Cognitive effects of bilingualism

329:) School of Social Sciences, research before the 1960s on bilingual individuals varied but commonly supported the idea that there were disadvantages to bilingualism. Researchers believed that bilinguals would have smaller vocabularies and stunted cognitive abilities. They also thought that children learning two languages at a young age would struggle differentiating and building proficiency in two languages to become competent in either. The idea that being bilingual was harmful to a child's linguistic and cognitive development, persisted. According to a historical review in "The Journal of Genetic Psychology," various researchers held these beliefs, noting a "problem of bilingualism" or the "handicapping influence of bilingualism." Following studies reported that bilinguals performed worse in IQ tests and suffered in most aspects of language development. These perspectives on bilingualism may have come from studies that did not control for 380:

bilingualism and executive function; monolinguals and bilinguals may have executive function differences. Studies that match age and background factors like SES have found that bilinguals, who experience the mental demands of learning multiple languages, may have greater executive control and experience other cognitive benefits than their monolingual peers. Executive function may also have effects for older adults. Adults who learned a second language at a young age show better control and inhibitory processing than monolingual adults, as well as greater protection from cognitive decline such as dementia. Notably, some scientists continue to debate whether a bilingual advantage in executive functioning exists, with some studies and meta-analyses coming to opposite conclusions.

620:

on a card. Correctly matching the two after cards were rearranged suggested that the child could understand the written words as representations of specific words whose meanings cannot change. Comparisons to monolinguals suggested a literacy advantage, as the bilingual children achieved scores equal to monolinguals one year older. This may be attributed to greater connections between spoken and written languages. Other bilingual researchers found a relationship between phonological awareness and word recognition in native Spanish-speaking children learning to read English; phonological and word skills predicted how well a child could recognize English words. This suggested bilinguals could apply phonological awareness developed in L1 to the reading ability in L2.

402:

a study comparing unimodal bilinguals and bimodal bilinguals. Because bimodal bilinguals can express themselves in both languages at the same time, they may require less inhibition. This idea was supported by the results of the study; only unimodal bilinguals were found to have an advantage, as measured by the flanker task (a cognitive task that measures attentional focus and inhibition). Bimodal bilinguals also switch languages less frequently, because they are more likely to use both languages at once than to completely switch from one to the other. For this reason, the researchers of this study hypothesized that it may be the switching between languages that gives unimodal bilinguals the advantage.

453:

distracted by non-target stimuli. Inhibition may be the executive control system that allows successful linguistic selection even when both languages are co-activated in bilinguals. De Groot & Christofells (2006) proposed a distinction between two types of inhibition that may occur: global inhibition and local inhibition. Global inhibition refers to suppression of an entire language system, e.g. inhibiting Spanish when speaking English, and local inhibition refers to inhibition of a more specific competing vocabulary, e.g. the translation of the same word or phrase. Local inhibition mostly affects linguistic performance whereas global inhibition affects both linguistic and cognitive performance.

637:. A possible explanation may be that the frequency of use of words is related to increased lexical accessibility, meaning that words that are used more frequently are accessed more quickly. Past research attributing proficiency differences between bilinguals and monolinguals from smaller vocabulary and language usage time may have too small of a focus within one language, and not broaden consideration to total knowledge in both languages. In addition, the need to select the appropriate language system makes ordinary linguistic processing more effortful. The simple act of retrieving a common word is more effortful for bilinguals than monolinguals due to the competition of the two languages. 641:

had similar scores on English words that were associated with schooling. However, when the children were tested on English words that were associated with the home, the scores were significantly lower for the bilingual (English-Spanish) children. The researchers interpret this result as reflecting an asymmetry in vocabulary domains and language exposure: monolingual and bilingual children were equally exposed to the school context in the same language (English), but English was not commonly used in the home environments of the bilingual children. Language context may play a greater role in domain proficiency than overall language proficiency.

549:(meaning) because of her frequent substitutions of English words with German words and vice versa. This was noted in her everyday speech and well-rehearsed songs or rhymes. He noted that she had a greater flexibility in the use of language that was unobserved in monolingual children of her age. Leopold considered that perhaps this loose connection between the meaning and form of a word could result in more abstract thinking or greater mental flexibility for bilingual children. Following this study, several others were formed to test similar things and find out more about the mental abilities of bilinguals with relation to their languages. 611:

languages. A child learning two languages whose structures and rules are significantly different from each other requires the child to think in cognitively demanding ways. An example of this cognitive demand in action would be in the arbitrariness of labels for objects, or distinguishing between and using two different grammatical or syntactical structures. These areas are quite difficult for a child to learn, but with development through childhood, have been shown to increase the understanding the structure of language and introduce a greater awareness of meaning. Bilinguals develop what is referred to as metalinguistic awareness.

415:, a set of non-verbal tests designed to measure cognitive ability, to a bilingual sample of children. Results showed their sample had a higher correlation with the degree of bilingualism, or language proficiency, and test scores. Accordingly, this study suggested that the "egg came first", or that bilingualism predicts cognitive ability through performance. Furthermore, native bilinguals often learn a second language due to family environment, where use of the two languages is necessary. It is less likely that children learn second languages in monolingual households through individual, innate cognitive abilities. 398:(i.e. a spoken and signed language). Studies have indicated that unimodal and bimodal bilinguals face different factors and requirements for their language use. In a monolingual conversational situation, unimodal bilinguals must suppress their use of one of their languages more significantly than bimodal bilinguals, while using the other language. This is because the use of a spoken word in another language would be confusing to the listener, whereas the use of a signed word would be less distracting to a listener, even when they do not know the meaning of the sign. 427:

definitions. Furthermore, they argue that bilinguals are not consistently better at all executive function tasks and existing studies only compare bilinguals to monolinguals, and not bilinguals of different proficiencies. Conversely, researchers in support of a bilingualism advantage note that while tests of executive function may undermine the robustness of findings, opposing findings come from researchers outside of the bilingualism field, and new neuroimaging technologies robustly verify and build upon historical findings of a bilingualism advantage.

341:, as well as of having a standardized measure for bilingualism when selecting a sample of bilinguals to be studied. Researchers carefully matched bilingual to monolingual participants and found that the bilinguals appeared to have significant advantages to that of their monolingual peers, outperforming in both verbal and non-verbal tests, more specifically in the non-verbal tests. In continuation of this study, research after this point began to shift focus, investigating areas of cognitive development and aptitude like perception and 460:, where the word for a color is printed in a different color than the name (e.g. the word 'red' printed in blue ink). This causes interference and distraction; reaction times are measured to see how distracted the individual is by the incongruent word and color. Bilinguals compared to monolinguals have shown better Stroop task performance, suggesting that bilinguals have a more developed inhibition process, potentially due to the constant inhibition of their non-target language. 445: 685:

English-speaking environment showed preference for the typical English low-attachment strategy, even when reading the phrase in Spanish, their dominant language. This may be because they have more exposure to English constructions, making it more available to them. But altogether, this supports the idea that the L2, English in this case, is affecting the way the native Spanish speakers use their L1.

135: 629:

seen in L2 learners when tested in their second language. Given that bilinguals accumulate vocabulary from both their languages, when taking both languages into account, they have a much larger vocabulary than monolinguals. However, within each language bilinguals have a smaller vocabulary size and take longer to name pictures as seen in standardized vocabulary tests, such as the

33: 473:

set of sounds comprising a word from the word's meaning. Metalinguistic awareness involves inhibition, or the ability to suppress distracting information such as semantics. Metalinguistic ability could also be exercised by being bilingual, given that a bilingual individual has to suppress their knowledge of another language system when operating in one of their languages.

74: 493:'. Cognitive reserve is the idea that engaging in stimulating physical or mental activity can maintain cognitive functioning in healthy aging and delay the onset of dementia-related memory losses. Contributing factors include education, occupational status, higher socioeconomic class, and doing physical, intellectual and social activities. 333:(SES) and gave IQ tests to non-proficient speakers of a second language in that second language. Many of these studies also used unstandardized and subjective definitions of bilingualism and of a bilingual individual, labeling someone as bilingual or monolingual through assumptions based on parent national origin, or based on family name. 598:

children, semantic preference increased with age, suggesting that bilingual children reach a stage of semantic development 2–3 years earlier than their monolingual peers. This finding is in stark contrast to the early research and claims about bilingualism, which warned that bilingualism stunts children's linguistic development.

684:

as they have a low attachment preference, meaning they attach the modifier to the "lower" verb phrase . The researchers found that Spanish-English bilinguals in a Spanish-speaking environment showed preference for the typical Spanish high-attachment strategy. However, Spanish-English bilinguals in an

628:

Past research suggests that bilinguals have a smaller vocabulary size than their monolinguals counterparts. However, a 2022 meta-analysis casts doubt on this by showing that there are no linguistic costs in bilinguals who have acquired two languages early in life; rather the linguistic cost is mainly

619:

Bilingualism may also affect reading ability. Bialystok observed bilingual children's reading abilities and how the children made connections between the spoken and written language systems. Children were given a "Moving Word Task," where they needed to appropriately match a written word to an object

440:

measures of performance when listening to speech, reading words in either language or even planning speech in either language. Bilingualism studies historically looked at languages that share the Roman alphabet, where co-activation of languages may make more intuitive sense. However, co-activation of

426:

The research methodologies of both groups for and against bilingualism advantages have been disputed. Some opposing researchers argue that correlations between bilingualism and executive function are inconsistent due to a reliance on findings with small sample sizes, publication bias, and non-uniform

401:

In 1998, David Green proposed his "inhibitory control model", which references a bilingual's constant need to suppress one language while using another. Because this task requires suppressing a source of distraction, this kind of control is then applied to other tasks. This assertion was bolstered by

640:

Bialystok, Luk, Peets, and Yang's study from 2010 notes that certain vocabulary tests could yield artificially low scores for bilingual children according to the domain from which the test words are taken. For example, the research team found that monolingual and bilingual 6-year-olds in their study

509:

Several other studies replicated the finding that bilingualism contributes to cognitive reserve. For example, Abutalebi et al. (2015) used the flanker test to study unimodal bilinguals and monolinguals matched based on education level and SES. While this study had a relatively small sample size, the

472:

ability, which seems closely tied to executive function. Metalinguistic awareness is the understanding of the separation between language's structure and its meaning. For example, being able to judge the grammaticality of a sentence regardless of whether it is sensical, or being able to separate the

561:

designed a study to test Leopold's observations and was able to replicate them. She tested two groups of monolingual and bilingual children at ages 4–6 and 6–9. These participants were given tasks to assess whether they showed a semantic or phonetic preference when categorizing words. An example of

522:

A debate within the linguistic community is whether the age of acquiring one's L2 has effects on the cognitive advantages. Bilingual children who acquire an L2 early may develop executive function earlier, around age 3, compared to monolingual hearing children who develop executive function around

452:

The fact that both languages are constantly activated means that they potentially compete for cognitive resources; bilinguals need a way to control the competition, to not use the wrong language at the wrong time. Inhibition refers to being able to ignore irrelevant information and therefore not be

435:

Bilinguals often have more knowledge in certain language domains, leading to a dominant "L1" language, and a less dominant "L2" language. Research shows that when a bilingual individual proficient in both uses only L1 or L2, both languages are simultaneously active, phonologically and semantically,

379:

is the group of high-level cognitive processes that assists in goal-oriented tasks, such as problem solving, mental flexibility, attentional control, inhibitory control, and task switching. Much of the current research on cognitive effects of bilingualism studies the potential relationship between

505:

functional cognition for a longer period of time, delaying symptom onset for those with the disease. For example, in one Alzheimer study, bilinguals actually had more pathology (signs of disease) and damage than the monolingual patients. This suggests that active use of the two languages protects

336:

Researchers began to change tone in the late 1950s/early 1960s, when Lenneberg, Chomsky, and Halle co-founded the field of biolinguistics and explored the role of biology in language. Their ideas led others to consider the role of human development more. In 1962, a turning point came about from a

597:

The results of Ianco-Worrall's study showed that although both monolingual and bilingual children had no differences in the way they understood the words used, 54% of the younger bilingual children consistently showed a semantic preference in contrast to their monolingual peers. In monolingual

496:

To test the protection of bilingualism against Alzheimer's disease (AD), Bialystok et al. (2007) examined hospital records of monolingual and bilingual patients who were diagnosed with various types of dementia. After controlling for various cognitive factors, the researchers found bilinguals

610:

Ellen Bialystok and Kenji Hakuta, both professors studying bilingualism, examined the idea that "the knowledge of two languages is greater than the sum of its parts." They argued that there are linguistic benefits to being bilingual and that they are more than simply being able to speak two

488:

There has been a growing research interest in the benefits of bilingualism against age-related cognitive decline. Klein & Viswanathan found that the normal decrease in attention control observed in older adults was reduced in bilinguals, suggesting that bilingualism may protect against

362:

does not directly poll for bilingualism, they do poll for household languages. Non-English-speaking households are also surveyed for English proficiency. A 2012 interpretation of Census Bureau results observed that 11% of the population was bilingual in 1980, 14% in 1990, and 20% in 2012.

2085: 257:

individual is traditionally defined as someone who understands and produces two languages on a regular basis. A bilingual individual's initial exposure to both languages may start in early childhood, e.g. before age 3, but exposure may also begin later in life, in

653:, the individual experiences reduced access to L1 and extensive contact with L2, which affects and facilitates processing of L2. However, this may also consequently affect processing of their L1, such as with increased difficulty in naming objects and phonology. 410:

Hakuta and Diaz addressed an origin question about the potential bilingual advantage: do children with greater cognitive abilities tend to learn more than one language, or could knowing more than one language contribute to enhanced cognition? They administered

357:

Since the late 1970s, researchers have found more cognitive benefits of bilingualism, including better attention, task-switching, and protection against aging declines. Over time, the prevalence of bilinguals in the United States has also increased. While the

353:

published an influential study which discussed bilingualism as it relates to education - how it affects a child's performance compared to peers. This study played a large role in our understanding of multilingualism and the effects that it has on the brain.

266:. Equal proficiency in a bilingual individuals' languages is rarely seen as it typically varies by domain. For example, a bilingual individual may have greater proficiency for work-related terms in one language, and family-related terms in another language. 300:

Throughout the history of research into the cognitive advantages of bilingualism, views have shifted from a subtractive to an additive perspective: it is now believed that being bilingual adds to an individual's abilities rather than subtracting from it.

480:, which is the ability to understand someone else's thinking, has also been implicated in bilingualism. A meta-analysis in 2018 found that bilingual children performed better on a theory of mind test compared to monolingual children. 510:

results did confirm previous research findings: the bilinguals outperformed the monolinguals on all experimental tasks, and the monolinguals' neural imaging showed more signs of age-related effects on performance of tasks and less

3051:

Bennett DA, Schneider JA, Tang Y, Arnold SE, Wilson RS (May 2006). "The effect of social networks on the relation between Alzheimer's disease pathology and level of cognitive function in old people: a longitudinal cohort study".

2382: 489:

age-related cognitive deficits. Elderly bilinguals show better task-switching skill, can ignore unrelated information, and can choose the best phrasing. Bilingualism may be one of the environmental factors which contributes to '

540:

Leopold, a pioneer of child language and bilingualism research, made many research findings by observing his daughter's, Hildegard, language use. In his studies, he observed that Hildegard had "loose connections" between the

497:

experienced later onset of symptoms and were diagnosed approximately 3–4 years later on average than monolinguals. This was replicated with patients all diagnosed with AD. Note that the studies did not show that bilingualism

297:, suggests that bilinguals can benefit from significant cognitive advantages over monolingual peers in various settings. There are also age-related benefits which seem to protect against cognitive decline in older adults. 441:

L1 and L2 has also been reported in bilinguals whose two languages have different scripts (writing systems), lexical forms (e.g. Japanese and English), and modality (e.g. English and American Sign Language).

312:

studies have failed to find compelling evidence for cognitive advantages in healthy adults or in participants across a broader age range. Moreover, the distribution of effect sizes in meta-analyses suggest

527:

tasks such as the Attention Network Test, which measures attentional control, compared to their late bilingual and monolingual counterparts in studies controlled for age, verbal ability, and SES.

506:

against the symptoms of the disease. Areas of the brain that enable cognitive control may have benefited from the bilingual experience and so improve cognitive function in older age.

456:

Inhibiting language in different ways may impact non-linguistic and linguistic cognitive processing. For example, a test that is widely used to assess this executive function is the

728:

Hakuta K., Diaz R. M. (1985). "The relationship between degree of bilingualism and cognitive ability: a critical discussion and some new longitudinal data.". In Nelson K. E. (ed.).

3226:

Schweizer TA, Ware J, Fischer CE, Craik FI, Bialystok E (September 2012). "Bilingualism as a contributor to cognitive reserve: evidence from brain atrophy in Alzheimer's disease".

680:

as they have a high attachment preference, meaning they attach the modifier to the "higher" verb phrase . This differs from monolingual English speakers who will typically answer

1894:

Duñabeitia JA, Hernández JA, Antón E, Macizo P, Estévez A, Fuentes LJ, Carreiras M (2014-01-01). "The inhibitory advantage in bilingual children revisited: myth or reality?".

394:

Unimodal bilinguals are individuals who are proficient in two spoken languages. In contrast, bimodal bilinguals are individuals who are proficient in languages in differing

281:(L2) interact shows that both languages have an influence on the function of one another and on cognitive function outside of language. Research on executive functions like 98: 46: 2465:

Kroll JF, Bobb SC, Wodniecka Z (2006). "Language selectivity is the exception, not the rule: arguments against a fixed locus of language selection in bilingual speech".

349:, first introduced the idea of a critical period of language acquisition, now better known as a sensitive period and further influenced bilingualism ideas. In 1977 the 582:. Other tasks were designed to provide a choice between semantic and phonetic interpretation of objects. For instance, in a hypothetical situation, could you call a 423:

The idea that bilingualism enhances executive function is not universally accepted among researchers. Mixed experimental results have led to bitter, opposing views.

1088: 2435:

Kroll JF, Gollan TH (2014). "Speech planning in two languages: what bilinguals tell us about language production". In Goldrick M, Ferreira VS, Miozzo M (eds.).

649:

It has been suggested that prolonged naturalistic exposure to L2 affects how L2 is processed, but it may also affect how the L1 is processed. For example, in

3142:

Stern Y, Gurland B, Tatemichi TK, Tang MX, Wilder D, Mayeux R (April 1994). "Influence of education and occupation on the incidence of Alzheimer's disease".

199: 52: 171: 3481: 2821: 2262: 816: 783: 1495:

Adesope OO, Lavin T, Thompson T, Ungerleider C (2010). "A systematic review and meta-analysis of the cognitive correlates of bilingualism".

3719:"Losing access to the native language while immersed in a second language: evidence for the role of inhibition in second-language learning" 2049: 1273: 656:

To test this hypothesis, Dussias & Sagarra (2007) investigated how individuals interpreted temporarily ambiguous phrases. For example,

514:

density, which is associated with memory and function losses. Conversely, the bilinguals' neural imaging showed more gray matter density.

178: 1026:"Is there a bilingual advantage on interference-control tasks? A multiverse meta-analysis of global reaction time and interference cost" 2960:

Bialystok E, Craik FI, Klein R, Viswanathan M (June 2004). "Bilingualism, aging, and cognitive control: evidence from the Simon task".

2551:

Hoshino N, Kroll JF (January 2008). "Cognate effects in picture naming: does cross-language activation survive a change of script?".

1991:"Bilingual advantages in executive functioning either do not exist or are restricted to very specific and undetermined circumstances" 236: 218: 116: 60: 185: 94:

the article is full of vague academic jargon and generally gives far too much weight to individual studies with small sample sizes.

1075:

Bilingualism and mental development: a study of the intelligence and the social background of bilingual children in New York city

350: 3811:

Flege J, Eefting W (1987). "Cross-language switching in stop consonant production and perception by Dutch speakers of English".

630: 412: 326: 167: 3594:

Durgunoglu A (1998). "Acquiring literacy in English and Spanish in the United States.". In Durgunoglu A, Verhoeven L (eds.).

3559:

Bialystok E, Shenfield T, Codd J (2000). "Languages, scripts, and the environment: Factors in developing concepts of print".

1378: 156: 149: 1595:

Bialystok E, Craik FI, Freedman M (January 2007). "Bilingualism as a protection against the onset of symptoms of dementia".

3850:"The production of "new" and "similar" phones in a foreign language: evidence for the effect of equivalence classification" 3331:

Rivera Mindt M, Arentoft A, Kubo Germano K, D'Aquila E, Scheiner D, Pizzirusso M, Sandoval TC, Gollan TH (September 2008).

1812: 3973: 2651:

De Groot AM, Christoffels IK (2006). "Language control in bilinguals: monolingual tasks and simultaneous interpreting".

304:

There is, however, strong disagreement over how findings on this subject should be interpreted. Systematic reviews and

3273: 1930: 395: 359: 2086:"Let's not forget about language proficiency and cultural variations while linking bilingualism to executive control" 1294:

Diaz, M. Rafael (1983). "Chapter 2: Thought and Two Languages: The Impact of Bilingualism on Cognitive Development".

1248: 1131:

Darcy NT (1953). "A review of the literature on the effects of bilingualism upon the measurement of intelligence".

945: 2686:

Bialystok E, Craik F, Luk G (July 2008). "Cognitive control and lexical access in younger and older bilinguals".

699: 89: 3099:(June 2003). "Education modifies the relation of AD pathology to level of cognitive function in older persons". 317:, or that the reporting of bilingualism effects on executive functioning give a distorted view of the evidence. 3978: 1402: 523:

age 4 or 5. Native bilingual children who develop proficiency in L1 and L2 at the same time, perform better on

192: 2157: 1958: 145: 3881:

Dussias PE, Sagarra N (2007). "The effect of exposure on syntactic parsing in Spanish–English bilinguals".

3890: 3775: 2969: 2695: 1604: 905: 771: 3983: 2066: 3766:

Malt BC, Sloman SA (2003). "Linguistic diversity and object naming by non-native speakers of English".

3524:

Bialystok E (1997). "Effects of bilingualism and biliteracy on children's emerging concepts of print".

3333:"Neuropsychological, cognitive, and theoretical considerations for evaluation of bilingual individuals" 2132: 1990: 1837: 964: 848: 2502:"Event-related brain potential investigation of preparation for speech production in late bilinguals" 1171:

Darcy NT (1963). "Bilingualism and the measurement of intelligence: Review of a decade of research".

389: 338: 330: 3895: 2974: 1609: 849:"Bilingualism and domain-general cognitive functions from a neural perspective: A systematic review" 17: 3008:(March 2002). "What is cognitive reserve? Theory and research application of the reserve concept". 2700: 376: 342: 309: 290: 263: 3780: 1838:"Is bilingualism associated with enhanced executive functioning in adults? A meta-analytic review" 965:"Is bilingualism associated with enhanced executive functioning in adults? A meta-analytic review" 3908: 3793: 3650: 3454: 3446: 3304: 3251: 3124: 3077: 3033: 2788: 2721: 2668: 2576: 2482: 2178: 2113: 2026: 1971: 1876: 1786: 1682: 1630: 1570: 1512: 1311: 1227: 1103: 1082: 1003: 884: 650: 634: 524: 294: 448:

The Stroop task, which shows color names in a different color, tests inhibition and distraction.

1535:"Positive Cognitive Effects of Bilingualism and Multilingualism on Cerebral Function: a Review" 3949: 3748: 3699: 3642: 3576: 3541: 3477: 3362: 3296: 3243: 3208: 3159: 3116: 3069: 3025: 2987: 2904: 2817: 2770: 2713: 2633: 2615: 2568: 2533: 2402: 2363: 2314: 2258: 2235: 2217: 2170: 2162: 2105: 2018: 2010: 1963: 1911: 1868: 1778: 1739: 1721: 1674: 1669: 1652: 1622: 1562: 1554: 1472: 1454: 1360: 1342: 1219: 1188: 1148: 1055: 1047: 995: 876: 868: 812: 779: 490: 437: 84: 3939: 3900: 3861: 3828: 3820: 3785: 3738: 3730: 3689: 3681: 3632: 3622: 3568: 3533: 3506: 3438: 3408: 3352: 3344: 3288: 3235: 3198: 3190: 3151: 3108: 3061: 3017: 2979: 2940: 2894: 2886: 2850: 2760: 2752: 2705: 2660: 2623: 2607: 2560: 2523: 2513: 2474: 2394: 2353: 2345: 2304: 2296: 2225: 2209: 2152: 2144: 2097: 2058: 2002: 1953: 1945: 1903: 1860: 1852: 1770: 1729: 1713: 1664: 1614: 1546: 1504: 1462: 1446: 1350: 1303: 1180: 1140: 1037: 987: 979: 860: 752: 314: 3292: 3272:

Abutalebi J, Guidi L, Borsa V, Canini M, Della Rosa PA, Parris BA, Weekes BS (March 2015).

2300: 1618: 1702:"The Source of Enhanced Cognitive Control in Bilinguals: Evidence From Bimodal Bilinguals" 743:

Bialystok E (1999). "Cognitive complexity and attentional control in the bilingual mind".

694: 278: 250: 3928:"Another word on parsing relative clauses: eyetracking evidence from Spanish and English" 3637: 3610: 3095:

Bennett DA, Wilson RS, Schneider JA, Evans DA, Mendes de Leon CF, Arnold SE, Barnes LL,

2596:"The neurocognitive basis of skilled reading in prelingually and profoundly deaf adults" 3743: 3718: 3694: 3669: 3412: 3357: 3332: 3203: 3178: 3112: 2899: 2874: 2765: 2740: 2628: 2595: 2528: 2501: 2358: 2333: 2309: 2284: 2230: 2197: 1734: 1701: 1467: 1434: 1355: 1330: 477: 469: 282: 274: 259: 3866: 3849: 3179:"Delaying the onset of Alzheimer disease: bilingualism as a form of cognitive reserve" 3065: 2334:"Understanding the Consequences of Bilingualism for Language Processing and Cognition" 3967: 3824: 3734: 3654: 3458: 3155: 3096: 2672: 2486: 2117: 1790: 1717: 1686: 1516: 1315: 888: 305: 3797: 3308: 3255: 3128: 2756: 2580: 2564: 2182: 2030: 1975: 1574: 864: 3912: 3081: 3037: 3005: 2725: 1880: 1634: 1184: 1144: 1007: 337:

study that emphasized the importance of controlling for factors like age, sex, and

254: 3609:

Bylund M, Antfolk J, Abrahamsson N, Haug Olstad AM, Norrman G, Lehtonen M (2022).

3497:

Bialystok E (1988). "Levels of bilingualism and levels of linguistic awareness".

3239: 3194: 2349: 2148: 2070: 2006: 1907: 1836:

Lehtonen M, Soveri A, Laine A, Järvenpää J, de Bruin A, Antfolk J (April 2018).

1208:"Thought and Two Languages: The Impact of Bilingualism on Cognitive Development" 963:

Lehtonen M, Soveri A, Laine A, Järvenpää J, de Bruin A, Antfolk J (April 2018).

511: 457: 134: 3627: 3537: 3510: 2983: 2890: 2709: 2213: 1758: 1700:

Emmorey, Karen; Luk, Gigi; Pyers, Jennie E.; Bialystok, Ellen (December 2008).

1534: 1435:"Bilingualism and the Development of Executive Function: The Role of Attention" 1042: 1025: 3904: 3789: 3685: 3572: 3348: 3021: 2664: 2478: 2398: 2101: 2062: 1774: 1550: 1307: 286: 2855: 2838: 2619: 2518: 2406: 2383:"Coactivation in bilingual grammars: A computational account of code mixing*" 2221: 2166: 2109: 2014: 1949: 1782: 1725: 1678: 1558: 1508: 1458: 1346: 1223: 1051: 929:

Cook V. (1997). "The consequences of bilingualism for cognitive processing".

872: 3611:"The inhibitory advantage in bilingual children revisited: myth or reality?" 3596:

Literacy Development in a Multilingual Context: A Cross-Cultural Perspective

756: 546: 270: 3953: 3752: 3703: 3646: 3580: 3366: 3300: 3247: 3212: 3120: 3073: 3029: 2991: 2908: 2774: 2717: 2637: 2572: 2537: 2367: 2318: 2239: 2174: 2022: 1967: 1915: 1872: 1743: 1626: 1566: 1476: 1364: 1192: 1152: 1059: 999: 880: 3545: 3429:

Ianco-Worrall, Anita D. (1972). "Bilingualism and Cognitive Development".

3163: 3474:

In other words: the science and psychology of second-language acquisition

3399:

Leopold, Werner F. (1953). "Patterning in Children's Language Learning".

3228:

Cortex; A Journal Devoted to the Study of the Nervous System and Behavior

562:

one task given in the study was to decide which of the two words, either

542: 436:

and share overlapping neural representations This activation is shown by

3670:"Receptive vocabulary differences in monolingual and bilingual children" 444: 3944: 3927: 3450: 2611: 1864: 1856: 1450: 1231: 1207: 991: 983: 3833: 2741:"Bilingualism influences inhibitory control in auditory comprehension" 1931:"Cognitive advantage in bilingualism: an example of publication bias?" 2945: 2928: 1024:

Donnelly, Seamus; Brooks, Patricia J.; Homer, Bruce D. (2019-02-27).

3442: 2839:"Do Bilinguals Have an Advantage in Theory of Mind? A Meta-Analysis" 3384: 2688:

Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition

2381:

Goldrick, Matthew; Putnam, Michael; Schwarz, Lara (November 2016).

847:

Tao, Lily; Wang, Gongting; Zhu, Miaomiao; Cai, Qing (2021-06-01).

443: 1989:

Paap, Kenneth R.; Johnson, Hunter A.; Sawi, Oliver (2015-08-01).

1533:

Quinteros Baumgart, Cibel; Billick, Stephen Bates (2017-09-11).

2047:

Valian, Virginia (January 2015). "Bilingualism and cognition".

770:

Abutalebi, J.; Perani, D. (2015-01-01), Toga, Arthur W. (ed.),

3274:"Bilingualism provides a neural reserve for aging populations" 2196:

Bialystok, Ellen; Craik, Fergus I.M.; Luk, Gigi (April 2012).

128: 67: 26: 3598:. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. pp. 135–146. 658:

Alguien disparó al hijo de la actriz que estaba en el balcón

3379:

Hakuta, Kenji. “An Interview with Werner F. Leopold.”

662:

Someone shot the son of the actress who was on the balcony.

1133:

The Pedagogical Seminary and Journal of Genetic Psychology

2789:"Bilingual preschoolers show stronger inhibitory control" 1281:

Georgetown University School on Languages and Linguistics

1759:"Mental control of the bilingual lexico-semantic system" 1104:"How Language Shapes Our Ability to Process Information" 931:

Tutorials in Bilingualism: Psycholinguistic Perspectives

3010:

Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society

2283:

Kroll JF, Dussias PE, Bice K, Perrotti L (2015-01-01).

1249:"Lenneberg: Explanation, Biography, Theory & Books" 2929:"Does Bilingualism Delay the Development of Dementia?" 3668:

Bialystok E, Luk G, Peets KF, Yang S (October 2010).

1929:

de Bruin A, Treccani B, Della Sala S (January 2015).

672:, monolingual Spanish speakers will typically answer 2922: 2920: 2918: 1813:"The Bitter Fight Over the Benefits of Bilingualism" 1407:

Center on the Developing Child at Harvard University

468:

Bilingual individuals have also shown advantages in

345:. In 1967, publication of Lenneberg's seminal book, 3177:Craik FI, Bialystok E, Freedman M (November 2010). 1590: 1588: 1586: 1584: 834:

Foundations of bilingual education and bilingualism

273:benefits. Research on how a bilingual individual's 325:According to the Singapore Management University ( 3717:Linck JA, Kroll JF, Sunderman G (December 2009). 2422:Models of bilingual representation and processing 2158:20.500.11820/712b94a1-2889-4f56-9c18-1decdc753cc7 1959:20.500.11820/1c7d702a-90a7-484d-9d2a-d5841d4a1f49 1077:. New York: Teachers college Columbia university. 2875:"Bilingualism: consequences for mind and brain" 2594:Emmorey, Karen; Lee, Brittany (February 2021). 2198:"Bilingualism: Consequences for Mind and Brain" 723: 721: 719: 717: 715: 269:Being bilingual has been linked to a number of 253:, means having proficiency in two languages. A 1329:Marian, Viorica; Shook, Anthony (2012-10-31). 3383:. Working Papers, 1989. Web. 30 March 2017. 2452:Bilingual word recognition and lexical access 778:, Waltham: Academic Press, pp. 469–473, 8: 2873:Bialystok E, Craik FI, Luk G (April 2012). 1490: 1488: 1486: 1331:"The Cognitive Benefits of Being Bilingual" 906:"The Cognitive Benefits of Being Bilingual" 645:Effects on L1 from prolonged exposure to L2 61:Learn how and when to remove these messages 3326: 3324: 3322: 3320: 3318: 2816:. Blackwell Publishing, LTD. p. 202. 2437:The Oxford Handbook of Language Production 2257:. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell. p. 7. 1403:"Executive Function & Self-Regulation" 1166: 1164: 1162: 1126: 1124: 1087:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 811:. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell. p. 7. 3943: 3926:Carreiras M, Clifton C (September 1999). 3894: 3865: 3832: 3779: 3742: 3693: 3636: 3626: 3356: 3202: 2973: 2944: 2898: 2854: 2764: 2739:Blumenfeld HK, Marian V (February 2011). 2699: 2627: 2527: 2517: 2357: 2308: 2229: 2156: 1957: 1733: 1670:10.1146/annurev-linguistics-011718-011820 1668: 1608: 1466: 1354: 1335:Cerebrum: The Dana Forum on Brain Science 1041: 237:Learn how and when to remove this message 219:Learn how and when to remove this message 117:Learn how and when to remove this message 3472:Hakuta, Kenji; Bialystok, Ellen (1994). 1646: 1644: 853:Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews 501:prevents one from having AD, but rather 3267: 3265: 2933:Journal of European Psychology Students 2868: 2866: 2278: 2276: 2274: 1653:"The Advantages of Bilingualism Debate" 1528: 1526: 1102:Chinnuswamy, Yamini (August 24, 2015). 711: 559:Bilingualism and Cognitive Development, 464:Abilities related to executive function 3424: 3422: 3394: 3392: 3293:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2015.01.040 2439:. Oxford Univ. Press. pp. 165–81. 2301:10.1146/annurev-linguist-030514-124937 1806: 1804: 1802: 1800: 1619:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2006.10.009 1428: 1426: 1424: 1422: 1243: 1241: 1080: 1019: 1017: 946:"Is Bilingualism Really an Advantage?" 155:Please improve this article by adding 2814:The Psycholinguistics of Bilingualism 2255:The Psycholinguistics of Bilingualism 2084:Mishra, Ramesh Kumar (January 2015). 2042: 2040: 809:The Psycholinguistics of Bilingualism 431:Parallel activation of both languages 7: 2653:Bilingualism: Language and Cognition 2387:Bilingualism: Language and Cognition 2332:Kroll JF, Bialystok E (2013-01-01). 2090:Bilingualism: Language and Cognition 2050:Bilingualism: Language and Cognition 1763:Bilingualism: Language and Cognition 900: 898: 802: 800: 18:Cognitive advantages of bilingualism 1274:"Bilingualism and Language Contact" 578:while the phonetic choice would be 168:"Cognitive effects of bilingualism" 3413:10.1111/j.1467-1770.1953.tb01398.x 3113:10.1212/01.wnl.0000069923.64550.9f 419:Bilingualism advantage controversy 406:Bilingualism vs. executive control 347:Biological Foundations of Language 25: 3615:Psychonomic Bulletin & Review 1379:"Bilinguals in the United States" 1173:The Journal of Genetic Psychology 1030:Psychonomic Bulletin & Review 42:This article has multiple issues. 3735:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2009.02480.x 3385:https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED328056 3156:10.1001/jama.1994.03510370056032 2600:Language and Linguistics Compass 2133:"Beyond a simple "yes" and "no"" 1718:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02224.x 602:Language structure and awareness 351:American Institutes for Research 133: 72: 31: 2757:10.1016/j.cognition.2010.10.012 2565:10.1016/j.cognition.2007.02.001 2500:Wu YJ, Thierry G (2011-01-01). 2338:Journal of Cognitive Psychology 2285:"Bilingualism, Mind, and Brain" 1757:GREEN, DAVID W. (August 1998). 1433:Bialystok, Ellen (2015-06-01). 1296:Review of Research in Education 1212:Review of Research in Education 944:Konnikova, Maria (2015-01-22). 865:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2021.02.029 631:Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test 574:. The semantic choice would be 557:Anita Ianco-Worrall, author of 545:) structure of words and their 50:or discuss these issues on the 1497:Review of Educational Research 1439:Child Development Perspectives 1185:10.1080/00221325.1963.10532521 1145:10.1080/08856559.1953.10533654 1: 3867:10.1016/S0095-4470(19)30537-6 3066:10.1016/S1474-4422(06)70417-3 2420:Kroll JF, Tokowicz N (2005). 2131:Bak, Thomas H. (2015-12-01). 570:was more similar to the word 157:secondary or tertiary sources 3825:10.1016/0167-6393(87)90025-2 3240:10.1016/j.cortex.2011.04.009 3195:10.1212/WNL.0b013e3181fc2a1c 2879:Trends in Cognitive Sciences 2350:10.1080/20445911.2013.799170 2289:Annual Review of Linguistics 2202:Trends in Cognitive Sciences 2149:10.1016/j.cortex.2015.08.003 2007:10.1016/j.cortex.2015.04.014 1657:Annual Review of Linguistics 732:. Erlbaum. pp. 320–344. 413:Raven's Progressive Matrices 666:¿Quien estaba en el balcón? 590:and if you did, would this 360:United States Census Bureau 92:. The specific problem is: 4000: 3628:10.3758/s13423-022-02136-7 3538:10.1037/0012-1649.33.3.429 3511:10.1037/0012-1649.24.4.560 2984:10.1037/0882-7974.19.2.290 2891:10.1016/j.tics.2012.03.001 2843:Frontiers in Communication 2710:10.1037/0278-7393.34.4.859 2214:10.1016/j.tics.2012.03.001 1043:10.3758/s13423-019-01567-z 730:Children's Language, vol.5 387: 249:Bilingualism, a subset of 3905:10.1017/s1366728906002847 3790:10.1017/s1366728903001020 3686:10.1017/s1366728909990423 3573:10.1037/0012-1649.36.1.66 3349:10.1007/s11065-008-9069-7 3022:10.1017/s1355617702813248 2837:Schroeder, Scott (2018). 2812:Grosjean F, Li P (2013). 2665:10.1017/s1366728906002537 2479:10.1017/s1366728906002483 2399:10.1017/S1366728915000802 2253:Grosjean F, Li P (2013). 2102:10.1017/S1366728914000455 2063:10.1017/S1366728914000522 1908:10.1027/1618-3169/a000243 1775:10.1017/s1366728998000133 1551:10.1007/s11126-017-9532-9 1308:10.3102/0091732X010001023 1272:Alatis, James E. (1970). 807:Grosjean F, Li P (2013). 700:Simultaneous bilingualism 664:When asked the question, 3561:Developmental Psychology 3526:Developmental Psychology 3499:Developmental Psychology 3476:. New York: BasicBooks. 3381:Bilingual Research Group 2856:10.3389/fcomm.2018.00036 2519:10.3389/fpsyg.2011.00114 1950:10.1177/0956797614557866 1509:10.3102/0034654310368803 1206:Diaz, Rafael M. (1983). 2506:Frontiers in Psychology 1896:Experimental Psychology 1811:Yong, Ed (2016-02-10). 1651:Antoniou, Mark (2019). 757:10.1111/1467-8624.00046 670:Who was on the balcony? 3932:Memory & Cognition 3337:Neuropsychology Review 1845:Psychological Bulletin 972:Psychological Bulletin 449: 144:relies excessively on 3723:Psychological Science 3054:The Lancet. Neurology 1938:Psychological Science 1706:Psychological Science 1539:Psychiatric Quarterly 484:Benefits in older age 447: 343:executive functioning 310:executive functioning 3974:Language acquisition 2962:Psychology and Aging 2927:Atkinson AL (2016). 2450:Dijkstra T. (2005). 1073:Arsenian S. (1902). 553:Semantic development 438:electrophysiological 390:Bimodal bilingualism 367:Cognitive advantages 331:socioeconomic status 99:improve this article 88:to meet Knowledge's 2454:. pp. 179–201. 264:bilingual education 3945:10.3758/bf03198535 3883:Biling. Lang. Cogn 3848:Flege JE. (1987). 3768:Biling. Lang. Cogn 2612:10.1111/lnc3.12407 2467:Biling. Lang. Cogn 2424:. pp. 531–53. 1857:10.1037/bul0000142 1451:10.1111/cdep.12116 984:10.1037/bul0000142 651:immersion contexts 635:Boston Naming task 525:executive function 518:Age of acquisition 450: 384:Bimodal bilinguals 377:Executive function 372:Executive function 295:inhibitory control 3483:978-0-465-07565-2 3431:Child Development 3401:Language Learning 2823:978-1-4443-3279-7 2264:978-1-4443-3279-7 1712:(12): 1201–1206. 818:978-1-4443-3279-7 785:978-0-12-397316-0 745:Child Development 491:cognitive reserve 247: 246: 239: 229: 228: 221: 203: 127: 126: 119: 90:quality standards 81:This article may 65: 16:(Redirected from 3991: 3958: 3957: 3947: 3923: 3917: 3916: 3898: 3878: 3872: 3871: 3869: 3845: 3839: 3838: 3836: 3808: 3802: 3801: 3783: 3763: 3757: 3756: 3746: 3714: 3708: 3707: 3697: 3665: 3659: 3658: 3640: 3630: 3606: 3600: 3599: 3591: 3585: 3584: 3556: 3550: 3549: 3521: 3515: 3514: 3494: 3488: 3487: 3469: 3463: 3462: 3437:(4): 1390–1400. 3426: 3417: 3416: 3396: 3387: 3377: 3371: 3370: 3360: 3328: 3313: 3312: 3281:Neuropsychologia 3278: 3269: 3260: 3259: 3223: 3217: 3216: 3206: 3174: 3168: 3167: 3139: 3133: 3132: 3092: 3086: 3085: 3048: 3042: 3041: 3002: 2996: 2995: 2977: 2957: 2951: 2950: 2948: 2946:10.5334/jeps.375 2924: 2913: 2912: 2902: 2870: 2861: 2860: 2858: 2834: 2828: 2827: 2809: 2803: 2802: 2800: 2799: 2785: 2779: 2778: 2768: 2736: 2730: 2729: 2703: 2683: 2677: 2676: 2648: 2642: 2641: 2631: 2591: 2585: 2584: 2548: 2542: 2541: 2531: 2521: 2497: 2491: 2490: 2462: 2456: 2455: 2447: 2441: 2440: 2432: 2426: 2425: 2417: 2411: 2410: 2378: 2372: 2371: 2361: 2329: 2323: 2322: 2312: 2280: 2269: 2268: 2250: 2244: 2243: 2233: 2193: 2187: 2186: 2160: 2128: 2122: 2121: 2081: 2075: 2074: 2044: 2035: 2034: 1986: 1980: 1979: 1961: 1935: 1926: 1920: 1919: 1891: 1885: 1884: 1842: 1833: 1827: 1826: 1824: 1823: 1808: 1795: 1794: 1754: 1748: 1747: 1737: 1697: 1691: 1690: 1672: 1648: 1639: 1638: 1612: 1597:Neuropsychologia 1592: 1579: 1578: 1530: 1521: 1520: 1492: 1481: 1480: 1470: 1430: 1417: 1416: 1414: 1413: 1399: 1393: 1392: 1390: 1389: 1383:Psychology Today 1375: 1369: 1368: 1358: 1326: 1320: 1319: 1302:: 10(1), 23–54. 1291: 1285: 1284: 1278: 1269: 1263: 1262: 1260: 1259: 1245: 1236: 1235: 1203: 1197: 1196: 1168: 1157: 1156: 1128: 1119: 1118: 1116: 1114: 1099: 1093: 1092: 1086: 1078: 1070: 1064: 1063: 1045: 1036:(4): 1122–1147. 1021: 1012: 1011: 969: 960: 954: 953: 941: 935: 934: 926: 920: 919: 917: 916: 902: 893: 892: 844: 838: 837: 832:Baker C (2006). 829: 823: 822: 804: 795: 794: 793: 792: 767: 761: 760: 740: 734: 733: 725: 315:publication bias 242: 235: 224: 217: 213: 210: 204: 202: 161: 137: 129: 122: 115: 111: 108: 102: 76: 75: 68: 57: 35: 34: 27: 21: 3999: 3998: 3994: 3993: 3992: 3990: 3989: 3988: 3979:Multilingualism 3964: 3963: 3962: 3961: 3925: 3924: 3920: 3896:10.1.1.568.4789 3880: 3879: 3875: 3847: 3846: 3842: 3810: 3809: 3805: 3765: 3764: 3760: 3729:(12): 1507–15. 3716: 3715: 3711: 3667: 3666: 3662: 3608: 3607: 3603: 3593: 3592: 3588: 3558: 3557: 3553: 3523: 3522: 3518: 3496: 3495: 3491: 3484: 3471: 3470: 3466: 3443:10.2307/1127524 3428: 3427: 3420: 3398: 3397: 3390: 3378: 3374: 3330: 3329: 3316: 3276: 3271: 3270: 3263: 3225: 3224: 3220: 3176: 3175: 3171: 3150:(13): 1004–10. 3141: 3140: 3136: 3107:(12): 1909–15. 3094: 3093: 3089: 3050: 3049: 3045: 3004: 3003: 2999: 2975:10.1.1.524.3897 2959: 2958: 2954: 2926: 2925: 2916: 2872: 2871: 2864: 2836: 2835: 2831: 2824: 2811: 2810: 2806: 2797: 2795: 2787: 2786: 2782: 2738: 2737: 2733: 2685: 2684: 2680: 2650: 2649: 2645: 2593: 2592: 2588: 2550: 2549: 2545: 2499: 2498: 2494: 2464: 2463: 2459: 2449: 2448: 2444: 2434: 2433: 2429: 2419: 2418: 2414: 2380: 2379: 2375: 2331: 2330: 2326: 2282: 2281: 2272: 2265: 2252: 2251: 2247: 2195: 2194: 2190: 2130: 2129: 2125: 2083: 2082: 2078: 2046: 2045: 2038: 1988: 1987: 1983: 1933: 1928: 1927: 1923: 1893: 1892: 1888: 1840: 1835: 1834: 1830: 1821: 1819: 1810: 1809: 1798: 1756: 1755: 1751: 1699: 1698: 1694: 1650: 1649: 1642: 1610:10.1.1.383.6808 1594: 1593: 1582: 1532: 1531: 1524: 1494: 1493: 1484: 1432: 1431: 1420: 1411: 1409: 1401: 1400: 1396: 1387: 1385: 1377: 1376: 1372: 1328: 1327: 1323: 1293: 1292: 1288: 1276: 1271: 1270: 1266: 1257: 1255: 1253:StudySmarter US 1247: 1246: 1239: 1205: 1204: 1200: 1170: 1169: 1160: 1130: 1129: 1122: 1112: 1110: 1101: 1100: 1096: 1079: 1072: 1071: 1067: 1023: 1022: 1015: 967: 962: 961: 957: 943: 942: 938: 928: 927: 923: 914: 912: 910:Dana Foundation 904: 903: 896: 846: 845: 841: 831: 830: 826: 819: 806: 805: 798: 790: 788: 786: 769: 768: 764: 742: 741: 737: 727: 726: 713: 708: 695:Multilingualism 691: 647: 626: 617: 615:Reading ability 608:In Other Words, 604: 555: 538: 533: 520: 486: 466: 433: 421: 408: 392: 386: 374: 369: 323: 279:second language 251:multilingualism 243: 232: 231: 230: 225: 214: 208: 205: 162: 160: 154: 150:primary sources 138: 123: 112: 106: 103: 96: 77: 73: 36: 32: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 3997: 3995: 3987: 3986: 3981: 3976: 3966: 3965: 3960: 3959: 3918: 3873: 3840: 3819:(3): 185–202. 3803: 3758: 3709: 3680:(4): 525–531. 3660: 3621:(3): 897–913. 3601: 3586: 3551: 3532:(3): 429–440. 3516: 3505:(4): 560–567. 3489: 3482: 3464: 3418: 3388: 3372: 3314: 3261: 3218: 3189:(19): 1726–9. 3169: 3134: 3087: 3043: 2997: 2968:(2): 290–303. 2952: 2914: 2862: 2829: 2822: 2804: 2780: 2731: 2701:10.1.1.553.501 2678: 2659:(2): 189–201. 2643: 2586: 2543: 2492: 2457: 2442: 2427: 2412: 2393:(5): 857–876. 2373: 2344:(5): 497–514. 2324: 2295:(1): 377–394. 2270: 2263: 2245: 2208:(4): 240–250. 2188: 2123: 2076: 2036: 1981: 1921: 1886: 1851:(4): 394–425. 1828: 1796: 1749: 1692: 1663:(1): 395–415. 1640: 1580: 1545:(2): 273–283. 1522: 1503:(2): 207–245. 1482: 1445:(2): 117–121. 1418: 1394: 1370: 1321: 1286: 1264: 1237: 1198: 1179:(2): 259–282. 1158: 1120: 1094: 1065: 1013: 978:(4): 394–425. 955: 950:The New Yorker 936: 921: 894: 839: 824: 817: 796: 784: 772:"Bilingualism" 762: 751:(3): 636–644. 735: 710: 709: 707: 704: 703: 702: 697: 690: 687: 646: 643: 625: 622: 616: 613: 606:In their book 603: 600: 554: 551: 537: 534: 532: 529: 519: 516: 485: 482: 478:theory of mind 470:metalinguistic 465: 462: 432: 429: 420: 417: 407: 404: 388:Main article: 385: 382: 373: 370: 368: 365: 322: 319: 283:working memory 275:first language 245: 244: 227: 226: 141: 139: 132: 125: 124: 80: 78: 71: 66: 40: 39: 37: 30: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 3996: 3985: 3982: 3980: 3977: 3975: 3972: 3971: 3969: 3955: 3951: 3946: 3941: 3938:(5): 826–33. 3937: 3933: 3929: 3922: 3919: 3914: 3910: 3906: 3902: 3897: 3892: 3888: 3884: 3877: 3874: 3868: 3863: 3859: 3855: 3851: 3844: 3841: 3835: 3830: 3826: 3822: 3818: 3814: 3813:Speech Commun 3807: 3804: 3799: 3795: 3791: 3787: 3782: 3781:10.1.1.11.582 3777: 3773: 3769: 3762: 3759: 3754: 3750: 3745: 3740: 3736: 3732: 3728: 3724: 3720: 3713: 3710: 3705: 3701: 3696: 3691: 3687: 3683: 3679: 3675: 3671: 3664: 3661: 3656: 3652: 3648: 3644: 3639: 3634: 3629: 3624: 3620: 3616: 3612: 3605: 3602: 3597: 3590: 3587: 3582: 3578: 3574: 3570: 3566: 3562: 3555: 3552: 3547: 3543: 3539: 3535: 3531: 3527: 3520: 3517: 3512: 3508: 3504: 3500: 3493: 3490: 3485: 3479: 3475: 3468: 3465: 3460: 3456: 3452: 3448: 3444: 3440: 3436: 3432: 3425: 3423: 3419: 3414: 3410: 3407:(1–2): 1–13. 3406: 3402: 3395: 3393: 3389: 3386: 3382: 3376: 3373: 3368: 3364: 3359: 3354: 3350: 3346: 3343:(3): 255–68. 3342: 3338: 3334: 3327: 3325: 3323: 3321: 3319: 3315: 3310: 3306: 3302: 3298: 3294: 3290: 3286: 3282: 3275: 3268: 3266: 3262: 3257: 3253: 3249: 3245: 3241: 3237: 3233: 3229: 3222: 3219: 3214: 3210: 3205: 3200: 3196: 3192: 3188: 3184: 3180: 3173: 3170: 3165: 3161: 3157: 3153: 3149: 3145: 3138: 3135: 3130: 3126: 3122: 3118: 3114: 3110: 3106: 3102: 3098: 3091: 3088: 3083: 3079: 3075: 3071: 3067: 3063: 3060:(5): 406–12. 3059: 3055: 3047: 3044: 3039: 3035: 3031: 3027: 3023: 3019: 3016:(3): 448–60. 3015: 3011: 3007: 3001: 2998: 2993: 2989: 2985: 2981: 2976: 2971: 2967: 2963: 2956: 2953: 2947: 2942: 2938: 2934: 2930: 2923: 2921: 2919: 2915: 2910: 2906: 2901: 2896: 2892: 2888: 2885:(4): 240–50. 2884: 2880: 2876: 2869: 2867: 2863: 2857: 2852: 2848: 2844: 2840: 2833: 2830: 2825: 2819: 2815: 2808: 2805: 2794: 2790: 2784: 2781: 2776: 2772: 2767: 2762: 2758: 2754: 2751:(2): 245–57. 2750: 2746: 2742: 2735: 2732: 2727: 2723: 2719: 2715: 2711: 2707: 2702: 2697: 2694:(4): 859–73. 2693: 2689: 2682: 2679: 2674: 2670: 2666: 2662: 2658: 2654: 2647: 2644: 2639: 2635: 2630: 2625: 2621: 2617: 2613: 2609: 2605: 2601: 2597: 2590: 2587: 2582: 2578: 2574: 2570: 2566: 2562: 2559:(1): 501–11. 2558: 2554: 2547: 2544: 2539: 2535: 2530: 2525: 2520: 2515: 2511: 2507: 2503: 2496: 2493: 2488: 2484: 2480: 2476: 2473:(2): 119–35. 2472: 2468: 2461: 2458: 2453: 2446: 2443: 2438: 2431: 2428: 2423: 2416: 2413: 2408: 2404: 2400: 2396: 2392: 2388: 2384: 2377: 2374: 2369: 2365: 2360: 2355: 2351: 2347: 2343: 2339: 2335: 2328: 2325: 2320: 2316: 2311: 2306: 2302: 2298: 2294: 2290: 2286: 2279: 2277: 2275: 2271: 2266: 2260: 2256: 2249: 2246: 2241: 2237: 2232: 2227: 2223: 2219: 2215: 2211: 2207: 2203: 2199: 2192: 2189: 2184: 2180: 2176: 2172: 2168: 2164: 2159: 2154: 2150: 2146: 2142: 2138: 2134: 2127: 2124: 2119: 2115: 2111: 2107: 2103: 2099: 2095: 2091: 2087: 2080: 2077: 2072: 2068: 2064: 2060: 2056: 2052: 2051: 2043: 2041: 2037: 2032: 2028: 2024: 2020: 2016: 2012: 2008: 2004: 2000: 1996: 1992: 1985: 1982: 1977: 1973: 1969: 1965: 1960: 1955: 1951: 1947: 1944:(1): 99–107. 1943: 1939: 1932: 1925: 1922: 1917: 1913: 1909: 1905: 1902:(3): 234–51. 1901: 1897: 1890: 1887: 1882: 1878: 1874: 1870: 1866: 1862: 1858: 1854: 1850: 1846: 1839: 1832: 1829: 1818: 1814: 1807: 1805: 1803: 1801: 1797: 1792: 1788: 1784: 1780: 1776: 1772: 1768: 1764: 1760: 1753: 1750: 1745: 1741: 1736: 1731: 1727: 1723: 1719: 1715: 1711: 1707: 1703: 1696: 1693: 1688: 1684: 1680: 1676: 1671: 1666: 1662: 1658: 1654: 1647: 1645: 1641: 1636: 1632: 1628: 1624: 1620: 1616: 1611: 1606: 1603:(2): 459–64. 1602: 1598: 1591: 1589: 1587: 1585: 1581: 1576: 1572: 1568: 1564: 1560: 1556: 1552: 1548: 1544: 1540: 1536: 1529: 1527: 1523: 1518: 1514: 1510: 1506: 1502: 1498: 1491: 1489: 1487: 1483: 1478: 1474: 1469: 1464: 1460: 1456: 1452: 1448: 1444: 1440: 1436: 1429: 1427: 1425: 1423: 1419: 1408: 1404: 1398: 1395: 1384: 1380: 1374: 1371: 1366: 1362: 1357: 1352: 1348: 1344: 1340: 1336: 1332: 1325: 1322: 1317: 1313: 1309: 1305: 1301: 1297: 1290: 1287: 1282: 1275: 1268: 1265: 1254: 1250: 1244: 1242: 1238: 1233: 1229: 1225: 1221: 1217: 1213: 1209: 1202: 1199: 1194: 1190: 1186: 1182: 1178: 1174: 1167: 1165: 1163: 1159: 1154: 1150: 1146: 1142: 1138: 1134: 1127: 1125: 1121: 1109: 1105: 1098: 1095: 1090: 1084: 1076: 1069: 1066: 1061: 1057: 1053: 1049: 1044: 1039: 1035: 1031: 1027: 1020: 1018: 1014: 1009: 1005: 1001: 997: 993: 989: 985: 981: 977: 973: 966: 959: 956: 951: 947: 940: 937: 932: 925: 922: 911: 907: 901: 899: 895: 890: 886: 882: 878: 874: 870: 866: 862: 858: 854: 850: 843: 840: 835: 828: 825: 820: 814: 810: 803: 801: 797: 787: 781: 777: 776:Brain Mapping 773: 766: 763: 758: 754: 750: 746: 739: 736: 731: 724: 722: 720: 718: 716: 712: 705: 701: 698: 696: 693: 692: 688: 686: 683: 679: 675: 671: 667: 663: 659: 654: 652: 644: 642: 638: 636: 632: 623: 621: 614: 612: 609: 601: 599: 595: 593: 589: 585: 581: 577: 573: 569: 565: 560: 552: 550: 548: 544: 535: 530: 528: 526: 517: 515: 513: 507: 504: 500: 494: 492: 483: 481: 479: 474: 471: 463: 461: 459: 454: 446: 442: 439: 430: 428: 424: 418: 416: 414: 405: 403: 399: 397: 391: 383: 381: 378: 371: 366: 364: 361: 355: 352: 348: 344: 340: 334: 332: 328: 320: 318: 316: 311: 307: 306:meta-analyses 302: 298: 296: 292: 288: 284: 280: 276: 272: 267: 265: 261: 256: 252: 241: 238: 223: 220: 212: 201: 198: 194: 191: 187: 184: 180: 177: 173: 170: – 169: 165: 164:Find sources: 158: 152: 151: 147: 142:This article 140: 136: 131: 130: 121: 118: 110: 107:November 2015 100: 95: 91: 87: 86: 79: 70: 69: 64: 62: 55: 54: 49: 48: 43: 38: 29: 28: 19: 3984:Bilingualism 3935: 3931: 3921: 3886: 3882: 3876: 3857: 3853: 3843: 3816: 3812: 3806: 3771: 3767: 3761: 3726: 3722: 3712: 3677: 3674:Bilingualism 3673: 3663: 3618: 3614: 3604: 3595: 3589: 3567:(1): 66–76. 3564: 3560: 3554: 3529: 3525: 3519: 3502: 3498: 3492: 3473: 3467: 3434: 3430: 3404: 3400: 3380: 3375: 3340: 3336: 3284: 3280: 3234:(8): 991–6. 3231: 3227: 3221: 3186: 3182: 3172: 3147: 3143: 3137: 3104: 3100: 3090: 3057: 3053: 3046: 3013: 3009: 3000: 2965: 2961: 2955: 2939:(1): 43–50. 2936: 2932: 2882: 2878: 2846: 2842: 2832: 2813: 2807: 2796:. Retrieved 2793:ScienceDaily 2792: 2783: 2748: 2744: 2734: 2691: 2687: 2681: 2656: 2652: 2646: 2603: 2599: 2589: 2556: 2552: 2546: 2509: 2505: 2495: 2470: 2466: 2460: 2451: 2445: 2436: 2430: 2421: 2415: 2390: 2386: 2376: 2341: 2337: 2327: 2292: 2288: 2254: 2248: 2205: 2201: 2191: 2140: 2136: 2126: 2096:(1): 39–40. 2093: 2089: 2079: 2054: 2048: 1998: 1994: 1984: 1941: 1937: 1924: 1899: 1895: 1889: 1848: 1844: 1831: 1820:. Retrieved 1817:The Atlantic 1816: 1769:(2): 67–81. 1766: 1762: 1752: 1709: 1705: 1695: 1660: 1656: 1600: 1596: 1542: 1538: 1500: 1496: 1442: 1438: 1410:. Retrieved 1406: 1397: 1386:. Retrieved 1382: 1373: 1338: 1334: 1324: 1299: 1295: 1289: 1280: 1267: 1256:. Retrieved 1252: 1215: 1211: 1201: 1176: 1172: 1139:(1): 21–57. 1136: 1132: 1113:November 10, 1111:. Retrieved 1108:ScienceDaily 1107: 1097: 1074: 1068: 1033: 1029: 975: 971: 958: 949: 939: 930: 924: 913:. Retrieved 909: 856: 852: 842: 833: 827: 808: 789:, retrieved 775: 765: 748: 744: 738: 729: 681: 677: 673: 669: 665: 661: 657: 655: 648: 639: 627: 618: 607: 605: 596: 591: 587: 583: 579: 575: 571: 567: 563: 558: 556: 539: 536:Language use 521: 508: 502: 498: 495: 487: 475: 467: 455: 451: 434: 425: 422: 409: 400: 393: 375: 356: 346: 335: 324: 303: 299: 268: 248: 233: 215: 206: 196: 189: 182: 175: 163: 143: 113: 104: 97:Please help 93: 82: 58: 51: 45: 44:Please help 41: 2143:: 332–333. 2057:(1): 3–24. 2001:: 265–278. 1865:10810/26594 992:10810/26594 859:: 264–295. 682:the actress 512:gray matter 458:Stroop task 291:attentional 260:monolingual 209:August 2019 101:if you can. 3968:Categories 3889:: 101–16. 3834:1874/16722 3287:: 201–10. 3097:Bienias JL 2798:2022-12-08 2071:1660012826 1822:2022-11-18 1412:2022-11-17 1388:2017-04-18 1258:2022-12-07 933:: 279–300. 915:2020-02-10 791:2022-11-08 706:References 624:Vocabulary 396:modalities 287:perception 179:newspapers 146:references 47:improve it 3891:CiteSeerX 3860:: 47–65. 3776:CiteSeerX 3774:: 47–67. 3655:253266784 3459:197650928 3183:Neurology 3101:Neurology 2970:CiteSeerX 2745:Cognition 2696:CiteSeerX 2673:143492902 2620:1749-818X 2553:Cognition 2487:144172420 2407:1366-7289 2222:1364-6613 2167:0010-9452 2118:231732692 2110:1366-7289 2015:0010-9452 1791:145078658 1783:1366-7289 1726:0956-7976 1687:149812523 1679:2333-9683 1605:CiteSeerX 1559:0033-2720 1517:145374467 1459:1750-8592 1347:1524-6205 1316:143909423 1224:0091-732X 1218:: 23–54. 1083:cite book 1052:1531-5320 889:231991872 873:0149-7634 547:semantics 476:Improved 277:(L1) and 271:cognitive 255:bilingual 53:talk page 3954:10540811 3798:15247230 3753:19906121 3704:25750580 3647:36327027 3638:10264296 3581:10645745 3367:18841477 3309:13590200 3301:25637228 3256:14647381 3248:21596373 3213:21060095 3129:23266270 3121:12821732 3074:16632311 3030:11939702 2992:15222822 2909:22464592 2775:21159332 2718:18605874 2638:34306178 2581:46585943 2573:17367774 2538:21687468 2368:24223260 2319:28642932 2240:22464592 2183:33798340 2175:26537795 2067:ProQuest 2031:25008687 2023:26048659 1976:13721983 1968:25475825 1916:24217139 1873:29494195 1744:19121123 1627:17125807 1575:22546645 1567:28895004 1477:26019718 1365:23447799 1193:14085429 1153:13035073 1060:30815795 1000:29494195 881:33631315 689:See also 543:phonetic 531:Language 499:directly 83:require 3913:6523840 3854:J. Phon 3744:2858781 3695:4349351 3546:9149922 3451:1127524 3358:2652412 3204:3033609 3164:8139057 3082:2847280 3038:9902333 3006:Stern Y 2900:3322418 2766:3582323 2726:1221328 2629:8302003 2529:3108551 2512:: 114. 2359:3820916 2310:5478196 2231:3322418 1881:4444068 1735:2677184 1635:1989796 1468:4442091 1356:3583091 1232:1167134 1008:4444068 678:the son 674:el hijo 503:enables 321:History 193:scholar 85:cleanup 3952: 3911: 3893: 3796: 3778: 3751: 3741: 3702: 3692: 3653: 3645: 3635: 3579: 3544: 3480: 3457: 3449: 3365: 3355: 3307: 3299: 3254: 3246: 3211: 3201: 3162: 3127: 3119: 3080: 3072: 3036: 3028: 2990: 2972: 2907: 2897: 2820: 2773: 2763: 2724: 2716: 2698: 2671: 2636: 2626: 2618: 2579: 2571: 2536: 2526: 2485: 2405: 2366: 2356: 2317: 2307: 2261: 2238: 2228: 2220: 2181: 2173: 2165: 2137:Cortex 2116: 2108: 2069: 2029: 2021: 2013: 1995:Cortex 1974: 1966: 1914: 1879: 1871: 1789: 1781: 1742: 1732: 1724: 1685: 1677: 1633: 1625: 1607: 1573: 1565: 1557: 1515: 1475: 1465: 1457: 1363: 1353: 1345: 1341:: 13. 1314: 1230: 1222: 1191: 1151: 1058: 1050: 1006: 998: 887: 879: 871: 815: 782: 594:bark? 289:, and 195: 188: 181: 174: 166: 3909:S2CID 3794:S2CID 3651:S2CID 3455:S2CID 3447:JSTOR 3305:S2CID 3277:(PDF) 3252:S2CID 3125:S2CID 3078:S2CID 3034:S2CID 2722:S2CID 2669:S2CID 2606:(2). 2577:S2CID 2483:S2CID 2179:S2CID 2114:S2CID 2027:S2CID 1972:S2CID 1934:(PDF) 1877:S2CID 1841:(PDF) 1787:S2CID 1683:S2CID 1631:S2CID 1571:S2CID 1513:S2CID 1312:S2CID 1283:: 82. 1277:(PDF) 1228:JSTOR 1004:S2CID 968:(PDF) 885:S2CID 200:JSTOR 186:books 3950:PMID 3749:PMID 3700:PMID 3643:PMID 3577:PMID 3542:PMID 3478:ISBN 3363:PMID 3297:PMID 3244:PMID 3209:PMID 3160:PMID 3144:JAMA 3117:PMID 3070:PMID 3026:PMID 2988:PMID 2905:PMID 2818:ISBN 2771:PMID 2714:PMID 2634:PMID 2616:ISSN 2569:PMID 2534:PMID 2403:ISSN 2364:PMID 2315:PMID 2259:ISBN 2236:PMID 2218:ISSN 2171:PMID 2163:ISSN 2106:ISSN 2019:PMID 2011:ISSN 1964:PMID 1912:PMID 1869:PMID 1779:ISSN 1740:PMID 1722:ISSN 1675:ISSN 1623:PMID 1563:PMID 1555:ISSN 1473:PMID 1455:ISSN 1361:PMID 1343:ISSN 1339:2012 1220:ISSN 1189:PMID 1149:PMID 1115:2018 1089:link 1056:PMID 1048:ISSN 996:PMID 877:PMID 869:ISSN 813:ISBN 780:ISBN 633:and 568:hat, 293:and 172:news 3940:doi 3901:doi 3862:doi 3829:hdl 3821:doi 3786:doi 3739:PMC 3731:doi 3690:PMC 3682:doi 3633:PMC 3623:doi 3569:doi 3534:doi 3507:doi 3439:doi 3409:doi 3353:PMC 3345:doi 3289:doi 3236:doi 3199:PMC 3191:doi 3152:doi 3148:271 3109:doi 3062:doi 3018:doi 2980:doi 2941:doi 2895:PMC 2887:doi 2851:doi 2761:PMC 2753:doi 2749:118 2706:doi 2661:doi 2624:PMC 2608:doi 2561:doi 2557:106 2524:PMC 2514:doi 2475:doi 2395:doi 2354:PMC 2346:doi 2305:PMC 2297:doi 2226:PMC 2210:doi 2153:hdl 2145:doi 2098:doi 2059:doi 2003:doi 1954:hdl 1946:doi 1904:doi 1861:hdl 1853:doi 1849:144 1771:doi 1730:PMC 1714:doi 1665:doi 1615:doi 1547:doi 1505:doi 1463:PMC 1447:doi 1351:PMC 1304:doi 1181:doi 1177:103 1141:doi 1038:doi 988:hdl 980:doi 976:144 861:doi 857:125 753:doi 592:dog 588:dog 584:cow 580:can 576:hat 572:cap 566:or 564:can 339:SES 327:SMU 308:of 262:or 148:to 3970:: 3948:. 3936:27 3934:. 3930:. 3907:. 3899:. 3887:10 3885:. 3858:15 3856:. 3852:. 3827:. 3815:. 3792:. 3784:. 3770:. 3747:. 3737:. 3727:20 3725:. 3721:. 3698:. 3688:. 3678:13 3676:. 3672:. 3649:. 3641:. 3631:. 3619:30 3617:. 3613:. 3575:. 3565:36 3563:. 3540:. 3530:33 3528:. 3503:24 3501:. 3453:. 3445:. 3435:43 3433:. 3421:^ 3403:. 3391:^ 3361:. 3351:. 3341:18 3339:. 3335:. 3317:^ 3303:. 3295:. 3285:69 3283:. 3279:. 3264:^ 3250:. 3242:. 3232:48 3230:. 3207:. 3197:. 3187:75 3185:. 3181:. 3158:. 3146:. 3123:. 3115:. 3105:60 3103:. 3076:. 3068:. 3056:. 3032:. 3024:. 3012:. 2986:. 2978:. 2966:19 2964:. 2935:. 2931:. 2917:^ 2903:. 2893:. 2883:16 2881:. 2877:. 2865:^ 2849:. 2845:. 2841:. 2791:. 2769:. 2759:. 2747:. 2743:. 2720:. 2712:. 2704:. 2692:34 2690:. 2667:. 2655:. 2632:. 2622:. 2614:. 2604:15 2602:. 2598:. 2575:. 2567:. 2555:. 2532:. 2522:. 2508:. 2504:. 2481:. 2469:. 2401:. 2391:19 2389:. 2385:. 2362:. 2352:. 2342:25 2340:. 2336:. 2313:. 2303:. 2291:. 2287:. 2273:^ 2234:. 2224:. 2216:. 2206:16 2204:. 2200:. 2177:. 2169:. 2161:. 2151:. 2141:73 2139:. 2135:. 2112:. 2104:. 2094:18 2092:. 2088:. 2065:. 2055:18 2053:. 2039:^ 2025:. 2017:. 2009:. 1999:69 1997:. 1993:. 1970:. 1962:. 1952:. 1942:26 1940:. 1936:. 1910:. 1900:61 1898:. 1875:. 1867:. 1859:. 1847:. 1843:. 1815:. 1799:^ 1785:. 1777:. 1765:. 1761:. 1738:. 1728:. 1720:. 1710:19 1708:. 1704:. 1681:. 1673:. 1659:. 1655:. 1643:^ 1629:. 1621:. 1613:. 1601:45 1599:. 1583:^ 1569:. 1561:. 1553:. 1543:89 1541:. 1537:. 1525:^ 1511:. 1501:80 1499:. 1485:^ 1471:. 1461:. 1453:. 1441:. 1437:. 1421:^ 1405:. 1381:. 1359:. 1349:. 1337:. 1333:. 1310:. 1300:10 1298:. 1279:. 1251:. 1240:^ 1226:. 1216:10 1214:. 1210:. 1187:. 1175:. 1161:^ 1147:. 1137:82 1135:. 1123:^ 1106:. 1085:}} 1081:{{ 1054:. 1046:. 1034:26 1032:. 1028:. 1016:^ 1002:. 994:. 986:. 974:. 970:. 948:. 908:. 897:^ 883:. 875:. 867:. 855:. 851:. 799:^ 774:, 749:70 747:. 714:^ 676:= 668:= 660:= 586:a 285:, 159:. 56:. 3956:. 3942:: 3915:. 3903:: 3870:. 3864:: 3837:. 3831:: 3823:: 3817:6 3800:. 3788:: 3772:6 3755:. 3733:: 3706:. 3684:: 3657:. 3625:: 3583:. 3571:: 3548:. 3536:: 3513:. 3509:: 3486:. 3461:. 3441:: 3415:. 3411:: 3405:5 3369:. 3347:: 3311:. 3291:: 3258:. 3238:: 3215:. 3193:: 3166:. 3154:: 3131:. 3111:: 3084:. 3064:: 3058:5 3040:. 3020:: 3014:8 2994:. 2982:: 2949:. 2943:: 2937:7 2911:. 2889:: 2859:. 2853:: 2847:3 2826:. 2801:. 2777:. 2755:: 2728:. 2708:: 2675:. 2663:: 2657:9 2640:. 2610:: 2583:. 2563:: 2540:. 2516:: 2510:2 2489:. 2477:: 2471:9 2409:. 2397:: 2370:. 2348:: 2321:. 2299:: 2293:1 2267:. 2242:. 2212:: 2185:. 2155:: 2147:: 2120:. 2100:: 2073:. 2061:: 2033:. 2005:: 1978:. 1956:: 1948:: 1918:. 1906:: 1883:. 1863:: 1855:: 1825:. 1793:. 1773:: 1767:1 1746:. 1716:: 1689:. 1667:: 1661:5 1637:. 1617:: 1577:. 1549:: 1519:. 1507:: 1479:. 1449:: 1443:9 1415:. 1391:. 1367:. 1318:. 1306:: 1261:. 1234:. 1195:. 1183:: 1155:. 1143:: 1117:. 1091:) 1062:. 1040:: 1010:. 990:: 982:: 952:. 918:. 891:. 863:: 836:. 821:. 759:. 755:: 541:( 240:) 234:( 222:) 216:( 211:) 207:( 197:· 190:· 183:· 176:· 153:. 120:) 114:( 109:) 105:( 63:) 59:( 20:)

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.

Index