575:). The energy derived from the pumping of protons across a cell membrane is frequently used as the energy source in secondary active transport. In humans, sodium (Na) is a commonly cotransported ion across the plasma membrane, whose electrochemical gradient is then used to power the active transport of a second ion or molecule against its gradient. In bacteria and small yeast cells, a commonly cotransported ion is hydrogen. Hydrogen pumps are also used to create an electrochemical gradient to carry out processes within cells such as in the
500:) comprise a large and diverse protein family, often functioning as ATP-driven pumps. Usually, there are several domains involved in the overall transporter protein's structure, including two nucleotide-binding domains that constitute the ATP-binding motif and two hydrophobic transmembrane domains that create the "pore" component. In broad terms, ABC transporters are involved in the import or export of molecules across a cell membrane; yet within the protein family there is an extensive range of function.
324:
656:. But the ATPase exports calcium ions more slowly: only 30 per second versus 2000 per second by the exchanger. The exchanger comes into service when the calcium concentration rises steeply or "spikes" and enables rapid recovery. This shows that a single type of ion can be transported by several enzymes, which need not be active all the time (constitutively), but may exist to meet specific, intermittent needs.
511:), the ABC transporter PhABCG1 is involved in the active transport of volatile organic compounds. PhABCG1 is expressed in the petals of open flowers. In general, volatile compounds may promote the attraction of seed-dispersal organisms and pollinators, as well as aid in defense, signaling, allelopathy, and protection. To study the protein PhABCG1, transgenic petunia
2137:
238:. There are two forms of active transport, primary active transport and secondary active transport. In primary active transport, the proteins involved are pumps that normally use chemical energy in the form of ATP. Secondary active transport, however, makes use of potential energy, which is usually derived through exploitation of an
618:
974:
Story of
Discovery: SGLT2 Inhibitors: Harnessing the Kidneys to Help Treat Diabetes.” National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, www.niddk.nih.gov/news/research-updates/Pages/story-discovery-SGLT2-inhibitors-harnessing-kidneys-help-treat-diabetes.aspx.
250:. The difference between passive transport and active transport is that the active transport requires energy, and moves substances against their respective concentration gradient, whereas passive transport requires no cellular energy and moves substances in the direction of their respective concentration gradient.
201:
treatment is sodium-glucose cotransporters. These transporters were discovered by scientists at the
National Health Institute. These scientists had noticed a discrepancy in the absorption of glucose at different points in the kidney tubule of a rat. The gene was then discovered for intestinal glucose
533:
BY2 cells and is expressed in the presence of microbial elicitors. NtPDR1 is localized in the root epidermis and aerial trichomes of the plant. Experiments using antibodies specifically targeting NtPDR1 followed by
Western blotting allowed for this determination of localization. Furthermore, it is
528:
Additionally in plants, ABC transporters may be involved in the transport of cellular metabolites. Pleiotropic Drug
Resistance ABC transporters are hypothesized to be involved in stress response and export antimicrobial metabolites. One example of this type of ABC transporter is the protein NtPDR1.
503:
In plants, ABC transporters are often found within cell and organelle membranes, such as the mitochondria, chloroplast, and plasma membrane. There is evidence to support that plant ABC transporters play a direct role in pathogen response, phytohormone transport, and detoxification. Furthermore,
756:
are then used to digest the molecules absorbed by this process. Substances that enter the cell via signal mediated electrolysis include proteins, hormones and growth and stabilization factors. Viruses enter cells through a form of endocytosis that involves their outer membrane fusing with the
83:
uses ATP to pump sodium ions out of the cell and potassium ions into the cell, maintaining a concentration gradient essential for cellular function. Active transport is highly selective and regulated, with different transporters specific to different molecules or ions. Dysregulation of active
1466:
et al. 1960). The key point here was 'flux coupling', the cotransport of sodium and glucose in the apical membrane of the small intestinal epithelial cell. Half a century later this idea has turned into one of the most studied of all transporter proteins (SGLT1), the sodium–glucose
315:) ions exist in the cytosol of plant cells, and need to be transported into the vacuole. While the vacuole has channels for these ions, transportation of them is against the concentration gradient, and thus movement of these ions is driven by hydrogen pumps, or proton pumps.
104:
of molecules moving down a gradient, active transport uses cellular energy to move them against a gradient, polar repulsion, or other resistance. Active transport is usually associated with accumulating high concentrations of molecules that the cell needs, such as
519:
expression levels. In these transgenic lines, a decrease in emission of volatile compounds was observed. Thus, PhABCG1 is likely involved in the export of volatile compounds. Subsequent experiments involved incubating control and transgenic lines that expressed
648:, which allows three sodium ions into the cell to transport one calcium out. This antiporter mechanism is important within the membranes of cardiac muscle cells in order to keep the calcium concentration in the cytoplasm low. Many cells also possess
335:
Primary active transport, also called direct active transport, directly uses metabolic energy to transport molecules across a membrane. Substances that are transported across the cell membrane by primary active transport include metal ions, such as
558:
created by pumping ions in/out of the cell. Permitting one ion or molecule to move down an electrochemical gradient, but possibly against the concentration gradient where it is more concentrated to that where it is less concentrated, increases
524:
to test for transport activity involving different substrates. Ultimately, PhABCG1 is responsible for the protein-mediated transport of volatile organic compounds, such as benzyl alcohol and methylbenzoate, across the plasma membrane.
1402:
in 1961 was the first to formulate the cotransport concept to explain active transport . Specifically, he proposed that the accumulation of glucose in the intestinal epithelium across the brush border membrane was coupled to downhill
779:
Exocytosis involves the removal of substances through the fusion of the outer cell membrane and a vesicle membrane. An example of exocytosis would be the transmission of neurotransmitters across a synapse between brain cells.
594:
presented for the first time his discovery of the sodium-glucose cotransport as the mechanism for intestinal glucose absorption. Crane's discovery of cotransport was the first ever proposal of flux coupling in biology.
269:, meaning that one of the two substances is transported against its concentration gradient, utilizing the energy derived from the transport of another ion (mostly Na, K or H ions) down its concentration gradient.
2021:
961:
Inzucchi, Silvio E et al. “SGLT-2 Inhibitors and
Cardiovascular Risk: Proposed Pathways and Review of Ongoing Outcome Trials.” Diabetes & Vascular Disease Research 12.2 (2015): 90–100. PMC. Web. 11 Nov.
242:
gradient. The energy created from one ion moving down its electrochemical gradient is used to power the transport of another ion moving against its electrochemical gradient. This involves pore-forming
379:. The sodium-potassium pump maintains the membrane potential by moving three Na ions out of the cell for every two K ions moved into the cell. Other sources of energy for primary active transport are
633:
In an antiporter two species of ions or other solutes are pumped in opposite directions across a membrane. One of these species is allowed to flow from high to low concentration, which yields the
1414:
transport cross the brush border. This hypothesis was rapidly tested, refined and extended encompass the active transport of a diverse range of molecules and ions into virtually every cell type.
748:. In the case of endocytosis, the cellular membrane folds around the desired materials outside the cell. The ingested particle becomes trapped within a pouch, known as a vesicle, inside the
280:) and transport them across the cell membrane. Because energy is required in this process, it is known as 'active' transport. Examples of active transport include the transportation of
84:
transport can lead to various disorders, including cystic fibrosis, caused by a malfunctioning chloride channel, and diabetes, resulting from defects in glucose transport into cells.
399:
to move protons across the inner mitochondrial membrane against their concentration gradient. An example of primary active transport using light energy are the proteins involved in
711:
This mechanism uses the absorption of sugar through the walls of the intestine to pull water in along with it. Defects in SGLT2 prevent effective reabsorption of glucose, causing
1698:
Zhou, L; Cryan, EV; D'Andrea, MR; Belkowski, S; Conway, BR; Demarest, KT (1 October 2003). "Human cardiomyocytes express high level of Na+/glucose cotransporter 1 (SGLT2)".
1567:"Depolarization-induced calcium responses in sympathetic neurons: relative contributions from Ca entry, extrusion, ER/mitochondrial Ca uptake and release, and Ca buffering"
1614:
Wright, EM; Loo, DD; Panayotova-Heiermann, M; Lostao, MP; Hirayama, BH; Mackenzie, B; Boorer, K; Zampighi, G (November 1994). "'Active' sugar transport in eukaryotes".
2018:
79:
Active transport is essential for various physiological processes, such as nutrient uptake, hormone secretion, and nerve impulse transmission. For example, the
76:, which allows molecules or ions to move down their concentration gradient, from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration, without energy.
2174:
276:
the concentration gradient), specific transmembrane carrier proteins are required. These proteins have receptors that bind to specific molecules (e.g.,
1351:
1346:; Miller, D.; Bihler, I. (1961). "The restrictions on possible mechanisms of intestinal transport of sugars". In Kleinzeller, A.; Kotyk, A. (eds.).
1292:
1047:
1522:
Strehler, EE; Zacharias, DA (January 2001). "Role of alternative splicing in generating isoform diversity among plasma membrane calcium pumps".
1479:
Yu, SP; Choi, DW (June 1997). "Na-Ca exchange currents in cortical neurons: concomitant forward and reverse operation and effect of glutamate".
2118:
1931:
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If substrate molecules are moving from areas of lower concentration to areas of higher concentration (i.e., in the opposite direction as, or
202:
transport protein and linked to these membrane sodium glucose cotransport systems. The first of these membrane transport proteins was named
2304:
983:
823:
772:
In pinocytosis, cells engulf liquid particles (in humans this process occurs in the small intestine, where cells engulf fat droplets).
534:
likely that the protein NtPDR1 actively transports out antimicrobial diterpene molecules, which are toxic to the cell at high levels.
1963:
1103:
680:
652:, which can operate at lower intracellular concentrations of calcium and sets the normal or resting concentration of this important
277:
2167:
789:
497:
2147:
175:
Rosenberg (1948) formulated the concept of active transport based on energetic considerations, but later it would be redefined.
745:
265:, two substrates are transported in the same direction across the membrane. Antiport and symport processes are associated with
804:
117:. Examples of active transport include the uptake of glucose in the intestines in humans and the uptake of mineral ions into
1029:
2324:
672:
from high to low concentration to move another molecule uphill from low concentration to high concentration (against its
1000:
Lodish H, Berk A, Zipursky SL, et al. Molecular Cell
Biology. 4th edition. New York: W. H. Freeman; 2000. Section 15.6,
438:
induce a conformational (shape) change that drives the hydrogen ions to transport against the electrochemical gradient.
49:
1958:
Paston, Ira; Willingham, Mark C. (1985). Endocytosis. Springer, Boston, MA. pp 1–44. doi: 10.1007/978-1-4615-6904-6_1.
2160:
1069:
Reese, Jane B.; Urry, Lisa A.; Cain, Michael L.; Wasserman, Steven A.; Minorsky, Peter V.; Jackson, Robert B. (2014).
1013:
Lodish H, Berk A, Zipursky SL, et al. Molecular Cell
Biology. 4th edition. New York: W. H. Freeman; 2000. Chapter 15,
2141:
234:
of the membrane is impermeable to the substance moved or because the substance is moved against the direction of its
504:
certain plant ABC transporters may function in actively exporting volatile compounds and antimicrobial metabolites.
2373:
2272:
1329:
Alberts B, Johnson A, Lewis J, et al. Molecular
Biology of the Cell. 4th edition. New York: Garland Science; 2002.
1316:
Alberts B, Johnson A, Lewis J, et al. Molecular
Biology of the Cell. 4th edition. New York: Garland Science; 2002.
266:
80:
2368:
1741:
Poppe, R; Karbach, U; Gambaryan, S; Wiesinger, H; Lutzenburg, M; Kraemer, M; Witte, OW; Koepsell, H (July 1997).
555:
2267:
708:
641:
576:
547:
423:
392:
299:. Active transport enables these cells to take up salts from this dilute solution against the direction of the
187:
69:
56:. Active transport requires cellular energy to achieve this movement. There are two types of active transport:
1947:
Transport into the Cell from the Plasma
Membrane: Endocytosis – Molecular Biology of the Cell – NCBI Bookshelf
288:
into the cell by the sodium-potassium pump. Active transport often takes place in the internal lining of the
794:
1946:
673:
551:
300:
235:
141:
61:
53:
852:
Berlin: Reimer. (Vol. 1, Part 1, 1848; Vol. 1, Part 2, 1849; Vol. 2, Part 1, 1860; Vol. 2, Part 2, 1884).
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Plants need to absorb mineral salts from the soil or other sources, but these salts exist in very dilute
2234:
2219:
1210:
459:
328:
223:
191:
1300:
1055:
1246:"NtPDR1, a plasma membrane ABC transporter from Nicotiana tabacum, is involved in diterpene transport"
1841:
1187:
669:
580:
485:
296:
231:
134:
1922:
Reece, Jane; Urry, Lisa; Cain, Michael; Wasserman, Steven; Minorsky, Peter; Jackson, Robert (2014).
2193:
323:
179:
1176:"Emission of volatile organic compounds from petunia flowers is facilitated by an ABC transporter"
695:
is located in the small intestines, heart, and brain. It is also located in the S3 segment of the
2213:
2183:
2049:
1772:
1723:
1547:
1504:
1390:
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404:
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1348:
Membrane Transport and Metabolism. Proceedings of a Symposium held in Prague, August 22–27, 1960
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2001:
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799:
93:
73:
2101:
Lodish H.; Berk A.; Zipursky S.L.; Matsudaira P.; Baltimore D.; Darnell J.; LĂłpez D. (2000).
919:"On accumulation and active transport in biological systems. I. Thermodynamic considerations"
2209:
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1985:
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1926:(Tenth Addition ed.). United States of America: Pearson Education, Inc. p. 137.
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to drive the transport of the other solute from a low concentration region to a high one.
591:
443:
431:
427:
372:
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289:
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31:
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and allow it to move across the membrane when it otherwise would not, either because the
1845:
1759:
1742:
1191:
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1887:
Wright EM, Hirayama BA, Loo DF (2007). "Active sugar transport in health and disease".
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1989:
1900:
1864:
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257:, one substrate is transported in one direction across the membrane while another is
247:
153:
46:
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1776:
1727:
1508:
1394:
1277:
952:"Jens C. Skou - Biographical". Nobelprize.org. Nobel Media AB 2014. Web. 11 Nov 2017
935:
918:
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and release of hydrogen ion then restores the carrier to its original conformation.
2329:
2309:
2019:
Cell : Two Major Process in Exchange Of Materials Between Cell And Environment
1551:
1458:
the insight from this time that remains in all current text books is the notion of
1444:
1427:
765:
741:
572:
546:, energy is used to transport molecules across a membrane; however, in contrast to
463:
435:
691:) molecule into the cell for every two sodium ions it imports into the cell. This
391:). An example of primary active transport using redox energy is the mitochondrial
197:
One category of cotransporters that is especially prominent in research regarding
1535:
1365:
Wright EM, Turk E (February 2004). "The sodium/glucose cotransport family SLC5".
2319:
2314:
2291:
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1026:
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467:
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258:
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1834:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
1330:
1317:
1014:
1001:
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1651:"Nutrient regulation of human intestinal sugar transporter (SGLT2) expression"
1378:
1261:
737:
728:
712:
645:
626:
606:
568:
439:
254:
165:
137:
suggested the possibility of active transport of substances across membranes.
114:
1997:
1854:
864:"The influence of light, temperature, and other conditions on the ability of
609:
depending on whether the substances move in the same or opposite directions.
2257:
2252:
2062:
Jahn, Reinhard; SĂĽdhof, Thomas C. (1999). "Membrane Fusion and Exocytosis".
1976:
Jahn, Reinhard; SĂĽdhof, Thomas C. (1999). "Membrane Fusion and Exocytosis".
1462:
published originally as an appendix to a symposium paper published in 1960 (
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183:
118:
30:
This article is about transport in cellular biology. For human systems, see
17:
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2005:
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1500:
884:
753:
478:
472:
304:
243:
198:
50:
from a region of lower concentration to a region of higher concentration
1666:
27:
Cellular molecule transport mechanism against the concentration gradient
2282:
2224:
700:
684:
634:
560:
349:
308:
130:
110:
101:
1711:
403:
that use the energy of photons to create a proton gradient across the
2152:
1139:
1073:(Tenth ed.). United States: Pearson Education Inc. p. 135.
704:
564:
384:
368:
364:
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membrane of the cell. This forces the viral DNA into the host cell.
617:
616:
408:
388:
380:
322:
207:
161:
145:
1743:"Expression of the Na+-D-glucose cotransporter SGLT1 in neurons"
489:
396:
2156:
1828:
Loo, DD; Zeuthen, T; Chandy, G; Wright, EM (12 November 1996).
106:
744:
that move materials into and out of cells, respectively, via
1949:. Ncbi.nlm.nih.gov (2011-10-03). Retrieved on 2011-12-05.
676:). Both molecules are transported in the same direction.
2103:"Section 15.6 Cotransport by Symporters and Antiporters"
2028:. Takdang Aralin (2009-10-26). Retrieved on 2011-12-05.
1830:"Cotransport of water by the Na+/glucose cotransporter"
371:. A primary ATPase universal to all animal life is the
760:
Biologists distinguish two main types of endocytosis:
496:
Adenosine triphosphate-binding cassette transporters (
475:: mitochondrial ATP synthase, chloroplast ATP synthase
367:
that perform this type of transport are transmembrane
1790:
Wright EM (2001). "Renal Na-glucose cotransporters".
1649:
Dyer, J; Hosie, KB; Shirazi-Beechey, SP (July 1997).
360:
to cross membranes and distribute through the body.
2338:
2290:
2281:
2243:
2200:
1428:"Facts, fantasies and fun in epithelial physiology"
986:. Buzzle.com (2010-05-14). Retrieved on 2011-12-05.
2106:
2052:. Courses.washington.edu. Retrieved on 2011-12-05.
1565:Patterson, M; Sneyd, J; Friel, DD (January 2007).
996:
994:
992:
407:and also to create reduction power in the form of
1312:
1310:
1122:Kang, Joohyun; Park, Jiyoung (December 6, 2011).
1331:Electron-Transport Chains and Their Proton Pumps
862:Hoagland, D R; Hibbard, P L; Davis, A R (1926).
970:
968:
426:(from low to high hydrogen ion concentration).
422:is used to transport hydrogen ions against the
1823:
1821:
1318:Carrier Proteins and Active Membrane Transport
868:cells to concentrate halogens in the cell sap"
775:In phagocytosis, cells engulf solid particles.
45:is the movement of molecules or ions across a
2168:
1036:. Biologycorner.com. Retrieved on 2011-12-05.
948:
946:
542:In secondary active transport, also known as
8:
1211:11245.1/2a6bd9dd-ea94-4c25-95b8-7b16bea44e92
214:also played a prominent role in this field.
850:Untersuchungen über thierische Elektricität
2287:
2192:Mechanisms for chemical transport through
2175:
2161:
2153:
331:is an example of primary active transport.
172:under controlled experimental conditions.
156:gradient and discovered the dependence of
1863:
1853:
1758:
1674:
1590:
1443:
1209:
1199:
1147:
1098:. Washington, DC: ASK PRESS. p. 65.
1002:Cotransport by Symporters and Antiporters
934:
893:
883:
2113:(4th ed.). New York: W.H. Freeman.
529:This unique ABC transporter is found in
815:
1239:
1237:
1174:Adebesin, Funmilayo (June 30, 2017).
1169:
1167:
1117:
1115:
7:
2305:Non-specific, adsorptive pinocytosis
1481:The European Journal of Neuroscience
679:An example is the glucose symporter
556:electrochemical potential difference
450:Types of primary active transporters
88:Active cellular transportation (ACT)
1760:10.1046/j.1471-4159.1997.69010084.x
1616:The Journal of Experimental Biology
1493:10.1111/j.1460-9568.1997.tb01482.x
668:uses the downhill movement of one
515:lines were created with decreased
395:that uses the reduction energy of
352:. These charged particles require
25:
1571:The Journal of General Physiology
1244:Crouzet, Jerome (April 7, 2013).
1071:Tenth Edition, Campbell's Biology
707:. Its mechanism is exploited in
550:, there is no direct coupling of
261:in the opposite direction. In a
72:. This process is in contrast to
2135:
2076:10.1146/annurev.biochem.68.1.863
1990:10.1146/annurev.biochem.68.1.863
1901:10.1111/j.1365-2796.2006.01746.x
1700:Journal of Cellular Biochemistry
790:ATP-binding cassette transporter
544:cotransport or coupled transport
1924:Tenth Addition Campbell Biology
1804:10.1152/ajprenal.2001.280.1.F10
1015:Transport across Cell Membranes
936:10.3891/acta.chem.scand.02-0014
848:Du Bois-Reymond, E. (1848–84).
824:"The importance of homeostasis"
190:for his research regarding the
1445:10.1113/expphysiol.2007.037523
1297:Essentials of Human Physiology
1096:The Cell: A Molecular Approach
1052:Essentials of Human Physiology
554:. Instead, it relies upon the
375:, which helps to maintain the
246:that form channels across the
1:
2325:Receptor-mediated endocytosis
2064:Annual Review of Biochemistry
1978:Annual Review of Biochemistry
563:and can serve as a source of
206:followed by the discovery of
1889:Journal of Internal Medicine
1536:10.1152/physrev.2001.81.1.21
144:investigated the ability of
709:glucose rehydration therapy
590:In August 1960, in Prague,
579:, an important function of
2390:
2273:Secondary active transport
2148:Secondary Active Transport
1792:Am J Physiol Renal Physiol
1293:"Section 7/7ch05/7ch05p12"
1048:"Section 7/7ch05/7ch05p11"
722:
683:, which co-transports one
538:Secondary active transport
267:secondary active transport
66:secondary active transport
29:
2190:
1747:Journal of Neurochemistry
1379:10.1007/s00424-003-1063-6
1352:Czech Academy of Sciences
1280:– via SpringerLink.
1262:10.1007/s11103-013-0053-0
1094:Cooper, Geoffrey (2009).
713:familial renal glucosuria
415:Model of active transport
2268:Primary active transport
2024:August 11, 2010, at the
1855:10.1073/pnas.93.23.13367
1124:"Plant ABC Transporters"
1032:August 24, 2011, at the
984:Active Transport Process
642:sodium-calcium exchanger
577:electron transport chain
548:primary active transport
424:electrochemical gradient
393:electron transport chain
319:Primary active transport
188:Nobel Prize in Chemistry
70:electrochemical gradient
58:primary active transport
2038:Pinocytosis: Definition
1250:Plant Molecular Biology
1201:10.1126/science.aan0826
795:Countercurrent exchange
2109:Molecular Cell Biology
1426:Boyd CA (March 2008).
674:concentration gradient
630:
332:
301:concentration gradient
236:concentration gradient
224:transmembrane proteins
142:Dennis Robert Hoagland
62:adenosine triphosphate
54:concentration gradient
2220:Facilitated diffusion
1628:10.1242/jeb.196.1.197
1583:10.1085/jgp.200609660
1524:Physiological Reviews
917:Rosenberg, T (1948).
752:. Often enzymes from
620:
601:can be classified as
460:sodium potassium pump
434:and the binding of a
373:sodium-potassium pump
329:sodium-potassium pump
326:
192:sodium-potassium pump
81:sodium-potassium pump
2194:biological membranes
2144:at Wikimedia Commons
2040:. biology-online.org
1128:The Arabidopsis Book
885:10.1085/jgp.10.1.121
583:that happens in the
581:cellular respiration
507:In petunia flowers (
488:) transporter: MDR,
486:ATP binding cassette
284:out of the cell and
232:phospholipid bilayer
135:Emil du Bois-Reymond
1846:1996PNAS...9313367L
1667:10.1136/gut.41.1.56
1438:(3): 303–14 (304).
1354:. pp. 439–449.
1192:2017Sci...356.1386A
1186:(6345): 1386–1388.
180:Jens Christian Skou
2214:mediated transport
2184:Membrane transport
740:are both forms of
640:An example is the
631:
405:thylakoid membrane
333:
327:The action of the
2374:Biological matter
2356:
2355:
2352:
2351:
2202:Passive transport
2140:Media related to
2120:978-0-7167-3136-8
1933:978-0-321-77565-8
1712:10.1002/jcb.10631
1291:Nosek, Thomas M.
1080:978-0-321-77565-8
1046:Nosek, Thomas M.
800:Protein targeting
531:Nicotiana tabacum
481:: vacuolar ATPase
168:using innovative
121:cells of plants.
96:, which uses the
94:passive transport
74:passive transport
16:(Redirected from
2381:
2369:Membrane biology
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2245:Active transport
2210:Simple diffusion
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654:second messenger
513:RNA interference
498:ABC transporters
166:metabolic energy
39:cellular biology
21:
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861:
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731:
723:Main articles:
721:
697:proximal tubule
662:
650:calcium ATPases
635:entropic energy
615:
592:Robert K. Crane
540:
509:Petunia hybrida
452:
444:phosphate group
432:carrier protein
428:Phosphorylation
417:
321:
314:
303:. For example,
290:small intestine
240:electrochemical
220:
160:absorption and
127:
90:
35:
32:active mobility
28:
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2130:External links
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2011:
1984:(1): 863–911.
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1782:
1733:
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1487:(6): 1273–81.
1471:
1467:cotransporter.
1418:
1409:
1357:
1335:
1322:
1306:
1303:on 2016-03-24.
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1111:
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1058:on 2016-03-24.
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878:(1): 121–126.
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719:Bulk transport
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670:solute species
661:
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614:
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599:Cotransporters
539:
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494:
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482:
476:
470:
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420:ATP hydrolysis
416:
413:
401:photosynthesis
377:cell potential
320:
317:
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226:recognize the
219:
216:
126:
123:
98:kinetic energy
89:
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805:Translocation
803:
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587:of the cell.
586:
585:mitochondrion
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480:
477:
474:
471:
469:
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457:
456:P-type ATPase
454:
453:
449:
447:
445:
442:of the bound
441:
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433:
429:
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283:
279:
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270:
268:
264:
260:
259:cotransported
256:
251:
249:
248:cell membrane
245:
241:
237:
233:
229:
225:
217:
215:
213:
209:
205:
200:
195:
193:
189:
186:received the
185:
181:
176:
173:
171:
170:model systems
167:
163:
162:translocation
159:
155:
154:concentration
151:
147:
143:
138:
136:
133:physiologist
132:
129:In 1848, the
124:
122:
120:
116:
112:
108:
103:
99:
95:
87:
85:
82:
77:
75:
71:
68:that uses an
67:
63:
59:
55:
52:—against the
51:
48:
47:cell membrane
44:
40:
33:
19:
2330:Transcytosis
2310:Phagocytosis
2244:
2108:
2067:
2063:
2057:
2050:Phagocytosis
2045:
2033:
2014:
1981:
1977:
1971:
1954:
1942:
1923:
1917:
1895:(1): 32–43.
1892:
1888:
1882:
1837:
1833:
1798:(1): F10–8.
1795:
1791:
1785:
1753:(1): 84–94.
1750:
1746:
1736:
1703:
1699:
1693:
1658:
1654:
1644:
1619:
1615:
1609:
1577:(1): 29–56.
1574:
1570:
1560:
1530:(1): 21–50.
1527:
1523:
1517:
1484:
1480:
1474:
1460:Robert Crane
1457:
1435:
1432:Exp. Physiol
1431:
1421:
1398:
1373:(5): 510–8.
1370:
1366:
1360:
1347:
1338:
1325:
1301:the original
1296:
1286:
1253:
1249:
1183:
1179:
1131:
1127:
1095:
1089:
1070:
1064:
1056:the original
1051:
1041:
1022:
1009:
979:
957:
926:
922:
912:
875:
871:
865:
857:
849:
844:
832:. Retrieved
827:
818:
778:
766:phagocytosis
759:
732:
678:
663:
639:
632:
621:Function of
597:
589:
573:ATP synthase
541:
530:
527:
521:
516:
508:
506:
502:
495:
464:calcium pump
436:hydrogen ion
418:
363:Most of the
362:
358:ion channels
334:
294:
273:
271:
252:
222:Specialized
221:
212:Robert Krane
196:
177:
174:
139:
128:
100:and natural
91:
78:
65:
57:
42:
36:
18:Co-transport
2320:Potocytosis
2315:Pinocytosis
2292:Endocytosis
2070:: 863–911.
1661:(1): 56–9.
1622:: 197–212.
762:pinocytosis
734:Endocytosis
725:Endocytosis
627:antiporters
607:antiporters
468:proton pump
383:energy and
182:, a Danish
115:amino acids
64:(ATP), and
2363:Categories
2340:Exocytosis
2263:Antiporter
1350:. Prague:
811:References
738:exocytosis
729:Exocytosis
646:antiporter
623:symporters
613:Antiporter
603:symporters
569:metabolism
440:Hydrolysis
255:antiporter
218:Background
152:against a
148:to absorb
60:that uses
2258:Symporter
2253:Uniporter
1998:0066-4154
1228:206658803
1134:: e0153.
929:: 14–33.
754:lysosomes
750:cytoplasm
693:symporter
689:galactose
666:symporter
660:Symporter
571:(e.g. in
354:ion pumps
307:(Cl) and
286:potassium
263:symporter
228:substance
184:physician
178:In 1997,
140:In 1926,
119:root hair
2235:Carriers
2230:Channels
2212:(or non-
2084:10872468
2022:Archived
2006:10872468
1909:17222166
1812:11133510
1777:34558770
1728:21908010
1720:14505350
1601:17190902
1544:11152753
1509:23146698
1454:18192340
1395:41985805
1387:12748858
1278:12276939
1270:23564360
1220:28663500
1158:22303277
1030:Archived
904:19872303
834:23 April
784:See also
746:vesicles
699:in each
479:V-ATPase
473:F-ATPase
387:energy (
305:chloride
297:solution
244:proteins
199:diabetes
158:nutrient
2283:Cytosis
2225:Osmosis
1874:8917597
1842:Bibcode
1769:9202297
1685:9274472
1676:1027228
1636:7823022
1592:2151609
1552:9062253
1501:9215711
1188:Bibcode
1149:3268509
895:2140878
866:Nitella
828:Science
705:kidneys
703:in the
701:nephron
685:glucose
561:entropy
522:PhABCG1
517:PhABCG1
430:of the
369:ATPases
365:enzymes
309:nitrate
278:glucose
274:against
125:History
111:glucose
102:entropy
92:Unlike
43:active
2117:
2082:
2004:
1996:
1962:
1930:
1907:
1872:
1862:
1810:
1775:
1767:
1726:
1718:
1683:
1673:
1634:
1599:
1589:
1550:
1542:
1507:
1499:
1452:
1393:
1385:
1276:
1268:
1226:
1218:
1156:
1146:
1102:
1077:
902:
892:
565:energy
492:, etc.
385:photon
348:, and
282:sodium
253:In an
146:plants
131:German
2095:Notes
1865:24099
1773:S2CID
1724:S2CID
1548:S2CID
1505:S2CID
1464:Crane
1400:Crane
1391:S2CID
1274:S2CID
1224:S2CID
681:SGLT1
484:ABC (
409:NADPH
389:light
381:redox
208:SGLT2
204:SGLT1
150:salts
2115:ISBN
2080:PMID
2002:PMID
1994:ISSN
1960:ISBN
1928:ISBN
1905:PMID
1870:PMID
1808:PMID
1765:PMID
1716:PMID
1681:PMID
1632:PMID
1597:PMID
1540:PMID
1497:PMID
1450:PMID
1383:PMID
1266:PMID
1216:PMID
1154:PMID
1100:ISBN
1075:ISBN
962:2017
900:PMID
836:2013
830:. me
764:and
736:and
727:and
687:(or
625:and
605:and
567:for
490:CFTR
397:NADH
113:and
107:ions
2072:doi
1986:doi
1897:doi
1893:261
1860:PMC
1850:doi
1800:doi
1796:280
1755:doi
1708:doi
1671:PMC
1663:doi
1655:Gut
1624:doi
1620:196
1587:PMC
1579:doi
1575:129
1532:doi
1489:doi
1440:doi
1375:doi
1371:447
1258:doi
1206:hdl
1196:doi
1184:356
1144:PMC
1136:doi
931:doi
890:PMC
880:doi
644:or
552:ATP
356:or
311:(NO
164:on
37:In
2365::
2105:.
2078:.
2068:68
2066:.
2000:.
1992:.
1982:68
1980:.
1903:.
1891:.
1868:.
1858:.
1848:.
1838:93
1836:.
1832:.
1820:^
1806:.
1794:.
1771:.
1763:.
1751:69
1749:.
1745:.
1722:.
1714:.
1704:90
1702:.
1679:.
1669:.
1659:41
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