3.6 °F) and 4 °C (7.2 °F) warming under different precipitation levels.

1276:

Parmesan, C., M.D. Morecroft, Y. Trisurat, R. Adrian, G.Z. Anshari, A. Arneth, Q. Gao, P. Gonzalez, R. Harris, J. Price, N. Stevens, and G.H. Talukdarr, 2022:

3872:

Peng, Changhui; Ma, Zhihai; Lei, Xiangdong; Zhu, Qiuan; Chen, Huai; Wang, Weifeng; Liu, Shirong; Li, Weizhong; Fang, Xiuqin; Zhou, Xiaolu (20 November 2011).

238:

4.5 and 8.5. Most of the expansion will be seen over regions such as "southwest North America, the northern fringe of Africa, southern Africa, and Australia".

5934: 1405:

Sales, L. P.; Rodrigues, L.; Masiero, R. (November 2020). "Climate change drives spatial mismatch and threatens the biotic interactions of the Brazil nut".

1208: 5818: 2450:

Rantanen, Mika; Karpechko, Alexey Yu; Lipponen, Antti; Nordling, Kalle; Hyvärinen, Otto; Ruosteenoja, Kimmo; Vihma, Timo; Laaksonen, Ari (11 August 2022).

6087: 6035: 3972:"Boreal forests will be more severely affected by projected anthropogenic climate forcing than mixedwood and northern hardwood forests in eastern Canada" 3769: 6966: 6082: 5657: 4143: 3545:

McLane, S.C.; S.N. Aiken (2012). "Whiteback pine (Pinus albicaulis) assisted migration potential: testing establishment north of the species range".

1227:"Predicting species distribution and abundance responses to climate change: why it is essential to include biotic interactions across trophic levels" 6297: 6008: 5726: 5503: 4910:

Wagner, Tyler; Schliep, Erin M.; North, Joshua S.; Kundel, Holly; Custer, Christopher A.; Ruzich, Jenna K.; Hansen, Gretchen J. A. (April 3, 2023).

1721:

Olson, D. M. & E. Dinerstein (1998). The Global 200: A representation approach to conserving the Earth's most biologically valuable ecoregions.

738: 83:

mismatch. For example, climate change can cause species to move in different directions, potentially disrupting their interactions with each other.

1728: 6653: 6442: 5217: 5061:

Bryant, M. D. (14 January 2009). "Global climate change and potential effects on Pacific salmonids in freshwater ecosystems of southeast Alaska".

2607: 1619: 5600: 2183: 4265:

Reich, Peter B.; Bermudez, Raimundo; Montgomery, Rebecca A.; Rich, Roy L.; Rice, Karen E.; Hobbie, Sarah E.; Stefanski, Artur (10 August 2022).

2158: 6302: 6265: 6119: 6104: 6013: 5662: 5606: 799: 6961: 6099: 4668: 3770:"Boreal Forests and Climate Change - Changes in Climate Parameters and Some Responses, Effects of Warming on Tree Growth on Productive Sites" 3648: 3911:

Ma, Zhihai; Peng, Changhui; Zhu, Qiuan; Chen, Huai; Yu, Guirui; Li, Weizhong; Zhou, Xiaolu; Wang, Weifeng; Zhang, Wenhua (30 January 2012).

1345:

Malhi, Yadvinder; Franklin, Janet; Seddon, Nathalie; Solan, Martin; Turner, Monica G.; Field, Christopher B.; Knowlton, Nancy (2020-01-27).

1299:

Sales, L. P.; Culot, L.; Pires, M. (July 2020). "Climate niche mismatch and the collapse of primate seed dispersal services in the Amazon".

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1971 and 2019, as opposed to the global warming of 1°C over the same period. Moreover, this estimate defines the Arctic as everything above

309:

photosynthesizing organisms, with the lack of rain pushing this problem to further heights. When not limited by other factors, increasing CO

6983: 5929: 5924: 1816:

Rosenzweig, C.; Casassa, G.; Karoly, D. J.; Imeson, A.; Liu, C.; Menzel, A.; Rawlins, S.; Root, T. L.; Seguin, B.; Tryjanowski, P. (2007).

600: 571: 480: 235: 206: 5318:"Identifying the World's Most Climate Change Vulnerable Species: A Systematic Trait-Based Assessment of all Birds, Amphibians and Corals" 4512:"Climate change and range expansion of an aggressive bark beetle: evidence of higher reproductive success in naïve host tree populations" 1776: 6464: 6242: 6060: 5982: 5972: 5862: 5669: 3288:

Block, Sebastián; Maechler, Marc-Jacques; Levine, Jacob I.; Alexander, Jake M.; Pellissier, Loïc; Levine, Jonathan M. (26 August 2022).

988: 863: 441: 5120: 4684: 7080: 6893: 6754: 6711: 6207: 3716:"Net aboveground biomass declines of four major forest types with forest ageing and climate change in western Canada's boreal forests" 1706: 1911: 1752: 6820: 6696: 6513: 5706: 3795: 1677: 1647: 409: 210:

4 °C (7.2 °F); in contrast, this would happen to fewer than 2% if the warming were to stay below 2 °C (3.6 °F).

41:

system. A shift of 1 or 100% (darker colours) indicates that the region has fully moved into a completely different biome zone type.

5151: 7053: 6691: 6671: 6618: 6570: 5622: 6810: 6761: 6187: 6149: 6094: 5554: 4836: 4240: 2700: 6878: 6162: 5909: 4769: 181:

concluded that over the last three decades human-induced warming had likely had an influence on many biological systems. The

5375:

Muir, Paul R.; Obura, David O.; Hoeksema, Bert W.; Sheppard, Charles; Pichon, Michel; Richards, Zoe T. (14 February 2022).

1797: 123:, as opposed to 84% being able to do so now, with the figure dropping to 0% at 2 °C (3.6 °F) warming and beyond. 6988: 6523: 6055: 1109: 507: 327: 178: 3445:

Jump, A.S.; J. Peñuelas (2005). "Running to stand still: Adaptation and the response of plants to rapid climate change".

3402:

Reich, P.B.; J. Oleksyn (2008). "Climate warming will reduce growth and survival of Scots pine except in the far north".

1521: 1284:. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 257-260 |doi=10.1017/9781009325844.004 6971: 6643: 6172: 6167: 6072: 5939: 5496: 69: 2837:"Effects of experimentally reduced snowpack and passive warming on montane meadow plant phenology and floral resources" 2338:

Mills, L. Scott; Zimova, Marketa; Oyler, Jared; Running, Steven; Abatzoglou, John T.; Lukacs, Paul M. (15 April 2013).

2046: 1443: 6182: 6025: 5987: 2517: 72:, half were found to have shifted their distribution to higher latitudes or elevations in response to climate change. 4412: 75:

Furthermore, climate change may cause ecological disruption among interacting species, via changes in behaviour and

37:

for 2081–2100. Top row is low emissions scenario, bottom row is high emissions scenario. Biomes are classified with

7041: 6805: 6608: 6565: 6338: 6260: 6114: 1514:"SPECIAL REPORT: GLOBAL WARMING OF 1.5 °C; Chapter 3: Impacts of 1.5°C global warming on natural and human systems" 763: 534:

Early 2010s research confirmed that since the 1960s, western Canadian boreal forests, and particularly the western

292:

Grassland can exist in habitats that are frequently disturbed by grazing or fire, as such disturbance prevents the

1277: 854:. Indeed, even a slight increase in temperature during development impairs growth efficiency and survival rate in 656:

policies have played a substantial role as well, both healthy and unhealthy forests now face an increased risk of

6910: 6585: 6560: 6533: 6495: 6412: 6230: 6077: 6030: 5780: 5549: 5544: 5539: 2134: 1199: 379:, or a full third of the Northern Hemisphere: in 2021–2022, it was found that since 1979, the warming within the 243: 1792:

Spalding, M. D. et al. (2007). Marine ecoregions of the world: a bioregionalization of coastal and shelf areas.

6920: 6915: 6846: 6686: 6192: 6157: 6040: 5967: 5808: 5637: 5573: 5534: 5295: 1032: 913: 388: 293: 271: 6905: 436:, eventually converting them to shrublands. Changes in precipitation appear to be the most important driver. 7029: 6951: 6861: 6603: 6575: 6255: 5882: 5489: 3773: 1698: 743: 567: 538:, had already suffered substantial tree losses due to drought, and some conifers were getting replaced with 189:

Furthermore, climate change may disrupt the ecology among interacting species, via changes on behaviour and

182: 34: 2997: 936:, a cornerstone species, prefer cold water and are the primary food source for aquatic mammals such as the 205:

Whole ecosystem disruptions will occur earlier under more intense climate change: under the high-emissions

6628: 6448: 6390: 6307: 6292: 6177: 5813: 5759: 5754: 5749: 5744: 5739: 5734: 4912:"Predicting climate change impacts on poikilotherms using physiologically guided species abundance models" 821:

Research suggests that slow-growing trees are only stimulated in growth for a short period under higher CO

640: 512: 258:. In 2022, the state was experiencing its most serious drought in 1,200 years, worsened by climate change. 255: 5175:

Dixon, Adele M.; Forster, Piers M.; Heron, Scott F.; Stoner, Anne M. K.; Beger, Maria (1 February 2022).

4813: 3290:"Ecological lags govern the pace and outcome of plant community responses to 21st-century climate change" 1577:

Dixon, Adele M.; Forster, Piers M.; Heron, Scott F.; Stoner, Anne M. K.; Beger, Maria (1 February 2022).

7017: 6663: 6540: 6348: 5798: 5721: 5242:"The population sizes and global extinction risk of reef-building coral species at biogeographic scales" 1833: 1726: 814:

released by these peat bog fires has been estimated, in an average year, to be 15% of the quantity of CO

250: 57: 3207: 2727:"Impacts of different climate change regimes and extreme climatic events on an alpine meadow community" 2215:"Plant diversity effects on grassland productivity are robust to both nutrient enrichment and drought" 2191: 932:. Reduced glacier runoff can lead to insufficient stream flow to allow these species to thrive. Ocean 850:

and consequent reductions in body size despite increased foraging, which in turn elevates the risk of

330:

from higher temperatures can increase plant productivity, but increases are often among a discount in

6856: 6734: 6425: 6395: 5960: 5887: 5443: 5432:"Reply to: Conclusions of low extinction risk for most species of reef-building corals are premature" 5388: 5329: 5253: 5070: 4923: 4861: 4725: 4606: 4571: 4468: 4333: 4278: 4036: 3983: 3924: 3885: 3832: 3727: 3602: 3554: 3501: 3454: 3411: 3358: 3301: 3259: 3127: 3083: 3023: 2954: 2897: 2848: 2793: 2738: 2552: 2463: 2351: 2304: 2084: 2001: 1942: 1484: 1308: 1065: 693: 653: 38: 4970: 874:

The projected changes in freshwater fish distribution in Minnesotan lakes under high future warming.

566:(evergreen trees absorb more heat than the snow-covered ground) and acts as a small, yet detectable 17: 6873: 6648: 5872: 5867: 775: 722: 577: 376: 368: 158: 142: 3645: 3180: 2270: 1929:

Martins, Paulo Mateus; Anderson, Marti J.; Sweatman, Winston L.; Punnett, Andrew J. (2024-04-09).

1146: 1054:"Climate change risks pushing one-third of global food production outside the safe climatic space" 6701: 6633: 6550: 6400: 6365: 6322: 6317: 6312: 5877: 5467: 5412: 5277: 5198: 5086: 5032: 4751: 4630: 4544: 4511: 4492: 4394: 4302: 4216: 3999: 3848: 3820: 3751: 3696: 3227: 3055: 2923: 2681: 2588: 2499: 2320: 2108: 2027: 1600: 1422: 1324: 1000: 644: 301: 4241:"Exceeding 1.5°C global warming could trigger multiple climate tipping points – paper explainer" 2886:"Relationships between Flowering Phenology and Functional Traits in Eastern Tibet Alpine Meadow" 2701:"Exceeding 1.5°C global warming could trigger multiple climate tipping points – paper explainer" 870: 448: 4363:"Impacts of Climate Change on Hydroclimatic Conditions of U.S. National Forests and Grasslands" 3971: 6935: 6598: 6343: 6109: 5892: 5855: 5642: 5596: 5459: 5404: 5357: 5269: 5024: 5016: 4997:"Predators mitigate the destabilising effects of heatwaves on multitrophic stream communities" 4951: 4889: 4743: 4664: 4622: 4484: 4294: 4208: 4200: 4121: 4072: 4054: 3952: 3743: 3688: 3628: 3570: 3527: 3470: 3427: 3384: 3327: 3161: 3153: 3099: 3047: 3039: 3010:

Chen, I-Ching; Hill, Jane K.; Ohlemüller, Ralf; Roy, David B.; Thomas, Chris D. (2011-08-19).

2980: 2972: 2915: 2866: 2817: 2809: 2766: 2673: 2665: 2580: 2491: 2379: 2252: 2234: 2100: 2072: 2019: 1970: 1958: 1893: 1774: 1702: 1673: 1384: 1366: 1256: 1126: 1091: 978:

that prey on lemmings that use the cold winter to their advantage may be negatively affected.

771: 535: 199: 3246:

Psomas, Achilleas; Schmatz, Dirk R.; Silc, Urban; Vittoz, Pascal; Hülber, Karl (6 May 2012).

2141:. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, US, pp. 1055–1210, 1127:"Summary for Policymakers — Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate" 603:, and a major assessment designated both processes - reversion of southern boreal forests to 6978: 6545: 6528: 6469: 6360: 6124: 5838: 5711: 5647: 5451: 5396: 5347: 5337: 5261: 5188: 5078: 5008: 4941: 4931: 4879: 4869: 4733: 4614: 4597:

Kurz, W. (April 2008). "Mountain pine beetle and forest carbon feedback to climate change".

4579: 4526: 4476: 4374: 4341: 4322:"Effects of Climate Change on Natural-Caused Fire Activity in Western U.S. National Forests" 4286: 4190: 4182: 4111: 4103: 4062: 4044: 3991: 3942: 3932: 3893: 3840: 3735: 3678: 3618: 3610: 3562: 3517: 3509: 3462: 3419: 3374: 3366: 3317: 3309: 3267: 3219: 3143: 3135: 3091: 3031: 2962: 2905: 2856: 2801: 2756: 2746: 2655: 2647: 2570: 2560: 2481: 2471: 2369: 2359: 2312: 2242: 2226: 2142: 2092: 2009: 1966: 1950: 1883: 1873: 1821: 1590: 1557: 1492: 1414: 1374: 1358: 1316: 1246: 1238: 1081: 1073: 995: 896:

would see its numbers decline by about 7% across all of Minnesota's lakes, while warm-water

718: 677: 429: 194: 80: 5377:"Conclusions of low extinction risk for most species of reef-building corals are premature" 616:

carbon sink: yet the changes in albedo more than outweigh that in terms of climate impact.

522:, are warming at a faster rate than the global average. leading to drier conditions in the 108:, are warming at a faster rate than the global average, leading to drier conditions in the 7075: 6930: 6851: 6815: 6744: 6718: 6706: 6623: 6555: 6430: 6287: 5899: 5850: 5828: 4660: 4654: 4438: 4018: 3913:"Regional drought-induced reduction in the biomass carbon sink of Canada's boreal forests" 3652: 2422: 1846: 1803: 1780: 1756: 1750: 1732: 1015: 929: 705: 489: 476: 356: 230: 224: 120: 87: 5430:

Dietzel, Andreas; Bode, Michael; Connolly, Sean R.; Hughes, Terry P. (14 February 2022).

4770:"Amazon Against the Clock: A Regional Assessment on Where and How to Protect 80% by 2025" 1639: 574:

8.5 scenario which represents the largest potential increase in anthropogenic emissions.

5447: 5392: 5333: 5257: 5074: 4996: 4946: 4927: 4911: 4865: 4850:"Mechanisms for climate-induced mortality of fish populations in whole-lake experiments" 4800: 4729: 4610: 4575: 4472: 4337: 4282: 4040: 3987: 3928: 3889: 3836: 3819:

Shuman, Jacquelyn Kremper; Shugart, Herman Henry; O'Halloran, Thomas Liam (2011-03-25).

3731: 3715: 3606: 3558: 3505: 3458: 3415: 3362: 3305: 3263: 3131: 3087: 3027: 2958: 2901: 2852: 2797: 2742: 2556: 2467: 2355: 2308: 2088: 2005: 1946: 1488: 1312: 1207:. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. 9 August 2021. p. SPM-23; Fig. SPM.6. 1069: 6883: 6739: 6681: 6676: 6518: 6407: 6139: 6134: 6129: 5977: 5914: 5652: 5632: 5591: 5512: 5352: 5317: 4884: 4849: 4140:"Fairbanks Daily News-Miner – New study states boreal forests shifting as Alaska warms" 4116: 4091: 4067: 4022: 3947: 3912: 3874:"A drought-induced pervasive increase in tree mortality across Canada's boreal forests" 3623: 3590: 3522: 3489: 3379: 3346: 3322: 3289: 2761: 2726: 2575: 2540: 2374: 2339: 2247: 2214: 1888: 1861: 1379: 1346: 1251: 1226: 1086: 1053: 1052:

Kummu, Matti; Heino, Matias; Taka, Maija; Varis, Olli; Viviroli, Daniel (21 May 2021).

949: 714: 701: 697: 467: 297: 101: 45: 4170: 3646:

US National Assessment of the Potential Consequences of Climate Variability and Change

3011: 2635: 7069: 6956: 6888: 6613: 6435: 6420: 6355: 6250: 5471: 5431: 5416: 5376: 5296:"Half a trillion corals: World-first coral count prompts rethink of extinction risks" 5281: 5241: 5240:

Dietzel, Andreas; Bode, Michael; Connolly, Sean R.; Hughes, Terry P. (1 March 2021).

5218:"Last refuges for coral reefs to disappear above 1.5C of global warming, study finds" 5202: 5036: 4755: 4634: 4583: 4530: 4496: 4306: 4266: 4220: 4003: 3844: 3700: 3513: 3466: 3423: 3223: 3059: 2685: 2592: 2503: 2031: 1620:"Last refuges for coral reefs to disappear above 1.5C of global warming, study finds" 1604: 1426: 1328: 1173: 1019: 889:

would disappear from 167 lakes, which represents 61% of their habitat in Minnesota.

855: 791: 783: 709: 527: 472: 405: 380: 360: 86:

Examples of effects on some biome types are provided in the following. Research into

5090: 4361:

Heidari, Hadi; Warziniack, Travis; Brown, Thomas C.; Arabi, Mazdak (February 2021).

4092:"Satellite observations document trends consistent with a boreal forest biome shift" 3852: 3755: 3490:"Adaptation, migration or extirpation: Climate change outcomes for tree populations" 3231: 2927: 2324: 2112: 1860:

Root, T. L.; MacMynowski, D. P; Mastrandrea, M. D.; Schneider, S. H. (17 May 2005).

1496: 29: 6841: 6638: 6282: 6272: 5919: 5803: 5716: 5235: 5233: 5222: 4689: 3248:"Extinction debt of high-mountain plants under twenty-first-century climate change" 2612: 1624: 893: 886: 755: 751: 726: 636: 413: 412:. It increases the number of extreme events such as the frequency and intensity of 331: 2943:"Climate drives phenological reassembly of a mountain wildflower meadow community" 5342: 5193: 5176: 4905: 4903: 3095: 1595: 1578: 1320: 1077: 877:

In 2023, a study looked at freshwater fish in 900 lakes of the American state of

6868: 6385: 6377: 5627: 3283: 3281: 3000:

Report to Congress Editors: Joel B. Smith and Dennis Tirpak US-EPA December 1989

681: 673: 657: 384: 266: 161:

classification, terrestrial, marine and freshwater environments each consist of

5455: 5400: 5316:

Garnett, Stephen T.; Şekercioğlu, Çagan H.; Mace, Georgina M. (June 12, 2013).

5265: 4738: 4713: 4290: 3995: 3873: 3247: 2910: 2885: 2835:

Sherwood, J. A.; Debinski, D. M.; Caragea, P. C.; Germino, M. J. (March 2017).

2565: 2476: 2451: 1930: 909: 202:

derived from biotic interactions are also at risk from climate niche mismatch.

6900: 6277: 5904: 5082: 4171:"Exceeding 1.5°C global warming could trigger multiple climate tipping points" 3208:"21st century climate change threatens mountain flora unequally across Europe" 3012:"Rapid Range Shifts of Species Associated with High Levels of Climate Warming" 2636:"Exceeding 1.5°C global warming could trigger multiple climate tipping points" 2316: 2146: 2096: 2014: 1989: 1513: 1011: 1004: 967: 937: 847: 830: 747: 676:

and keep their outbreaks contained. Since 1998, the lack of severe winters in

562:

are replaced with evergreen conifers - a change which also affects the area's

460: 352: 305: 116: 5020: 4204: 4058: 3157: 3103: 3043: 2976: 2919: 2870: 2813: 2669: 2495: 2238: 2104: 1962: 1818:"Assessment of observed changes and responses in natural and managed systems" 1370: 920:

Many species of freshwater and saltwater plants and animals are dependent on

5845: 5103: 4936: 4874: 4685:"Explainer: Nine "tipping points" that could be triggered by climate change" 4267:"Even modest climate change may lead to major transitions in boreal forests" 4186: 4049: 3937: 3683: 3666: 3488:

Aiken, S.N.; S. Yeaman; J.A. Holliday; W. TongLi; S. Curtis- McLane (2008).

3035: 2941:

Theobald, Elli J.; Breckheimer, Ian; HilleRisLambers, Janneke (2017-10-11).

2651: 2364: 1954: 1878: 975: 971: 878: 851: 807: 604: 485: 425: 417: 348: 285: 190: 154: 150: 138: 76: 53: 5463: 5408: 5361: 5273: 5028: 4955: 4893: 4747: 4626: 4488: 4298: 4212: 4125: 4076: 3956: 3747: 3692: 3632: 3574: 3531: 3474: 3431: 3388: 3331: 3165: 3051: 2984: 2884:

Jia, Peng; Bayaerta, Twenke; Li, Xiangqian; Du, Guozhen (1 November 2011).

2821: 2770: 2677: 2584: 2383: 2340:"Camouflage mismatch in seasonal coat color due to decreased snow duration" 2256: 2230: 2128: 2126: 2124: 2122: 2023: 1974: 1897: 1817: 1388: 1362: 1260: 1242: 1095: 4416: 4346: 4321: 2452:"The Arctic has warmed nearly four times faster than the globe since 1979" 2159:"Scientists confirm global floods and droughts worsened by climate change" 2071:

Cook, Benjamin I.; Mankin, Justin S.; Anchukaitis, Kevin J. (2018-05-12).

1990:"The projected timing of abrupt ecological disruption from climate change" 5300: 3897: 3614: 3347:"Drivers of local extinction risk in alpine plants under warming climate" 3271: 2486: 2427: 2398:"Polar Vortex: How the Jet Stream and Climate Change Bring on Cold Snaps" 2050: 897: 787: 400: 318: 94: 4618: 4480: 4195: 2660: 5823: 1862:"Human-modified temperatures induce species changes: Joint attribution" 1562: 1545: 944: 921: 795: 759: 587: 555: 262: 198:

consequence of the spatial decoupling of species-species associations,

146: 5121:"International Species Action Plan for the Gyrfalcon Falco rusticolis" 5012: 4379: 4362: 4107: 3739: 3566: 3370: 3313: 3148: 3139: 2861: 2836: 2805: 2751: 2219:

Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences

2138: 1825: 1418: 1351:

Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences

1281: 1231:

Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences

1225:

Van der Putten, Wim H.; Macel, Mirka; Visser, Marcel E. (2010-07-12).

484:

by colonization of niches left behind by most vulnerable species like

6836: 5177:"Future loss of local-scale thermal refugia in coral reef ecosystems" 2967: 2942: 2047:"California is rationing water amid its worst drought in 1,200 years" 1579:"Future loss of local-scale thermal refugia in coral reef ecosystems" 1347:"Climate change and ecosystems: threats, opportunities and solutions" 925: 686: 608: 595: 563: 547: 543: 433: 344: 4659:. Los Angeles, California: University of California Press. pp. 2518:"The Arctic is warming four times faster than the rest of the world" 1988:

Trisos, Christopher H.; Merow, Cory; Pigot, Alex L. (8 April 2020).

3667:"Climate change. Is Global Warming causing More, Larger Wildfires?" 2998:

The Potential Effects Of Global Climate Change On The United States

1546:"Climate change impacts on drought-prone forests in western Canada" 1278:

Chapter 2: Terrestrial and Freshwater Ecosystems and Their Services

5833: 3821:"Russian boreal forests undergoing vegetation change, study shows" 1931:"Significant shifts in latitudinal optima of North American birds" 994: 933: 908: 869: 826: 779: 672:

Historically, a few days of extreme cold would kill most mountain

623: 576: 559: 551: 539: 523: 506: 502: 447: 317:

are limited by factors including water availability and available

249: 132: 109: 65: 61: 49: 28: 5481: 2423:"Arctic warming three times faster than the planet, report warns" 916:

in central Alaska, home to various indigenous freshwater species.

511:

Change in Photosynthetic Activity in Northern Forests 1982–2003;

169:

biome types, and a single-digit number of biogeographic regions.

4320:

Heidari, Hadi; Arabi, Mazdak; Warziniack, Travis (August 2021).

1912:"Assessing Key Vulnerabilities and the Risk from Climate Change" 1010:

Almost no other ecosystem is as vulnerable to climate change as

115:

Almost no other ecosystem is as vulnerable to climate change as

6787: 6492: 6228: 5778: 5690: 5571: 5523: 5485: 1916:

AR4 Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability

4510:

Cudmore TJ; Björklund N; Carrollbbb, AL; Lindgren BS. (2010).

2271:"Grassland Carbon Management | Climate Change Resource Center" 428:, climate change appears to promote the appearance of various 6750:

Cooperative Mechanisms under Article 6 of the Paris Agreement

2608:"New data reveals extraordinary global heating in the Arctic" 1174:"Why extreme rains are gaining strength as the climate warms" 296:. Species richness is particularly high in grasslands of low 4021:; Van Nes, Egbert H.; Chapin, F. Stuart (26 December 2012). 2725:

Alatalo, Juha M.; Jägerbrand, Annika K.; Molau, Ulf (2016).

2539:

Isaksen, Ketil; Nordli, Øyvind; et al. (15 June 2022).

1444:"Explainer: Desertification and the role of climate change" 68:

follows. For instance, out of 4000 species analyzed by the

3970:

Boulanger, Yan; Puigdevall, Jesus Pascual (3 April 2021).

1282:

Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability

689:

or five years worth of emissions from its transportation.

265:. These include how much rain falls and how fast the rain 33:

Predicated changes for Earth's biomes under two different

6926:

Illustrative model of greenhouse effect on climate change

355:

Climate change is also leading to a mismatch between the

829:

benefit in the long term. In general, but especially in

786:. This size allows it to produce around half of its own 704:

pine trees at lower elevations, as the higher elevation

4395:"Trees and climate change: Faster growth, lighter wood" 4848:

Biro, P. A.; Post, J. R.; Booth, D. J. (29 May 2007).

4439:"Bark Beetles Kill Millions of Acres of Trees in West" 4090:

Berner, Logan T.; Goetz, Scott J. (24 February 2022).

3345:

Nomoto, Hanna A.; Alexander, Jake M. (29 March 2021).

1672:(Third ed.). Massachusetts: Sinauer. p. 51. 1668:

Cain, Michael; Bowman, William; Hacker, Sally (2014).

6767:

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

1745:

ecoregions of the world: a new map of life on Earth.

1400: 1398: 542:. Similarly, the already dry forest areas in central 1294: 1292: 1290: 321:, particularly nitrogen. Thus effects of elevated CO 261:

Climate change affects many factors associated with

6944: 6829: 6798: 6727: 6662: 6584: 6506: 6457: 6374: 6331: 6241: 6148: 6001: 5948: 5791: 5615: 5584: 1520:. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. 2018. 1272: 1270: 3796:"Forest Changes in Alaska Reveal Changing Climate" 3181:"Climate Change Adaption Manual – Lowland meadow" 2073:"Climate Change and Drought: From Past to Future" 369:Polar amplification § Recent Arctic amplification 60:. As a region's climate changes, a change in its 6967:Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) 4164: 4162: 4160: 4916:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 4854:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 4028:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 2344:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 1935:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 1866:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 729:, they lack the defenses to fight the beetles. 550:are also experiencing greater drought, placing 846:Warmer-than-ideal conditions result in higher 790:by recycling moisture through evaporation and 5702:History of climate change policy and politics 5497: 4814:"When bogs burn, the environment takes a hit" 4648: 4646: 4644: 1693:Bowman, William D.; Hacker, Sally D. (2021). 52:, adversely affecting terrestrial and marine 8: 5150:. University of Alaska. 2006. Archived from 4234: 4232: 4230: 989:Extinction risk from climate change § Corals 442:Extinction risk from climate change § Plants 5819:Atlantic meridional overturning circulation 4714:"When will the Amazon hit a tipping point?" 4545:"Pine Forests Destroyed by Beetle Takeover" 4239:Armstrong McKay, David (9 September 2022). 2699:Armstrong McKay, David (9 September 2022). 2541:"Exceptional warming over the Barents area" 1539: 1537: 1535: 1533: 1531: 7048: 7036: 6795: 6784: 6503: 6489: 6238: 6225: 5788: 5775: 5687: 5581: 5568: 5520: 5504: 5490: 5482: 3714:Chen, Han Y. H.; Luo, Yong (2 July 2015). 3591:"Forest disturbances under climate change" 864:Extinction risk from climate change § Fish 643:since 2019) talks about climate change at 459:, which is projected to go extinct in the 363:with the increasingly snow-free landscape. 6594:Adaptation strategies on the German coast 5727:United Nations Climate Change conferences 5351: 5341: 5192: 4945: 4935: 4883: 4873: 4737: 4378: 4345: 4194: 4115: 4066: 4048: 4023:"Thresholds for boreal biome transitions" 3946: 3936: 3682: 3622: 3521: 3378: 3321: 3147: 2966: 2909: 2860: 2760: 2750: 2659: 2574: 2564: 2485: 2475: 2373: 2363: 2246: 2013: 1887: 1877: 1594: 1561: 1378: 1250: 1085: 825:levels, while faster growing plants like 91:Africa, southern Africa, and Australia". 6298:Co-benefits of climate change mitigation 4786:from the original on 10 September 2022. 742: 739:Effects of climate change on the tropics 668:Expansion of beetles that can harm trees 492:going extinct by mid-century or earlier. 149:. A single biome would include multiple 6654:National Adaptation Programme of Action 6443:Land use, land-use change, and forestry 5056: 5054: 5052: 5050: 5048: 5046: 4454: 4452: 1044: 6303:Economics of climate change mitigation 6266:Gold Standard (carbon offset standard) 5607:Scientific consensus on climate change 2890:Arctic, Antarctic, and Alpine Research 2456:Communications Earth & Environment 1842: 1831: 1820:. Cambridge University Press: 79–131. 943:In general, freshwater bodies such as 800:deforestation of the Amazon rainforest 141:, defined by a distinctive biological 137:are the main constituent parts of the 6962:Coupled Model Intercomparison Project 4971:"Warming Could End Antarctic Species" 1508: 1506: 1470: 1468: 1438: 1436: 1340: 1338: 1214:from the original on 4 November 2021. 554:trees under particular stress, while 236:Representative Concentration Pathways 225:Desertification § Climate change 7: 6984:Representative Concentration Pathway 5925:Tipping points in the climate system 5601:Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere 5119:Pertti Koskimies (compiler) (1999). 818:produced by fossil fuel combustion. 778:in the world. It is twice as big as 601:tipping points in the climate system 244:Effects of climate change § Droughts 18:Climate change and biodiversity loss 6755:Nationally determined contributions 6465:Individual action on climate change 5670:World energy supply and consumption 5109:London Review of Books January 2005 6894:Fixed anvil temperature hypothesis 4017:Scheffer, Marten; Hirota, Marina; 25: 6821:Satellite temperature measurement 6426:forestry for carbon sequestration 5707:History of climate change science 4437:Robbins, Jim (17 November 2008). 2184:"EO Experiments: Grassland Biome" 1544:Hogg, E.H.; P.Y. Bernier (2005). 410:montane grasslands and shrublands 7047: 7035: 7024: 7023: 7011: 6672:Climate Change Performance Index 6051:Destruction of cultural heritage 5216:Dunne, Daisy (1 February 2022). 4656:Changing Planet, changing health 4653:Epstein, P.; Ferber, D. (2011). 4584:10.1111/j.1600-0587.2011.06847.x 4531:10.1111/j.1365-2664.2010.01848.x 3845:10.1111/j.1365-2486.2011.02417.x 3514:10.1111/j.1752-4571.2007.00013.x 3467:10.1111/j.1461-0248.2005.00796.x 3424:10.1111/j.1461-0248.2008.01172.x 3224:10.1111/j.1365-2486.2010.02393.x 2606:Damian Carrington (2022-06-15). 1618:Dunne, Daisy (1 February 2022). 1524:from the original on 2019-03-05. 987:This section is an excerpt from 862:This section is an excerpt from 660:because of the warming climate. 440:This section is an excerpt from 367:This section is an excerpt from 343:Many of the species at risk are 284:This section is an excerpt from 242:This section is an excerpt from 6811:Instrumental temperature record 6762:Sustainable Development Goal 13 4801:Asian peat fires add to warming 4142:. Newsminer.com. Archived from 1650:from the original on 2008-12-04 1497:10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2006.11.007 1454:from the original on 2022-02-10 1407:Global Ecology and Biogeography 594:In Alaska, the growth of white 6879:Climate variability and change 5910:Retreat of glaciers since 1850 5436:Nature Ecology & Evolution 5381:Nature Ecology & Evolution 5246:Nature Ecology & Evolution 2135:Chapter 8: Water Cycle Changes 2077:Current Climate Change Reports 518:Boreal forests, also known as 127:Terminology and classification 1: 6989:Shared Socioeconomic Pathways 6524:Climate emergency declaration 4969:Lovell, Jeremy (2002-09-09). 4812:Hamers, Laurel (2019-07-29). 4779:. September 2022. p. 8. 2045:Irina Ivanova (2 June 2022). 966:In the Arctic, the waters of 900:would increase by around 10%. 294:encroachment of woody species 179:IPCC Fourth Assessment Report 6972:IPCC Sixth Assessment Report 6198:Middle East and North Africa 5343:10.1371/journal.pone.0065427 5194:10.1371/journal.pclm.0000004 3185:Publications Natural England 3096:10.1016/j.biocon.2012.07.026 1596:10.1371/journal.pclm.0000004 1321:10.1016/j.biocon.2020.108628 1198:"Summary for Policymakers". 1078:10.1016/j.oneear.2021.04.017 782:and spans nine countries in 70:IPCC Sixth Assessment Report 6046:Depopulation of settlements 1477:Global Environmental Change 387:area, with hotspots around 7097: 6806:Global surface temperature 6697:Popular culture depictions 6609:Ecosystem-based adaptation 6339:Carbon capture and storage 6261:Carbon offsets and credits 5456:10.1038/s41559-022-01660-y 5401:10.1038/s41559-022-01659-5 5266:10.1038/s41559-021-01393-4 4837:Swiss Canopy Crane Project 4739:10.1038/d41586-020-00508-4 4519:Journal of Applied Ecology 4413:"Natural Resources Canada" 4291:10.1038/s41586-022-05076-3 3996:10.1007/s10980-021-01241-7 3665:Running SW (August 2006). 2911:10.1657/1938-4246-43.4.585 2566:10.1038/s41598-022-13568-5 2477:10.1038/s43247-022-00498-3 986: 861: 764:Niokolo-Koba National Park 736: 680:had enabled a devastating 500: 439: 366: 359:of arctic animals such as 286:Grassland § Climate change 283: 241: 222: 7081:Effects of climate change 7018:Climate change portal 7005: 6911:Extreme event attribution 6794: 6783: 6534:School Strike for Climate 6502: 6488: 6413:Climate-smart agriculture 6237: 6224: 5787: 5774: 5697: 5686: 5580: 5567: 5550:Climate change adaptation 5545:Climate change mitigation 5540:Effects of climate change 5530: 5519: 5083:10.1007/s10584-008-9530-x 4245:climatetippingpoints.info 3494:Evolutionary Applications 2705:climatetippingpoints.info 2317:10.1007/s00300-006-0142-5 2188:Earthobservatory.nasa.gov 2147:10.1017/9781009157896.010 2097:10.1007/s40641-018-0093-2 2015:10.1038/s41586-020-2189-9 326:pollutants and increased 6921:Global warming potential 6728:International agreements 6375:Preserving and enhancing 5809:Arctic methane emissions 5731:Years in climate change 5638:Greenhouse gas emissions 5535:Causes of climate change 5126:. BirdLife International 1033:Woody plant encroachment 389:West Spitsbergen Current 165:of ecoregions, around a 48:is already now altering 35:climate change scenarios 6952:Climate change scenario 6604:Disaster risk reduction 6256:Carbon emission trading 6066:U.S. insurance industry 6036:Civilizational collapse 5883:sea surface temperature 4937:10.1073/pnas.2214199120 4875:10.1073/pnas.0701638104 4712:Amigo, Ignacio (2020). 4187:10.1126/science.abn7950 4050:10.1073/pnas.1219844110 3938:10.1073/pnas.1111576109 3684:10.1126/science.1130370 3547:Ecological Applications 3076:Biological Conservation 3036:10.1126/science.1206432 2652:10.1126/science.abn7950 2365:10.1073/pnas.1222724110 1955:10.1073/pnas.2307525121 1879:10.1073/pnas.0502286102 1699:Oxford University Press 1301:Biological Conservation 750:ecosystems are rich in 713:relationship between a 568:climate change feedback 183:Sixth Assessment Report 6945:Research and modelling 6629:Nature-based solutions 6449:Nature-based solutions 6391:Carbon dioxide removal 6308:Fossil fuel divestment 6293:Climate risk insurance 6203:Small island countries 5814:Arctic sea ice decline 3655:Regional Paper: Alaska 2231:10.1098/rstb.2015.0277 1841:Cite journal requires 1363:10.1098/rstb.2019.0104 1243:10.1098/rstb.2010.0037 1008: 917: 875: 767: 648: 641:governor of California 607:and the conversion of 582: 515: 513:NASA Earth Observatory 464: 259: 145:and a shared regional 58:extreme weather events 42: 6906:Earth's energy budget 6789:Background and theory 6677:Climate crisis (term) 6349:Fossil fuel phase-out 6243:Economics and finance 6208:by individual country 6150:By country and region 6125:Security and conflict 6120:Psychological impacts 5799:Abrupt climate change 5722:Charles David Keeling 5555:By country and region 5001:Global Change Biology 4347:10.3390/atmos12080981 4096:Global Change Biology 3878:Nature Climate Change 3825:Global Change Biology 3720:Global Change Biology 3252:Nature Climate Change 3212:Global Change Biology 3179:Natural England, UK. 1644:www.ucmp.berkeley.edu 998: 912: 873: 746: 721:(the beetle) and the 635: 580: 510: 486:Androsace chamaejasme 451: 253: 32: 6735:Glasgow Climate Pact 6396:Carbon sequestration 5961:Mass mortality event 3898:10.1038/nclimate1293 3615:10.1038/nclimate3303 3272:10.1038/nclimate1514 1701:. pp. H3–1–51. 1640:"The world's biomes" 798:landscape. For now, 694:mountain pine beetle 219:Deserts and drylands 39:Holdridge life zones 6874:Climate sensitivity 6649:The Adaptation Fund 6105:Infectious diseases 6002:Social and economic 5448:2022NatEE...6..359D 5393:2022NatEE...6..357M 5334:2013PLoSO...865427F 5258:2021NatEE...5..663D 5075:2009ClCh...95..169B 4928:2023PNAS..12014199W 4922:(15): e2214199120. 4866:2007PNAS..104.9715B 4730:2020Natur.578..505A 4619:10.1038/nature06777 4611:2008Natur.452..987K 4576:2012Ecogr..35..211S 4481:10.1038/nature06777 4473:2008Natur.452..987K 4338:2021Atmos..12..981H 4283:2022Natur.608..540R 4041:2012PNAS..10921384S 4035:(52): 21384–21389. 3988:2021LaEco..36.1725B 3929:2012PNAS..109.2423M 3917:Biological Sciences 3890:2011NatCC...1..467P 3837:2011GCBio..17.2370S 3800:Scientific American 3732:2015GCBio..21.3675C 3607:2017NatCC...7..395S 3559:2012EcoAp..22..142M 3506:2008EvApp...1...95A 3459:2005EcolL...8.1010J 3416:2008EcolL..11..588R 3363:2021EcolL..24.1157N 3306:2022EcolL..25.2156B 3264:2012NatCC...2..619D 3132:2010Ecol...91.1672D 3088:2013BCons.158..116B 3028:2011Sci...333.1024C 3022:(6045): 1024–1026. 2959:2017Ecol...98.2799T 2902:2011AAAR...43..585J 2853:2017Ecosp...8E1745S 2798:2010Ecol...91..431F 2743:2016NatSR...621720A 2557:2022NatSR..12.9371I 2468:2022ComEE...3..168R 2356:2013PNAS..110.7360M 2309:2006PoBio..29..997A 2089:2018CCCR....4..164C 2006:2020Natur.580..496T 1947:2024PNAS..12107525M 1941:(15): e2307525121. 1489:2007GEC....17..420N 1313:2020BCons.24708628S 1237:(1549): 2025–2034. 1151:National Geographic 1070:2021OEart...4..720K 776:tropical rainforest 558:'s needle-shedding 377:60th parallel north 159:World Wildlife Fund 157:. According to the 6445:(LULUCF and AFOLU) 6417:Forest management 6401:Direct air capture 6366:Sustainable energy 6323:Net zero emissions 6318:Low-carbon economy 6313:Green Climate Fund 6100:Indigenous peoples 5993:Plant biodiversity 5781:Effects and issues 4693:. 10 February 2020 4443:The New York Times 4181:(6611): eabn7950. 3651:2014-02-22 at the 2731:Scientific Reports 2646:(6611): eabn7950. 2545:Scientific Reports 2402:InsideClimate News 2225:(1694): 20150277. 1802:2016-10-06 at the 1779:2016-10-06 at the 1755:2012-09-17 at the 1731:2016-10-07 at the 1723:Conservation Biol. 1563:10.5558/tfc81675-5 1550:Forestry Chronicle 1357:(1794): 20190104. 1172:Witze, Alexandra. 1009: 1001:Raja Ampat Islands 918: 885:fish species like 876: 768: 649: 645:North Complex Fire 583: 536:coniferous forests 516: 465: 302:serpentine barrens 260: 214:Terrestrial biomes 200:ecosystem services 43: 7063: 7062: 7001: 7000: 6997: 6996: 6936:Radiative forcing 6779: 6778: 6775: 6774: 6599:Adaptive capacity 6484: 6483: 6480: 6479: 6344:Energy transition 6220: 6219: 6216: 6215: 5930:Tropical cyclones 5856:Urban heat island 5770: 5769: 5682: 5681: 5678: 5677: 5643:Carbon accounting 5597:Greenhouse effect 5563: 5562: 5013:10.1111/gcb.15956 4860:(23): 9715–9719. 4724:(7796): 505–507. 4670:978-0-520-26909-5 4605:(7190): 987–990. 4551:. April 25, 2008. 4467:(7190): 987–990. 4380:10.3390/f12020139 4277:(7923): 540–545. 4108:10.1111/gcb.16121 4102:(10): 3846–3858. 3976:Landscape Ecology 3794:Morello, Lauren. 3740:10.1111/gcb.12994 3726:(10): 3675–3684. 3567:10.1890/11-0329.1 3371:10.1111/ele.13727 3314:10.1111/ele.14087 3300:(10): 2156–2166. 3140:10.1890/09-0567.1 2953:(11): 2799–2812. 2862:10.1002/ecs2.1745 2806:10.1890/09-0099.1 2752:10.1038/srep21720 2350:(18): 7360–7365. 2000:(7804): 496–501. 1872:(21): 7465–7469. 1826:10.5167/uzh-33180 1419:10.1111/geb.13200 837:Freshwater biomes 772:Amazon rainforest 717:(the forest), an 633: 620:Temperate forests 254:A dry lakebed in 16:(Redirected from 7088: 7051: 7050: 7039: 7038: 7027: 7026: 7016: 7015: 7014: 6979:Paleoclimatology 6796: 6785: 6546:Ecological grief 6529:Climate movement 6504: 6490: 6470:Plant-based diet 6361:Renewable energy 6239: 6226: 6061:Economic impacts 5983:Invasive species 5839:Coastal flooding 5789: 5776: 5712:Svante Arrhenius 5688: 5658:from agriculture 5648:Carbon footprint 5633:Greenhouse gases 5582: 5569: 5521: 5506: 5499: 5492: 5483: 5476: 5475: 5427: 5421: 5420: 5372: 5366: 5365: 5355: 5345: 5312: 5306: 5305: 5292: 5286: 5285: 5237: 5228: 5227: 5213: 5207: 5206: 5196: 5172: 5166: 5165: 5163: 5162: 5156: 5149: 5141: 5135: 5134: 5132: 5131: 5125: 5116: 5110: 5101: 5095: 5094: 5069:(1–2): 169–193. 5058: 5041: 5040: 4991: 4985: 4984: 4982: 4981: 4966: 4960: 4959: 4949: 4939: 4907: 4898: 4897: 4887: 4877: 4845: 4839: 4834: 4828: 4827: 4825: 4824: 4809: 4803: 4797: 4791: 4790: 4785: 4774: 4766: 4760: 4759: 4741: 4709: 4703: 4702: 4700: 4698: 4681: 4675: 4674: 4650: 4639: 4638: 4594: 4588: 4587: 4559: 4553: 4552: 4541: 4535: 4534: 4516: 4507: 4501: 4500: 4456: 4447: 4446: 4434: 4428: 4427: 4425: 4424: 4415:. 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6939: 6938: 6933: 6928: 6923: 6918: 6913: 6908: 6903: 6898: 6897: 6896: 6886: 6884:Cloud feedback 6881: 6876: 6871: 6866: 6865: 6864: 6859: 6854: 6849: 6839: 6833: 6831: 6827: 6826: 6824: 6823: 6818: 6813: 6808: 6802: 6800: 6792: 6791: 6788: 6781: 6780: 6777: 6776: 6773: 6772: 6770: 6769: 6764: 6759: 6758: 6757: 6752: 6742: 6740:Kyoto Protocol 6737: 6731: 6729: 6725: 6724: 6722: 6721: 6716: 6715: 6714: 6709: 6704: 6694: 6692:Media coverage 6689: 6684: 6682:Climate spiral 6679: 6674: 6668: 6666: 6660: 6659: 6657: 6656: 6651: 6646: 6641: 6636: 6631: 6626: 6621: 6616: 6611: 6606: 6601: 6596: 6590: 6588: 6582: 6581: 6579: 6578: 6573: 6571:Public opinion 6568: 6563: 6558: 6553: 6548: 6543: 6538: 6537: 6536: 6526: 6521: 6519:Climate action 6516: 6510: 6508: 6500: 6499: 6493: 6486: 6485: 6482: 6481: 6478: 6477: 6475: 6474: 6473: 6472: 6461: 6459: 6455: 6454: 6452: 6451: 6446: 6440: 6439: 6438: 6433: 6431:REDD and REDD+ 6428: 6423: 6415: 6410: 6408:Carbon farming 6405: 6404: 6403: 6398: 6388: 6382: 6380: 6372: 6371: 6369: 6368: 6363: 6358: 6353: 6352: 6351: 6341: 6335: 6333: 6329: 6328: 6326: 6325: 6320: 6315: 6310: 6305: 6300: 6295: 6290: 6285: 6280: 6275: 6270: 6269: 6268: 6258: 6253: 6247: 6245: 6235: 6234: 6229: 6222: 6221: 6218: 6217: 6214: 6213: 6211: 6210: 6205: 6200: 6195: 6190: 6185: 6180: 6175: 6170: 6165: 6160: 6154: 6152: 6146: 6145: 6143: 6142: 6140:Water security 6137: 6135:Water scarcity 6132: 6130:Urban flooding 6127: 6122: 6117: 6112: 6107: 6102: 6097: 6092: 6091: 6090: 6080: 6075: 6070: 6069: 6068: 6058: 6053: 6048: 6043: 6038: 6033: 6028: 6023: 6022: 6021: 6016: 6005: 6003: 5999: 5998: 5996: 5995: 5990: 5985: 5980: 5978:Forest dieback 5975: 5970: 5965: 5964: 5963: 5952: 5950: 5946: 5945: 5943: 5942: 5937: 5932: 5927: 5922: 5917: 5915:Sea level rise 5912: 5907: 5902: 5897: 5896: 5895: 5890: 5888:stratification 5885: 5880: 5875: 5870: 5860: 5859: 5858: 5853: 5843: 5842: 5841: 5831: 5826: 5821: 5816: 5811: 5806: 5801: 5795: 5793: 5785: 5784: 5779: 5772: 5771: 5768: 5767: 5765: 5764: 5763: 5762: 5757: 5752: 5747: 5742: 5737: 5729: 5724: 5719: 5714: 5709: 5704: 5698: 5695: 5694: 5691: 5684: 5683: 5680: 5679: 5676: 5675: 5673: 5672: 5667: 5666: 5665: 5660: 5655: 5653:Carbon leakage 5650: 5645: 5635: 5630: 5625: 5619: 5617: 5613: 5612: 5610: 5609: 5604: 5594: 5592:Climate system 5588: 5586: 5578: 5577: 5572: 5565: 5564: 5561: 5560: 5558: 5557: 5552: 5547: 5542: 5537: 5531: 5528: 5527: 5524: 5517: 5516: 5513:Climate change 5511: 5509: 5508: 5501: 5494: 5486: 5478: 5477: 5442:(4): 359–360. 5422: 5387:(4): 357–358. 5367: 5307: 5287: 5252:(5): 663–669. 5229: 5208: 5167: 5136: 5111: 5096: 5042: 5007:(2): 403–416. 4986: 4961: 4899: 4840: 4829: 4804: 4792: 4761: 4704: 4676: 4669: 4640: 4589: 4570:(3): 211–223. 4554: 4536: 4525:(5): 1036–43. 4502: 4448: 4429: 4404: 4386: 4353: 4312: 4257: 4226: 4156: 4131: 4082: 4009: 3962: 3903: 3884:(9): 467–471. 3864: 3831:(7): 2370–84. 3811: 3786: 3761: 3706: 3657: 3638: 3601:(6): 395–402. 3589:(2017-05-31). 3580: 3553:(1): 142–153. 3537: 3480: 3437: 3410:(6): 588–597. 3394: 3337: 3277: 3258:(8): 619–622. 3237: 3197: 3171: 3109: 3065: 3002: 2990: 2933: 2896:(4): 585–592. 2876: 2827: 2792:(2): 431–440. 2776: 2717: 2691: 2626: 2598: 2531: 2509: 2442: 2414: 2389: 2330: 2286: 2262: 2204: 2175: 2150: 2118: 2083:(2): 164–179. 2063: 2037: 1980: 1921: 1903: 1852: 1843:|journal= 1808: 1785: 1761: 1737: 1714: 1708:978-1605359212 1707: 1685: 1678: 1660: 1631: 1610: 1569: 1556:(5): 675–682. 1527: 1502: 1483:(3–4): 420–8. 1464: 1450:. 2019-08-06. 1432: 1413:(1): 117–127. 1394: 1334: 1286: 1266: 1217: 1190: 1164: 1138: 1118: 1101: 1064:(5): 720–729. 1043: 1042: 1040: 1037: 1036: 1035: 1028: 1025: 993: 985: 983: 980: 963: 960: 958: 955: 950:sockeye salmon 906: 903: 868: 860: 843: 840: 838: 835: 822: 815: 811: 754:. This is the 737:Main article: 734: 731: 669: 666: 621: 618: 501:Main article: 498: 497:Boreal forests 495: 446: 438: 397: 394: 373: 365: 361:snowshoe hares 351:fauna such as 340: 337: 328:mineralization 322: 314: 310: 298:soil fertility 290: 282: 280: 277: 248: 240: 229:Research into 220: 217: 215: 212: 174: 171: 128: 125: 102:Boreal forests 46:Climate change 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 7093: 7082: 7079: 7077: 7074: 7073: 7071: 7056: 7055: 7046: 7044: 7043: 7034: 7032: 7031: 7022: 7020: 7019: 7008: 7007: 7004: 6990: 6987: 6985: 6982: 6980: 6977: 6973: 6970: 6969: 6968: 6965: 6963: 6960: 6958: 6957:Climate model 6955: 6953: 6950: 6949: 6947: 6943: 6937: 6934: 6932: 6929: 6927: 6924: 6922: 6919: 6917: 6914: 6912: 6909: 6907: 6904: 6902: 6899: 6895: 6892: 6891: 6890: 6889:Cloud forcing 6887: 6885: 6882: 6880: 6877: 6875: 6872: 6870: 6867: 6863: 6860: 6858: 6855: 6853: 6850: 6848: 6845: 6844: 6843: 6840: 6838: 6835: 6834: 6832: 6828: 6822: 6819: 6817: 6814: 6812: 6809: 6807: 6804: 6803: 6801: 6797: 6793: 6786: 6782: 6768: 6765: 6763: 6760: 6756: 6753: 6751: 6748: 6747: 6746: 6743: 6741: 6738: 6736: 6733: 6732: 6730: 6726: 6720: 6717: 6713: 6710: 6708: 6705: 6703: 6700: 6699: 6698: 6695: 6693: 6690: 6688: 6685: 6683: 6680: 6678: 6675: 6673: 6670: 6669: 6667: 6665: 6664:Communication 6661: 6655: 6652: 6650: 6647: 6645: 6644:Vulnerability 6642: 6640: 6637: 6635: 6632: 6630: 6627: 6625: 6622: 6620: 6617: 6615: 6614:Flood control 6612: 6610: 6607: 6605: 6602: 6600: 6597: 6595: 6592: 6591: 6589: 6587: 6583: 6577: 6574: 6572: 6569: 6567: 6564: 6562: 6559: 6557: 6554: 6552: 6549: 6547: 6544: 6542: 6539: 6535: 6532: 6531: 6530: 6527: 6525: 6522: 6520: 6517: 6515: 6512: 6511: 6509: 6505: 6501: 6497: 6491: 6487: 6471: 6468: 6467: 6466: 6463: 6462: 6460: 6456: 6450: 6447: 6444: 6441: 6437: 6436:reforestation 6434: 6432: 6429: 6427: 6424: 6422: 6421:afforestation 6419: 6418: 6416: 6414: 6411: 6409: 6406: 6402: 6399: 6397: 6394: 6393: 6392: 6389: 6387: 6384: 6383: 6381: 6379: 6373: 6367: 6364: 6362: 6359: 6357: 6356:Nuclear power 6354: 6350: 6347: 6346: 6345: 6342: 6340: 6337: 6336: 6334: 6330: 6324: 6321: 6319: 6316: 6314: 6311: 6309: 6306: 6304: 6301: 6299: 6296: 6294: 6291: 6289: 6286: 6284: 6281: 6279: 6276: 6274: 6271: 6267: 6264: 6263: 6262: 6259: 6257: 6254: 6252: 6251:Carbon budget 6249: 6248: 6246: 6244: 6240: 6236: 6232: 6227: 6223: 6209: 6206: 6204: 6201: 6199: 6196: 6194: 6191: 6189: 6186: 6184: 6181: 6179: 6176: 6174: 6171: 6169: 6166: 6164: 6161: 6159: 6156: 6155: 6153: 6151: 6147: 6141: 6138: 6136: 6133: 6131: 6128: 6126: 6123: 6121: 6118: 6116: 6113: 6111: 6108: 6106: 6103: 6101: 6098: 6096: 6093: 6089: 6088:Mental health 6086: 6085: 6084: 6081: 6079: 6076: 6074: 6071: 6067: 6064: 6063: 6062: 6059: 6057: 6054: 6052: 6049: 6047: 6044: 6042: 6039: 6037: 6034: 6032: 6029: 6027: 6024: 6020: 6019:United States 6017: 6015: 6012: 6011: 6010: 6007: 6006: 6004: 6000: 5994: 5991: 5989: 5986: 5984: 5981: 5979: 5976: 5974: 5971: 5969: 5966: 5962: 5959: 5958: 5957: 5954: 5953: 5951: 5947: 5941: 5938: 5936: 5933: 5931: 5928: 5926: 5923: 5921: 5918: 5916: 5913: 5911: 5908: 5906: 5903: 5901: 5898: 5894: 5891: 5889: 5886: 5884: 5881: 5879: 5876: 5874: 5873:deoxygenation 5871: 5869: 5868:acidification 5866: 5865: 5864: 5861: 5857: 5854: 5852: 5849: 5848: 5847: 5844: 5840: 5837: 5836: 5835: 5832: 5830: 5827: 5825: 5822: 5820: 5817: 5815: 5812: 5810: 5807: 5805: 5802: 5800: 5797: 5796: 5794: 5790: 5786: 5782: 5777: 5773: 5761: 5758: 5756: 5753: 5751: 5748: 5746: 5743: 5741: 5738: 5736: 5733: 5732: 5730: 5728: 5725: 5723: 5720: 5718: 5715: 5713: 5710: 5708: 5705: 5703: 5700: 5699: 5696: 5689: 5685: 5671: 5668: 5664: 5663:from wetlands 5661: 5659: 5656: 5654: 5651: 5649: 5646: 5644: 5641: 5640: 5639: 5636: 5634: 5631: 5629: 5626: 5624: 5623:Deforestation 5621: 5620: 5618: 5614: 5608: 5605: 5602: 5598: 5595: 5593: 5590: 5589: 5587: 5583: 5579: 5575: 5570: 5566: 5556: 5553: 5551: 5548: 5546: 5543: 5541: 5538: 5536: 5533: 5532: 5529: 5522: 5518: 5514: 5507: 5502: 5500: 5495: 5493: 5488: 5487: 5484: 5473: 5469: 5465: 5461: 5457: 5453: 5449: 5445: 5441: 5437: 5433: 5426: 5423: 5418: 5414: 5410: 5406: 5402: 5398: 5394: 5390: 5386: 5382: 5378: 5371: 5368: 5363: 5359: 5354: 5349: 5344: 5339: 5335: 5331: 5328:(6): e65427. 5327: 5323: 5319: 5311: 5308: 5303: 5302: 5297: 5291: 5288: 5283: 5279: 5275: 5271: 5267: 5263: 5259: 5255: 5251: 5247: 5243: 5236: 5234: 5230: 5225: 5224: 5219: 5212: 5209: 5204: 5200: 5195: 5190: 5186: 5182: 5178: 5171: 5168: 5157:on 2008-09-10 5153: 5146: 5140: 5137: 5122: 5115: 5112: 5108: 5107:Michael Byers 5105: 5100: 5097: 5092: 5088: 5084: 5080: 5076: 5072: 5068: 5064: 5057: 5055: 5053: 5051: 5049: 5047: 5043: 5038: 5034: 5030: 5026: 5022: 5018: 5014: 5010: 5006: 5002: 4998: 4990: 4987: 4976: 4972: 4965: 4962: 4957: 4953: 4948: 4943: 4938: 4933: 4929: 4925: 4921: 4917: 4913: 4906: 4904: 4900: 4895: 4891: 4886: 4881: 4876: 4871: 4867: 4863: 4859: 4855: 4851: 4844: 4841: 4838: 4833: 4830: 4819: 4815: 4808: 4805: 4802: 4796: 4793: 4789: 4782: 4778: 4771: 4765: 4762: 4757: 4753: 4749: 4745: 4740: 4735: 4731: 4727: 4723: 4719: 4715: 4708: 4705: 4692: 4691: 4686: 4680: 4677: 4672: 4666: 4662: 4658: 4657: 4649: 4647: 4645: 4641: 4636: 4632: 4628: 4624: 4620: 4616: 4612: 4608: 4604: 4600: 4593: 4590: 4585: 4581: 4577: 4573: 4569: 4565: 4558: 4555: 4550: 4546: 4540: 4537: 4532: 4528: 4524: 4520: 4513: 4506: 4503: 4498: 4494: 4490: 4486: 4482: 4478: 4474: 4470: 4466: 4462: 4455: 4453: 4449: 4444: 4440: 4433: 4430: 4419:on 2010-06-13 4418: 4414: 4408: 4405: 4400: 4396: 4390: 4387: 4381: 4376: 4372: 4368: 4364: 4357: 4354: 4348: 4343: 4339: 4335: 4331: 4327: 4323: 4316: 4313: 4308: 4304: 4300: 4296: 4292: 4288: 4284: 4280: 4276: 4272: 4268: 4261: 4258: 4246: 4242: 4235: 4233: 4231: 4227: 4222: 4218: 4214: 4210: 4206: 4202: 4197: 4192: 4188: 4184: 4180: 4176: 4172: 4165: 4163: 4161: 4157: 4146:on 2012-01-19 4145: 4141: 4135: 4132: 4127: 4123: 4118: 4113: 4109: 4105: 4101: 4097: 4093: 4086: 4083: 4078: 4074: 4069: 4064: 4060: 4056: 4051: 4046: 4042: 4038: 4034: 4030: 4029: 4024: 4020: 4013: 4010: 4005: 4001: 3997: 3993: 3989: 3985: 3981: 3977: 3973: 3966: 3963: 3958: 3954: 3949: 3944: 3939: 3934: 3930: 3926: 3922: 3918: 3914: 3907: 3904: 3899: 3895: 3891: 3887: 3883: 3879: 3875: 3868: 3865: 3854: 3850: 3846: 3842: 3838: 3834: 3830: 3826: 3822: 3815: 3812: 3801: 3797: 3790: 3787: 3776:on 2011-07-27 3775: 3771: 3765: 3762: 3757: 3753: 3749: 3745: 3741: 3737: 3733: 3729: 3725: 3721: 3717: 3710: 3707: 3702: 3698: 3694: 3690: 3685: 3680: 3676: 3672: 3668: 3661: 3658: 3654: 3650: 3647: 3642: 3639: 3634: 3630: 3625: 3620: 3616: 3612: 3608: 3604: 3600: 3596: 3592: 3584: 3581: 3576: 3572: 3568: 3564: 3560: 3556: 3552: 3548: 3541: 3538: 3533: 3529: 3524: 3519: 3515: 3511: 3507: 3503: 3500:(1): 95–111. 3499: 3495: 3491: 3484: 3481: 3476: 3472: 3468: 3464: 3460: 3456: 3452: 3448: 3441: 3438: 3433: 3429: 3425: 3421: 3417: 3413: 3409: 3405: 3398: 3395: 3390: 3386: 3381: 3376: 3372: 3368: 3364: 3360: 3356: 3352: 3348: 3341: 3338: 3333: 3329: 3324: 3319: 3315: 3311: 3307: 3303: 3299: 3295: 3291: 3284: 3282: 3278: 3273: 3269: 3265: 3261: 3257: 3253: 3249: 3241: 3238: 3233: 3229: 3225: 3221: 3217: 3213: 3209: 3201: 3198: 3186: 3182: 3175: 3172: 3167: 3163: 3159: 3155: 3150: 3145: 3141: 3137: 3133: 3129: 3125: 3121: 3113: 3110: 3105: 3101: 3097: 3093: 3089: 3085: 3081: 3077: 3069: 3066: 3061: 3057: 3053: 3049: 3045: 3041: 3037: 3033: 3029: 3025: 3021: 3017: 3013: 3006: 3003: 2999: 2994: 2991: 2986: 2982: 2978: 2974: 2969: 2964: 2960: 2956: 2952: 2948: 2944: 2937: 2934: 2929: 2925: 2921: 2917: 2912: 2907: 2903: 2899: 2895: 2891: 2887: 2880: 2877: 2872: 2868: 2863: 2858: 2854: 2850: 2847:(3): e01745. 2846: 2842: 2838: 2831: 2828: 2823: 2819: 2815: 2811: 2807: 2803: 2799: 2795: 2791: 2787: 2780: 2777: 2772: 2768: 2763: 2758: 2753: 2748: 2744: 2740: 2736: 2732: 2728: 2721: 2718: 2706: 2702: 2695: 2692: 2687: 2683: 2679: 2675: 2671: 2667: 2662: 2657: 2653: 2649: 2645: 2641: 2637: 2630: 2627: 2615: 2614: 2609: 2602: 2599: 2594: 2590: 2586: 2582: 2577: 2572: 2567: 2562: 2558: 2554: 2550: 2546: 2542: 2535: 2532: 2519: 2513: 2510: 2505: 2501: 2497: 2493: 2488: 2487:11250/3115996 2483: 2478: 2473: 2469: 2465: 2461: 2457: 2453: 2446: 2443: 2430: 2429: 2424: 2418: 2415: 2403: 2399: 2393: 2390: 2385: 2381: 2376: 2371: 2366: 2361: 2357: 2353: 2349: 2345: 2341: 2334: 2331: 2326: 2322: 2318: 2314: 2310: 2306: 2302: 2298: 2297:Polar Biology 2290: 2287: 2276: 2272: 2266: 2263: 2258: 2254: 2249: 2244: 2240: 2236: 2232: 2228: 2224: 2220: 2216: 2208: 2205: 2194:on 2000-10-27 2193: 2189: 2185: 2179: 2176: 2164: 2160: 2154: 2151: 2148: 2144: 2140: 2136: 2129: 2127: 2125: 2123: 2119: 2114: 2110: 2106: 2102: 2098: 2094: 2090: 2086: 2082: 2078: 2074: 2067: 2064: 2052: 2048: 2041: 2038: 2033: 2029: 2025: 2021: 2016: 2011: 2007: 2003: 1999: 1995: 1991: 1984: 1981: 1976: 1972: 1968: 1964: 1960: 1956: 1952: 1948: 1944: 1940: 1936: 1932: 1925: 1922: 1917: 1913: 1907: 1904: 1899: 1895: 1890: 1885: 1880: 1875: 1871: 1867: 1863: 1856: 1853: 1848: 1835: 1827: 1823: 1819: 1812: 1809: 1805: 1801: 1798: 1796:57: 573–583, 1795: 1789: 1786: 1782: 1778: 1775: 1772: 1765: 1762: 1758: 1754: 1751: 1748: 1741: 1738: 1734: 1730: 1727: 1724: 1718: 1715: 1710: 1704: 1700: 1696: 1689: 1686: 1681: 1679:9780878939084 1675: 1671: 1664: 1661: 1649: 1645: 1641: 1635: 1632: 1627: 1626: 1621: 1614: 1611: 1606: 1602: 1597: 1592: 1588: 1584: 1580: 1573: 1570: 1564: 1559: 1555: 1551: 1547: 1540: 1538: 1536: 1534: 1532: 1528: 1523: 1519: 1515: 1509: 1507: 1503: 1498: 1494: 1490: 1486: 1482: 1478: 1471: 1469: 1465: 1453: 1449: 1445: 1439: 1437: 1433: 1428: 1424: 1420: 1416: 1412: 1408: 1401: 1399: 1395: 1390: 1386: 1381: 1376: 1372: 1368: 1364: 1360: 1356: 1352: 1348: 1341: 1339: 1335: 1330: 1326: 1322: 1318: 1314: 1310: 1307:(9): 108628. 1306: 1302: 1295: 1293: 1291: 1287: 1283: 1279: 1273: 1271: 1267: 1262: 1258: 1253: 1248: 1244: 1240: 1236: 1232: 1228: 1221: 1218: 1210: 1203: 1202: 1194: 1191: 1179: 1175: 1168: 1165: 1152: 1148: 1142: 1139: 1128: 1122: 1119: 1111: 1105: 1102: 1097: 1093: 1088: 1083: 1079: 1075: 1071: 1067: 1063: 1059: 1055: 1048: 1045: 1038: 1034: 1031: 1030: 1026: 1021: 1020:IUCN Red List 1017: 1013: 1006: 1002: 997: 990: 981: 979: 977: 973: 969: 961: 957:Marine biomes 956: 954: 951: 946: 941: 939: 935: 931: 927: 923: 915: 911: 904: 899: 895: 892: 888: 884: 880: 872: 865: 859: 857: 856:rainbow trout 853: 849: 841: 836: 834: 832: 828: 819: 809: 804: 801: 797: 793: 792:transpiration 789: 785: 784:South America 781: 777: 773: 765: 761: 757: 753: 749: 745: 740: 732: 730: 728: 724: 720: 716: 711: 707: 703: 699: 695: 690: 688: 683: 679: 675: 667: 665: 661: 659: 655: 646: 642: 638: 619: 617: 613: 610: 606: 602: 597: 592: 589: 579: 575: 573: 569: 565: 561: 557: 553: 549: 545: 541: 537: 532: 529: 528:boreal forest 525: 521: 514: 509: 504: 496: 491: 487: 482: 478: 474: 473:European Alps 469: 462: 458: 454: 450: 443: 437: 435: 431: 427: 421: 419: 415: 411: 407: 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Retrieved 5152:the original 5139: 5128:. Retrieved 5114: 5106: 5099: 5066: 5062: 5004: 5000: 4989: 4978:. Retrieved 4974: 4964: 4919: 4915: 4857: 4853: 4843: 4832: 4821:. Retrieved 4818:Science News 4817: 4807: 4795: 4787: 4777:Amazon Watch 4776: 4764: 4721: 4717: 4707: 4695:. Retrieved 4690:Carbon Brief 4688: 4679: 4655: 4602: 4598: 4592: 4567: 4563: 4557: 4548: 4539: 4522: 4518: 4505: 4464: 4460: 4442: 4432: 4421:. Retrieved 4417:the original 4407: 4399:ScienceDaily 4398: 4389: 4370: 4366: 4356: 4329: 4325: 4315: 4274: 4270: 4260: 4248:. Retrieved 4244: 4196:10871/131584 4178: 4174: 4148:. Retrieved 4144:the original 4134: 4099: 4095: 4085: 4032: 4026: 4012: 3979: 3975: 3965: 3920: 3916: 3906: 3881: 3877: 3867: 3856:. Retrieved 3828: 3824: 3814: 3803:. Retrieved 3799: 3789: 3778:. 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