915:(without the need of a new coronation, as he had already had an imperial coronation) on 11 August 1804, in addition to already being the Holy Roman Emperor. Cobenzl advised that a separate hereditary Austrian title would also allow the Habsburg to maintain parity with other rulers (since the Holy Roman title was viewed by Cobenzl as merely honorific) and ensure elections to the position of Holy Roman Emperor in the future. A myriad of reasons were used to justify the Austrian Empire's creation, including the number of subjects under the Habsburg Monarchy, the vast extent of his crown lands and the long association between the Habsburg family and the elective Holy Roman imperial title. Another important point used to justify its creation was that Francis was, in the traditional sense, the supreme Christian monarch and he was thus entitled to award himself with any dignities he wished. The title "Emperor of Austria" was meant to associate with all of Francis II's personal domains (not just Austria, but also lands such as
564:, causing the consolidation of many previously separate imperial vassals and fiefs into the hands of a few rulers. The traditional political hierarchy of the empire was disrupted, but it was not obvious to contemporaries that this was to lead to the empire's downfall, the general view was that it represented a new beginning rather than the last few steps towards an ending. Furthermore, many publicists within the empire did not see its nature as an "irregular" monarchy as something negative and were unconcerned with forming a new political or social order, but rather sought to augment the already present structures to create a better future. The Peace of Westphalia had explicitly designated that the empire was to remain non-aligned and passive and that it was to work to maintain peace in Europe, an arrangement approved of by most of its inhabitants.
968:
1178:
actually aspired to become Holy Roman
Emperor, it is possible that he entertained the idea, especially after he had formed the Confederation of the Rhine and beaten back Austria in early 1806. Perhaps Napoleon did not think that the title could be combined with "Emperor of the French" (even though Francis II was emperor of both the Holy Roman Empire and Austria) and because of this he might have abandoned any potential Roman aspirations since he did not wish to relinquish his other imperial title. The ephemeral Roman aspirations can also be gathered from Napoleon's correspondence with the papacy; in early 1806, he warned Pope Pius VII that "Your Holiness is sovereign in Rome but I am its Emperor".
78:
800:
1243:
of the
Confederation of the Rhine were outraged; the Bavarian emissary to the Imperial diet, Rechberg, stated that he was "furious" due to having "put his signature to the destruction of the German name", referring to his state's involvement in the confederation, which had effectively doomed the empire. From a legal standpoint, Francis II's abdication was controversial. Contemporary legal commentators agreed that the abdication itself was perfectly legal but that the emperor did not have the authority to dissolve the empire. As such, several of the empire's vassals refused to recognize that the empire had ended. As late as October 1806, farmers in
1193:, the capital of the Habsburg monarchy), where he delivered Francis II's official proclamation from a balcony overlooking a large square. Written copies of the proclamation were dispatched to the diplomats of the Habsburg monarchy on 11 August alongside a note which informed former princes of the empire that Austria would compensate those who had been paid from the Imperial treasury. The abdication did not acknowledge the French ultimatum, but stressed that the interpretation of the Peace of Pressburg by the imperial estates made it impossible for Francis to fulfill the obligations he had undertaken in his
1220:
1108:
1414:(which decided Europe's borders in the aftermath of Napoleon's defeat). However, Emperor Francis had come to the conclusion before the congress that the Holy Roman Empire's political structure would not have been superior to the new order in Europe and that restoring it was not in the interest of the Habsburg monarchy. In an official capacity, the papacy considered the fact that the Holy Roman Empire was not restored at the Congress of Vienna (alongside other decisions made during the negotiations) to be "detrimental to the interests of the Catholic religion and the rights of the church".
283:, were horrified at the loss of the empire. Many of Francis II's former subjects questioned the legality of his actions; though his abdication was agreed to be perfectly legal, the dissolution of the empire and the release of all its vassals were seen as beyond the emperor's authority. As such, many of the empire's princes and subjects refused to accept that the empire was gone, with some commoners going so far as to believe that news of its dissolution was a plot by their local authorities. In Germany, the dissolution was widely compared to the ancient and semi-legendary
1256:, a nation state, 65 years later. German historian Helmut Rössler has argued that Francis II and the Austrians fought to save the largely ungrateful Germany from the forces of Napoleon, only withdrawing and abandoning the empire when most of Germany betrayed them and joined Napoleon. Indeed, the assumption of a separate Austrian imperial title in 1804 did not mean that Francis II had any intentions to abdicate his prestigious position as the Roman emperor, the idea only began to be considered as circumstances beyond Habsburg control forced decisive actions to be taken.
544:
all contributed to the idea that there was no unified German state. In the view of its contemporaries, the empire had regressed from a "regular" monarchy into a highly irregular one. The empire was mostly preserved through a self-balancing system involving not just the
Imperial vassals themselves, but also states throughout Europe. Already in the 18th century, rulers throughout the continent had mused that a unitary German state could become the greatest power in Europe and it was in the interests of virtually everyone to keep central Europe "soft".
1508:
1803 and 1804, French representatives suggested that
Prussia might convert its northern German territories into an empire, but the Hohenzollerns were not interested in going through with such a plan. Though the Prussian rulers and their officials expressed sorrow at the collapsing state of the Holy Roman Empire from 1792 onwards, they were also critical of nostalgia for Germany's history under imperial rule. The Prussians viewed the survival chances of the Holy Roman Empire as very low and saw the French as the true successors of the ancient
715:), taking its resources and powerful army with it. Despite the empire's mounting difficulties in the face of the wars with France, there was no large-scale popular unrest within its borders. Instead, the explanation for the end of the Holy Roman Empire lies in the realm of high politics. The empire's defeat in the Revolutionary Wars was the most decisive step in the gradual undermining of the empire. The conflict between France and the Holy Roman Empire had begun with the French declaring war on the newly crowned Emperor
510:
893:
1130:
319:
40:
1528:
were made to create an "imperial union" in northern
Germany, with an emperor of the Hohenzollern dynasty, these plans were dropped in September 1806 after they found little support, and Emperor Alexander I of Russia objected to them. Because the Hohenzollerns lacked imperial ancestry they did not see themselves as an imperial dynasty and, even after Napoleon's ultimate defeats in 1813 and 1815, their position changed little. Although Germany was united into the
959:, demanded a formal debate in the Reichstag, a threat that was neutralized by the other parties of the Reichstag agreeing to an extended summer recess until November. To defend the title, Imperial representatives argued that it did not infringe on the Imperial constitution as there were already other examples of dual monarchies within the empire: states such as Prussia and Sweden were not part of the empire, but their possessions within the empire were.
1306:
687:
1451:
1170:
might yet be averted. The general opinion among the
Austrian government was however that abdication was inevitable and that it should be combined with a dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire through relieving the vassals of the emperor of their duties and obligations. A formal dissolution of the empire was perceived as necessary, as it would prevent Napoleon from acquiring the imperial title. During an interregnum, the two
1470:, the Habsburg dynasty continued to act as a substitute for nationality, though the Austrian imperial title was not (unlike for instance the French or Russian imperial titles) associated with any nationality in particular. Though the German vassals of the Holy Roman Empire had been released from their obligations, Francis II and his successors continued to rule a large German-speaking population and the Holy Roman
1099:. On 1 August, the Reichstag was informed by a French envoy that Napoleon no longer recognized the existence of the Holy Roman Empire and on the same day, nine of the princes who had formed the Confederation of the Rhine issued a proclamation in which they justified their actions by claiming that the Holy Roman Empire had already collapsed and ceased to function due to the defeat in the Battle of Austerlitz.
1574:, with Burkhardt writing that "I can state unequivocally that the Old Reich was the true predecessor of the Federal Republic of Germany" and Stone writing, in regards to the modern republic's foundation, that "This time it a Germany minus Prussia and Austria. It was a return to the old Holy Roman Empire, to a Germany where true civilisation existed on a very local level, that of the prince-bishopric".
1516:
739:, remained formal parts of the Holy Roman Empire and the Prussians continued to be represented in the Reichstag, Prussia ceased to compete for influence in imperial affairs. Austria stood alone as the protector of the states in southern Germany, many of which began considering making their own separate peace with France. When the Austrians learnt that
931:
traditional and established world order. The imperial titles of
Austria and France were seen as more or less royal titles (as they were hereditary) and in the minds of the Austrians, there still remained only one true empire and one true emperor in Europe. To illustrate this, Francis II's official imperial title read "elected Roman Emperor, ever
272:, effectively meant the end of the Holy Roman Empire. The abdication in August 1806, combined with a dissolution of the entire Imperial hierarchy and its institutions, was seen as necessary to prevent the possibility of Napoleon proclaiming himself Holy Roman Emperor, something which would have reduced Francis II to Napoleon's vassal.
1536:, the proclamation of the new empire was ideologically problematic and the Hohenzollerns found themselves mostly ill-at-ease with its implications. Attempts were made to associate the German Empire with the institutions of the Holy Roman Empire, but its emperors continued to enumerate themselves after the Kings of Prussia; Emperor
1527:
The reluctance of the
Hohenzollerns to assume an imperial title shifted in 1806 as they feared that, with the formation of the Confederation of the Rhine and the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire, Napoleon might aspire to claim the hypothetical position of "Emperor of Germany". Though preparations
1242:
The Holy Roman Empire, an institution which had lasted for just over a thousand years, did not pass unnoticed or unlamented. The dissolution of the empire sent shockwaves through
Germany, with most of the reactions within the former imperial boundaries being rage, grief or shame. Even the signatories
1181:
More crucially than fearing
Napoleon potentially usurping the title, the abdication was also intended to buy time for Austria to recover from its losses as it was assumed that France would meet it with some concessions. Although the Roman title and the tradition of a universal Christian monarchy were
747:
had opened formal negotiations with France, the armies sent by these two states were disbanded and disarmed in 1796, causing resentment against the emperor and, combined with losses to France, suggesting that the Habsburg emperor was no longer capable of protecting his traditional vassals in Germany.
547:
Although some German romantics and nationalists argued that the empire had to die for Germany to be reborn, a large number of Imperial subjects had not given up hope that the "sick" empire might be cured and revived. The first few years of the 19th century saw extensive reorganizations and changes in
228:
The Holy Roman Empire by the time of the 18th century was widely regarded by contemporaries, both inside and outside the empire, as a highly "irregular" monarchy and "sick", having an "unusual" form of government. The empire lacked both a central standing army and a central treasury and its monarchs,
1397:
In the aftermath of Napoleon's defeats in 1814 and 1815, there was a widespread sentiment in Germany and elsewhere which called for the revival of the Holy Roman Empire under the leadership of Francis I of Austria. At the time, there were several factors which prevented the restoration of the empire
1321:
In an official capacity, Prussia's response was only formulaic expressions of regret owing to the "termination of an honourable bond hallowed by time". Prussia's representative to the Reichstag, Baron Görtz, reacted with sadness, mixed with gratitude and affection for the House of Habsburg and their
1169:
was sent on a mission to Paris to discern Napoleon's intentions. On 22 July, Napoleon made them clear in an ultimatum demanding that Francis abdicate by 10 August. Still, as late as 2 August, Joseph Haas, the head of the principal commission's secretariat, hoped that the end of the Holy Roman Empire
1140:
In the face of Napoleon's assumption of the title "Emperor of the French" in 1804 and the Austrian defeat at the Battle of Austerlitz in 1805, the Habsburg monarchy began contemplating whether the imperial title and the empire as a whole were worth defending. Many of the states nominally serving the
1073:
Throughout the first half of 1806, Bavaria, Baden and Württemberg attempted to steer an independent course between the demands of the empire and Napoleon. In April 1806, Napoleon sought a treaty whereby the three states would ally themselves to France in perpetuity while forswearing participation in
862:
Napoleon's coronation received a mixed reaction in the Holy Roman Empire. Although a return to monarchy in France was welcomed (though unfortunate in so far that the monarch was Napoleon), the imperial title (instead of a royal one) was not. In the empire, Napoleon's title raised fears that it might
543:
famously described the empire as having an "unusual form of government" and derided it as a "monstrosity", lacking what was required for an effective and functional state. The lack of a standing army, a central treasury, weak central control exercised by a monarch who was elective and not hereditary
1577:
Despite the Holy Roman Empire ultimately failing to prevent war with France, the late empire's nominal role in working for peace and forming a loose sort of hegemony and partnership offered an alternative to both the universal absolute monarchy of Napoleon's French Empire and the universal republic
1507:
of Prussia was a rumored candidate to the position of Holy Roman Emperor in 1740. Frederick II, and other Prussian kings, dismissed these ideas while they remained under Imperial rule, arguing that additional territory and power would be more beneficial than the Imperial title. In 1795 and again in
1478:
at the Hofburg in Vienna). The dynasty retained its prominent status among the royal families of Europe and were in the eyes of many of their subjects still the only true imperial family. Although the new Austrian Empire lacked many of the key elements of the Holy Roman Empire, it remained close in
1276:
in 27 BC. Writing of the empire, Bryce stated that "nothing else so directly linked the old world to the new—nothing else displayed so many strange contrasts of the present and the past, and summed up in those contrasts so much of European history". When confronted by the fall and collapse of their
1054:
Contemporaries saw the defeat at Austerlitz as a turning point of world-historical significance. The Peace of Pressburg, too, was perceived as radical shift. It did not affirm previous treaties in the usual way and its wording seemed to raise Bavaria, Baden and Württemberg into equals of the empire
938:
Though Napoleon was reluctant to tie his own imperial title to any concessions, he needed recognition from Austria to secure wider recognition and thus agreed to recognize Francis II's new title. Prior to his own coronation, he sent a personal letter of congratulations to Francis. George III of the
878:
Though Napoleon's imperial title was viewed with distaste, Austrian officials immediately realized that if they were to refuse to accept him as an emperor, war with France would be renewed. Instead, the focus became on how to accept Napoleon as an emperor while still maintaining the pre-eminence of
659:
from the 1790s onwards. In the 18th century, imperial institutions were experiencing something akin to a renaissance. The empire represented the safest and best guarantee for the rights of smaller states and territories in a time when Europe was beginning to be dominated by powerful imperial nation
465:
in the 16th and 17th centuries, which meant the rise of the idea that jurisdiction was the same thing as direct control of territory. To the rulers of territorial states, both the papacy and the Holy Roman Empire represented "universal antagonists", claiming that jurisdiction over all the world was
1370:
The dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire was constituted by Francis II's own personal abdication of the title and the release of all vassals and imperial states from their obligations and duties to the emperor. The title of Holy Roman Emperor (theoretically the same title as Roman emperor) and the
1296:
Criticism and protests against the empire's dissolution were typically censored, especially in the French-administered Confederation of the Rhine. Among the aspects most criticized by the general populace was the removal or replacement of the traditional intercessions for the empire and emperor in
883:
as a distinct state in 1757, 1797 and 1801 and in the same settlements accepted that the Holy Roman Empire outranked both Austria and France. Thus, it was decided that Austria would be raised to the rank of an empire in order to maintain the parity between Austria and France while still preserving
790:
became the fourth, fifth and sixth Protestant electors, giving the Protestants a majority for the first time in history and raising doubts whether Emperor Francis II would be able to work together with his Reichstag. Although the Austrian regime spent much time and resources attempting to make the
1263:
lamented that Germany had now fallen into an "apocalyptic time" and stating "Who can bear this disgrace, which weighs down upon a nation which was once so glorious?—may God improve things, if it is still possible to improve them!". To some, the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire was seen as the
1251:
In contrast to the fears of the general public, many contemporary intellectuals and artists saw Napoleon as a herald of a new age, rather than a destroyer of an old order. The popular idea forwarded by German nationalists was that the final collapse of the Holy Roman Empire freed Germany from the
436:
control over particular territories. Conjointly with the papacy, the Holy Roman Empire represented the recognized centre of the Christian world, and one of the pillars upon which it rested. It was always its influence and its place in the recognized world order that gave the Holy Roman Empire its
382:
Throughout its long existence, the Holy Roman Empire was a central element in international relations in Europe, not only because the empire itself was often one of the most powerful on the continent but also because of the emperor himself. Because the Holy Roman Emperors were the internationally
1330:
as Holy Roman Emperor, and exclaimed that "So the emperor whom I helped elect was the last emperor!—This step was no doubt to be expected, but that does not make its reality any less moving and crushing. It cuts off the last thread of hope to which one tried to cling". Baron von Wiessenberg, the
1247:
refused to accept the end of the empire, believing its dissolution to be a plot by the local authorities. For many of the people within the former empire, its collapse made them uncertain and fearful of their future, and the future of Germany itself. Contemporary reports from Vienna describe the
930:
The title of Holy Roman Emperor remained pre-eminent to both "Emperor of the French" and "Emperor of Austria" as it embodied the traditional ideal of the universal Christian empire. Neither the Austrian nor the French title made claims to govern this universal empire and thus did not disturb the
1441:
as their emperor. Frederick William IV himself did not approve of the idea, instead favoring a restoration of the Holy Roman Empire under the Habsburgs of Austria, though neither the Habsburgs themselves nor the German revolutionaries, still active at the time, would have approved of that idea.
423:
diminished from the 16th century onwards, with some church territories secularised or always governed by the same family. The "holy" nature of the empire became even more questionable when the possibility of permanent peace with the Ottoman Empire, widely seen as the mortal enemies of Christian
1177:
and Bavaria would be entitled to exercise imperial authority and, since both were aligned with Napoleon, such an arrangement could cause an abdicated Francis (as only Emperor of Austria) to become a vassal of Napoleon (as Holy Roman Emperor). Though there is no concrete evidence that Napoleon
1157:
had been made for (but not used during) Napoleon's coronation as Emperor of the French and he consciously revived Roman imperial symbols and aspired to create a new order in Europe, something akin to the universal dominion implicit in the title of Emperor of the Romans. Napoleon's vision of
1200:
Holy Roman Emperors had abdicated before—the most notable example being the abdication of Charles V in 1556—but Francis II's abdication was unique. While previous abdications had returned the Imperial crown to the electors so that they might proclaim a new emperor, Francis II's abdication
761:
meaning to compensate those princes who had lost territory in the French wars and effectivize the empire's current semi-feudal structure. Although there were huge territorial changes, notably the almost complete abolition of any church territory and significant territorial gains for
1144:
The main idea behind Francis II's actions in 1806 was to lay the groundwork needed to avoid additional future wars with Napoleon and France. One concern held by the Habsburg monarchy was that Napoleon might aspire to claim the title of Holy Roman Emperor. Napoleon was attracted to
605:
1711–1740) spent more effort on the interests of their own dynasty than on the interests of the empire at large. In 1705, diplomatic duties and responsibilities were transferred to the Court Chancellery at Vienna from the Imperial Chancellery. Upon Charles VI's death, his daughter
229:
formally elective rather than hereditary, could not exercise effective central control. Even then, most contemporaries believed that the empire could be revived and modernized. The Holy Roman Empire finally began its true terminal decline during and after its involvement in the
1182:
still considered prestigious and a worthy heritage, they were now also considered things of the past. With the Holy Roman Empire dissolved, Francis II could focus his attention on the continued rise and prosperity of his new hereditary empire, as Emperor Francis I of Austria.
871:, to also proclaim themselves emperors. Relations between the Habsburgs and George III were complicated; in diplomacy, the court at Vienna had for many years refused to refer to the British king as "His Majesty" since he was only a king, not an emperor. The Habsburg diplomat
1410:, as well as Prussia's interest in becoming a great power in Europe (rather than continue being a vassal to the Habsburgs). Even then, the restoration of the Holy Roman Empire, with a modernized internal political structure, had not been out of reach at the 1814–1815
652:, as part of the deal. The empire was not necessarily doomed because of Habsburg disinterest; in times where the emperors disregarded the greater empire, the more powerful imperial vassals usually took steps to strengthen German unity among the imperial princes.
1498:
In addition to the Austrian Empire (and France under Napoleon), the most prominent potential claimant to the Holy Roman Empire's legacy (in the sense of ruling Germany) in the wake of its collapse and dissolution was the Kingdom of Prussia, ruled by the
496:
1619–1637), who sought to combine universal jurisdiction with actual universal temporal rule and universal imperial authority, represented threats to the continued existence of the countries of Europe. Charles V was the last Holy Roman Emperor to be
1490:
In the aftermath of Francis II's abdication, the new Austrian Empire took steps to distance itself from the older empire. The symbols and formal titles of the Austrian monarchy were altered to stress Austria as a distinct entity. Because the term
875:, fearing the consequences of Napoleon's coronation, is quoted as having advised Holy Roman Emperor Francis II that "‘as Roman Emperor, Your Majesty has enjoyed till now precedence ahead of all European potentates, including the Russian emperor".
431:
Both the papacy and the Holy Roman Empire continued to claim their traditional rights of universal jurisdiction into the early modern period, that it was their right to exercise jurisdiction throughout the entire world, even if they did not have
1503:. Alongside the growing crown lands of the Habsburgs, Prussia represented the sole major power in Central Europe during the last century or so of Holy Roman imperial rule. It was frequently rumored that the Prussians had imperial ambitions, and
366:
as emperors in 1721, these recognitions were conditional on the fact that the Holy Roman Emperor was always pre-eminent. The pre-eminence of the emperor was an expression of the idea that the Holy Roman Empire, theoretically, extended over all
672:
represented successful venues for resolving intra-imperial conflicts. The Reichstag also worked as a place where weaker Imperial princes could work to convince their more powerful counterparts to remain at peace and resolve their differences.
375:. Imperial authority rested not on the emperor's own crown lands (though there were large crown lands in the 18th and 19th centuries) but on the emperor's role as the highest secular ruler in the world and a champion and advocate of the
1268:, "if poetry can go hand in hand with politics, then the abdication of the imperial dignity offers a wealth of material. The Roman Empire now takes its place in the sequence of vanquished empires". In the words of the English historian
734:
The key point in which fortunes shifted was Prussia's abandonment of the war effort. Prussia had been the only true counterweight to Austria's influence in the institutions of the empire. Though the western parts of Prussia, such as
1141:
Holy Roman Emperor, such as Baden, Württemberg and Bavaria, had openly defied Imperial authority and sided with Napoleon. Even then, the significance of the empire was not based on actual control of resources, but on prestige.
923:), regardless of their current position within or outside the Holy Roman Empire. "Austria" in this sense referred to the dynasty (often officially called the "House of Austria" instead of the "House of Habsburg"), not the old
1479:
practice and ideals to the pre-1806 empire. In many respects, the Austrian emperors continued to act as protectors of the Catholic Church, just as the Holy Roman emperors had before them, continuing to claim the right of the
474:, a ruler who could wield the legal powers of an emperor (as absolute monarch) within the borders of his own territory due to the emperors not having protected his people from foreign enemies. Ambitious emperors, such as
521:
By the 18th century, the contemporary views of the Holy Roman Empire were far from universally positive. There was a widespread idea that the empire was "sick" in some capacity, for instance the bookseller and publisher
398:
authority extending beyond just the institutions that had been developed within the formal imperial borders. Imperial territories held by rulers of other realms remained imperial vassals. For instance, the kings of both
1375:) were never formally abolished. The continued existence of a universal empire, though without defined territory and lacking an emperor, was sometimes referenced in the titles of other later monarchs. For instance, the
1495:(Empire of Austria) had entered everyday speech, the monarchy soon dropped the original prefix "hereditary", which had been used from 1804 to 1806 to stress the difference between Austria and the Holy Roman Empire.
582:
1658–1705) had worked on strengthening the empire and promoting its interests, among other things pursuing a much appreciated cultural policy and successfully warring against the Ottomans, his sons and successors
453:
eight centuries prior. Where international disputes between the rulers of Europe had previously been solved and mediated by the pope and/or emperor, the 17th century saw the true emergence of the modern system of
1297:
the daily church prayers throughout former imperial territory. Suppression from France, combined with examples of excessive retribution against pro-empire advocates, ensured that these protests soon died down.
706:
overran and occupied the Austrian Netherlands in 1792, the Holy Roman Empire defended itself quite well until Prussia abandoned the war effort to focus its attention on its Polish territories (overseeing the
1055:
while downgrading the latter to a merely German confederation. Nevertheless, Bavaria and Württemberg reaffirmed to the Reichstag that they were subject to Imperial law. Some commentators argued that
371:
in a universal manner. Because the empire at no point ruled over all of Christian Europe, this idea was always an ideal rather than a reality and the empire's Roman status was never accepted by the
461:
One of the greatest threats to the traditional (and theoretical) universal jurisdiction accorded to the Holy Roman Emperor and the pope throughout the Christian world was the emergence of modern
640:
1765–1790), was even more radical in his disregard for the empire. In 1778, Joseph II pondered abdicating the imperial title and in 1784 when he hoped to exchange his lands in Belgium, the
2966:
2540:
Burgdorf, Wolfgang (2012). "'Once we were Trojans!' Contemporary Reactions to the Dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation". In Evans, Robert; Wilson, Peter H. (eds.).
1566:. As partly sovereign polities, the German states, especially in more or less independently administered areas such as culture and education, harken back to the old empire. Historians
943:
objected to Francis "lowering himself to the level of the usurper Napoleon", he recognized the title in November. The only significant objections to Francis II's title were raised by
225:
in the 16th and 17th centuries, which brought with it the idea that jurisdiction corresponded to actual territory governed, threatened the universal nature of the Holy Roman Empire.
853:, the title used by Francis II and all Holy Roman emperors before him. Through his presence at the ceremony, Pius VII symbolically approved of the transfer of imperial power (
379:. The lack of a defined capital and consistent crown lands reinforced the idea that the imperial title was universal as it was not necessarily associated with any one area.
1043:
of 1803–04, were subject to a second attack and a spate of annexations by those states allied to Napoleon in November–December 1805. In response, the knights' corporation (
1030:—were to remain imperial fiefs or become part of the French Empire. As late as March 1806, Napoleon was uncertain whether they should remain nominally within the Empire.
2717:
Harrison, Henrietta (2017). "The Qianlong Emperor's Letter to George III and the Early-Twentieth-Century Origins of Ideas about Traditional China's Foreign Relations".
2618:
1362:) on 22 August 1806, stating that the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire "would not destroy the German nation" and expressed hopes that the empire might be revived.
1165:
Austria was slow to respond to the fast pace of events. Already on the 17 June, Francis had taken the decision to abdicate at the moment that seemed best for Austria.
1354:
of Sweden (who notably hadn't recognized the separate imperial title of Austria yet) issued a somewhat provocative proclamation to the denizens of his German lands (
1382:
continued to claim the title "Prince and Perpetual Vicar of the Holy Roman Empire (in Italy)" (a title originating from a 14th-century imperial grant from Emperor
1158:
Charlemagne was completely different from the German vision of the old emperor, however. Instead of seeing Charlemagne as a German king, Napoleon viewed him as a
2642:
868:
1272:
in his 1864 work on the Holy Roman Empire, the empire was the "oldest political institution in the world" and the same institution as the one founded by
1084:
under his presidency to resolve their disputes. Despite all of this, they were to remain members of the empire. Württemberg ultimately refused to sign.
967:
358:. It was the firm belief of its emperors that they were the sole genuine emperors in Europe and although they had formally recognized the sultans of
2986:
1150:
383:
recognized heirs of the old Roman emperors and the foremost Christian rulers, they claimed (and were often granted) precedence over other rulers.
2950:
1487:
looked to Emperor Francis as the protector of the church, for instance petitioning the emperor to help him in re-establishing the Papal States.
956:
955:, had a place in the Reichstag. The Swedes saw the title as a "clear breach" of the Imperial constitution and, invoking their prerogative as a
1570:
and Johannes Burkhardt have compared the Holy Roman Empire, especially in regards to its locally administered component states, to the modern
1285:
was also frequently used, associating the collapse of the Holy Roman Empire with an impending end of the world (echoing medieval legends of a
2924:
2864:
2828:
2797:
2698:
2650:
2575:
2553:
1391:
2807:
Orford, Anne (2009). De Feyter, Koen (ed.). "Jurisdiction Without Territory: From the Holy Roman Empire to the Responsibility to Protect".
649:
557:
391:
2627:
1578:
advocated by Revolutionary France and it served as a model for the constitutions of international bodies and organizations of the future.
1426:
1065:(the quasi-sovereignty possessed by Imperial estates) and the treaty had not altered the relationship between the members and the empire.
799:
664:
decided policy and legislation and allowed the empire to coordinate its response to the threat represented by France and the two separate
1091:(Upper German confederation) outside the empire. On 12 July 1806, these three states and thirteen other minor German princes formed the
655:
Despite the widespread idea that the Holy Roman Empire was "sick", the empire was not in terminal decline before its involvement in the
1252:
somewhat anachronistic ideas rooted in a fading ideal of universal Christianity and paved the way for the country's unification as the
660:
states. Because of the weak central government, the constituent territories of the empire could influence their own fates, the central
625:
1745–1765), she burst out in laughter when she saw him in his imperial coronation robes, regarding his coronation as "Kasperltheater" (
221:
and beyond. The decline of the Holy Roman Empire was a long and drawn-out process lasting centuries. The formation of the first modern
1339:, had teared up and expressed lament at the loss of "a constitution to which Germany had for so long owed its happiness and freedom".
437:
true power, rather than the actual extent of its territorial domains. The dual rule of pope and emperor was effectively ended at the
407:
accepted vassalage in regards to their German lands until 1806, when these lands were formally incorporated into their kingdoms. The
1548:
661:
610:
inherited most of his titles but not the Imperial crown, as a woman was not eligible for Imperial election and so went to her rival
1317:, who in 1806 issued a proclamation to his German subjects that the dissolution of the empire "would not destroy the German nation"
445:
in 1648, wherein the empire was severed from the papacy for good. The papacy played no role in the negotiations and in the eyes of
501:
by a pope and as such the last to be formally proclaimed as the church's protector, a role disregarded by many of his successors.
2971:
486:
387:
102:
2507:
2563:
1438:
1269:
1107:
767:
611:
863:
inspire the Russian Emperor to insist that he was equal to the Holy Roman Emperor and might encourage other monarchs, such as
1383:
1227:
1134:
1111:
920:
716:
595:
327:
178:
96:
1434:
2615:
Correspondence Respecting the Affairs of Italy: 1846–1847 Presented to Both Houses of Parliament by Command of Her Majesty
1537:
1219:
1162:
conqueror who had extended French rule across Central Europe and Italy, something Napoleon aspired to accomplish as well.
905:
753:
630:
615:
572:
475:
2915:—— (2009). "The Meaning of Empire in Central Europe around 1800". In Forrest, Alan; Wilson, Peter H. (eds.).
1014:(Germanic Confederation), a novel name for the Holy Roman Empire. Likewise, it was left deliberately unclear whether the
1003:
779:
584:
419:
being tolerated from 1555 and 1648 onwards respectively, Catholicism remained the only recognized faith. Even then, the
2981:
1571:
1336:
1281:
as a metaphor, due to its association with the notion of total destruction and the end of a culture. The image of the
916:
724:
1547:
1888) was enumerated after his predecessor as king, Frederick II, not after the previous Imperial Frederick (Emperor
791:
new arrangement work, the general verdict at the time was that the reorganization had essentially killed the empire.
2660:
Flockerzie, Lawrence J. (1990). "Saxony, Austria, and the German Question after the Congress of Vienna, 1815-1816".
1387:
1092:
983:
804:
736:
708:
532:. This view dates back to at least the Peace of Westphalia, where the empire was explicitly defined as not being a
372:
265:
182:
136:
126:
411:
of the 16th century had made managing the empire more difficult and made its role as "holy" questionable. Despite
1533:
1475:
1407:
1323:
991:
897:
751:
In the wake of the wars with France, there was a substantial reorganization of Imperial territory (the so-called
712:
656:
528:
230:
2876:
Germany and the Holy Roman Empire, Volume II: The Peace of Westphalia to the Dissolution of the Reich, 1648–1806
2976:
1398:
as it had been in the 18th century, notably the rise of larger, more consolidated kingdoms in Germany, such as
1347:
1260:
845:. Pius VII was aware that Napoleon symbolically linked his imperial coronation with the imperial coronation of
691:
449:, the peace destroyed the connection between pope and emperor which had held Europe together since the time of
1562:. Over the course of the centuries, the many states of the Holy Roman Empire would evolve into the 16 modern
264:
in December 1805 and the secession of a large number of Francis II's German vassals in July 1806 to form the
2603:"The Congress of Vienna and the Emerging Rivalry between Austria and Prussia for Hegemony in Central Europe"
740:
723:. The fact that much of the wider empire (including influential figures such as the King of Prussia and the
696:
498:
455:
308:
509:
1327:
1282:
1194:
1166:
834:
775:
523:
420:
2759:
Morris Jr., Warren B. (1977). "The Prussian Plan of Union: Traditional Policy by "Revolutionary" Means".
1500:
1343:
1034:
995:
940:
830:
822:
763:
703:
645:
288:
245:
1259:
Compounded with fears of what now guaranteed the safety of many of the smaller German states, the poet
975:
892:
549:
1350:
formally incorporated his German lands into his kingdoms a few months after the empire's dissolution.
1430:
1418:
1174:
987:
932:
924:
744:
641:
553:
540:
442:
342:
represented the leading monarch in Europe and that their empire was the one true continuation of the
261:
130:
2839:
1248:
dissolution of the empire as "incomprehensible" and the general public's reaction as one of horror.
1129:
1509:
1504:
1332:
999:
810:
787:
783:
438:
425:
386:
Although the emperors had been formally titled as "Elected Roman Emperor" since 1508, when Emperor
347:
318:
253:
2602:
1264:
final end of the ancient Roman Empire. In the words of Christian Gottlob von Voigt, a minister in
1047:) dissolved itself on 20 January 1806. With the dissolution of the Empire, the knights lost their
2903:
2677:
1411:
1399:
1286:
1048:
912:
872:
855:
339:
323:
249:
214:
174:
154:
140:
17:
1422:
252:, in addition to already being the Holy Roman Emperor, an attempt at maintaining parity between
39:
260:
while also illustrating that the Holy Roman title outranked them both. Austria's defeat at the
2920:
2886:(2006). "Bolstering the Prestige of the Habsburgs: The End of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806".
2860:
2824:
2793:
2710:
Nobles and Nation in Central Europe: Free Imperial Knights in the Age of Revolution, 1750–1850
2694:
2646:
2581:
2571:
2549:
1563:
1520:
1403:
1355:
948:
901:
880:
758:
665:
568:
514:
335:
304:
280:
194:
122:
118:
83:
2545:
2508:"In the Shadow of Joesphinism: Austria and the Catholic Church in the Restoration, 1815–1848"
1371:
Holy Roman Empire itself as an idea and institution (the theoretically universally sovereign
1051:, ceasing to be either free or Imperial and were at the mercy of the newly sovereign states.
2895:
2816:
2785:
2768:
2747:
2726:
2669:
2528:
1471:
1185:
On the morning of 6 August 1806, the Imperial herald of the Holy Roman Empire rode from the
1115:
818:
771:
218:
1474:
continued to be kept within their domains (and are to this day stored and displayed at the
1305:
1087:
In June 1806, Napoleon began pressuring Bavaria, Baden and Württemberg for the creation of
275:
Reactions to the empire's dissolution ranged from indifference to despair. The populace of
2883:
2589:
1555:
1467:
1459:
1351:
1310:
1123:
1096:
1015:
952:
720:
686:
669:
467:
462:
446:
376:
269:
257:
234:
222:
186:
150:
144:
45:
986:
came too soon for Austria, which moved against France in September 1805. Defeated at the
648:, he considered giving up the imperial title and granting it to the Elector of Bavaria,
2772:
2629:
Lezioni di paleografia e di critica diplomatica sui documenti della monarchia de Savoia
1480:
1379:
1376:
1231:
1171:
1023:
626:
470:. Kings who claimed their own sovereignty free from the empire did so in the role of a
363:
359:
206:
198:
1450:
2960:
2907:
2532:
2519:
Blanning, Tim (2012). "The Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation past and present".
1529:
1484:
1455:
1359:
1314:
1253:
1027:
1019:
944:
935:, hereditary Emperor of Austria", placing the Austrian title behind the Roman title.
838:
607:
158:
2917:
The Bee and the Eagle: Napoleonic France and the End of the Holy Roman Empire, 1806
1567:
1061:
842:
727:), however unwilling, joined the conflict on the side of the Habsburgs in a formal
533:
343:
287:
and some associated the end of what they perceived to be the Roman Empire with the
284:
202:
2899:
2673:
1342:
Internationally, the empire's demise was met with mixed or indifferent reactions.
994:(26 December). These created deliberate ambiguities in the imperial constitution.
2607:
Contribution to the 28th Heilbronn Symposion in Economics and the Social Sciences
1559:
1515:
1483:. During his 1809–1814 imprisonment in France and after his subsequent release,
1290:
1223:
1201:
simultaneously dissolved the empire itself so that there were no more electors.
1146:
1076:
1039:
846:
728:
450:
412:
408:
190:
1512:, an enemy which they believed could not be defeated by normal military means.
394:, the universalist character of the empire was sustained through the emperor's
1322:
former role as emperors. Görtz had taken part as an electoral emissary of the
1278:
864:
849:
and would most likely have caught the similarity between Napoleon's title and
567:
Over the course of the 18th century, the rulers of the Holy Roman Empire, the
368:
292:
240:
Although the empire defended itself quite well initially, war with France and
2730:
2593:
1244:
990:
on 2 December 1805, Austria had to accept terms dictated by Napoleon in the
560:, and the rise of powerful German rulers in the north, such as the Kings of
416:
395:
2585:
1551:
of the 15th century, the new Frederick would then have been Frederick IV).
1425:" and would prove to be ineffective. The Confederation was weakened by the
466:
theirs by right through their connection to Ancient Rome and their role as
217:
whose jurisdiction extended beyond their empire's formal borders to all of
27:
1806 dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire following Francis II's abdication
2820:
2789:
2751:
1523:, seen by some as successors to the German states of the Holy Roman Empire
1558:, the Habsburg-ruled Dual Monarchy, fell in 1918 in the aftermath of the
1326:(Prussia's territory within the formal imperial borders) in 1792, at the
1273:
879:
their own emperor and empire. France had officially accepted parity with
826:
241:
2681:
939:
United Kingdom recognized the new title in October and although Emperor
189:
and officials from their oaths and obligations to the empire. Since the
1186:
1154:
731:
proves that imperial ideals were still alive by the late 18th century.
614:. When the Imperial title was instead bestowed on her husband, Emperor
561:
404:
2691:
Reich and Nation: The Holy Roman Empire as Idea and Reality, 1763–1806
1433:, elected by the people of the Confederation, attempted to proclaim a
1417:
In the Holy Roman Empire's place, the Congress of Vienna created the
1265:
1235:
1190:
1159:
774:, the most important changes were in the empire's electoral college.
400:
276:
210:
833:" in 1804. Among others, one of the important figures attending the
526:
mentions the "state illnesses of the Holy Roman Empire" in his 1745
859:) from the Romans (and thus the Franks and Germans) to the French.
213:. Through this Roman legacy, the Holy Roman Emperors claimed to be
1514:
1449:
1304:
1238:. The associated plaque describes him as the "last Roman emperor".
1218:
1189:
to the Church of the Nine Choirs of Angels (both being located in
1128:
1106:
966:
891:
798:
685:
508:
351:
317:
244:
proved catastrophic. In 1804, Napoleon proclaimed himself as the
355:
571:, had somewhat neglected their imperial role. Though Emperor
2386:
2384:
2070:
2068:
1968:
1966:
552:
with France meaning the end of imperial jurisdiction in the
248:, which Francis II responded to by proclaiming himself the
2639:
Vanished Kingdoms: The Rise and Fall of States and Nations
884:
the Roman imperial title as pre-eminent, outranking both.
629:
show). Maria Theresa's and Francis I's son and successor,
2857:
Ring of Steel: Germany and Austria-Hungary in World War I
2181:
2179:
2166:
2164:
2162:
1772:
1770:
2542:
The Holy Roman Empire, 1495–1806: A European Perspective
2335:
2333:
2248:
2246:
2244:
2242:
2101:
2099:
2097:
2095:
2012:
2010:
2008:
1983:
1981:
1953:
1951:
1853:
1851:
1849:
1847:
1845:
1730:
1728:
1726:
1698:
1696:
1694:
841:, probably fearing that Napoleon planned to conquer the
2437:
2435:
2031:
2029:
2027:
2025:
1926:
1924:
1911:
1909:
1884:
1882:
1880:
1878:
1745:
1743:
1713:
1711:
1666:
1664:
1651:
1649:
1647:
1645:
1620:
1618:
1616:
1603:
1601:
1599:
1597:
1595:
1277:
empire, many contemporaries employed the catastrophic
1037:, who had survived the attack on their rights in the
44:
The final stage of the Holy Roman Empire, before the
2617:. Vol. 1. Harrison and Son. July 1849. p.
2414:
1681:
1679:
719:
of the Habsburg dynasty only in his capacity as the
2936:
Heart of Europe: A History of the Holy Roman Empire
2738:Lentz, Thierry (2008). "Napoleon and Charlemagne".
330:, in a style inspired by ancient Roman marble busts
111:
89:
71:
53:
2840:"Papal Approval of Holy Roman Emperors, 1250–1356"
125:; succeeded chiefly by the short-lived Napoleonic
2782:Empire and Order: The Concept of Empire, 800–1800
1462:(red), as they both existed between 1871 and 1918
1010:(full sovereignty) while remaining a part of the
517:and its internal subdivisions and vassals in 1789
1205:Dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire by Napoleon
2967:1806 disestablishments in the Holy Roman Empire
157:; eventually resulting in the formation of the
1289:, a figure prophesied to be active during the
778:was added as a fourth Catholic elector, while
205:due to its emperors having been proclaimed as
201:as the legitimate continuation of the ancient
1421:, which was led by the Austrian emperors as "
1133:Printed version of the abdication of Emperor
8:
2951:Abdication of Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor
32:
1080:(imperial war efforts) and submitting to a
1069:Formation of the Confederation of the Rhine
2512:Louisiana State University Master's Thesis
2390:
795:Reaction to Napoleon's imperial coronation
362:as emperors in 1606 and the rulers of the
31:
2402:
2209:
505:The Holy Roman Empire in the 18th century
173:occurred on 6 August 1806, when the last
2712:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
2489:
2351:
2324:
2312:
2300:
2288:
2276:
2233:
2221:
2185:
2170:
1900:
1788:
1776:
1734:
1702:
1591:
1532:in 1871 under the Hohenzollern emperor
548:power within the empire, with the 1801
468:earthly representatives of Jesus Christ
185:, abdicated his title and released all
2477:
2465:
2441:
2426:
2375:
2339:
2264:
2252:
2197:
2153:
2117:
2105:
2086:
2074:
2059:
2047:
2035:
2016:
1999:
1987:
1972:
1957:
1942:
1930:
1915:
1888:
1857:
1836:
1824:
1812:
1800:
1761:
1749:
1717:
1670:
1655:
1636:
1624:
1607:
957:guarantor of the imperial constitution
424:Europe, was accepted through the 1699
390:took the title without the need for a
2809:Michigan Journal of International Law
2363:
2141:
2129:
1869:
1685:
1026:—imperial territories transferred to
7:
2453:
1301:Official and international reactions
972:Napoléon at the Battle of Austerlitz
171:dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire
33:Dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire
2632:(in Italian). Coi tipi di G. Pomba.
1335:, reported that the local elector,
1089:confédération de la haute Allemagne
904:in Austria and originally made for
794:
334:The defining characteristic of the
129:and then the Habsburg-Lorraine-led
2878:. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
2773:10.1111/j.1540-6563.1977.tb01200.x
757:, supported by Prussia), with the
25:
1392:abolition of the Italian monarchy
1059:was just a French translation of
911:Francis II proclaimed himself as
682:Austrian war effort and responses
314:Ideology of the Holy Roman Empire
18:Collapse of the Holy Roman Empire
2888:The International History Review
2662:The International History Review
2533:10.1111/j.1468-2281.2011.00579.x
305:Holy Roman Empire § History
153:, concerning the possibility of
103:Princes of the Holy Roman Empire
76:
38:
2938:. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press.
1542:
1439:Frederick William IV of Prussia
1427:German revolutions of 1848–1849
1270:James Bryce, 1st Viscount Bryce
635:
620:
600:
589:
577:
491:
480:
2987:Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor
2719:The American Historical Review
350:, through proclamation by the
97:Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor
1:
2900:10.1080/07075332.2006.9641109
2674:10.1080/07075332.1990.9640563
906:Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor
754:Reichsdeputationshauptschluss
677:Wars with France and Napoleon
2693:. Indiana University Press.
2626:Datta, Pietro Luigi (1834).
1446:Successor empires and legacy
1057:plénitude de la souveraineté
1008:plénitude de la souveraineté
900:, used until the end of the
463:sovereign territorial states
223:sovereign territorial states
2708:Godsey, William D. (2004).
2689:Gagliardo, John G. (1980).
2601:Chaloupek, Günther (2015).
1572:Federal Republic of Germany
1554:Both the German Empire and
725:Archbishop-Elector of Mainz
702:Although the forces of the
539:The 17th-century historian
3003:
2855:Watson, Alexander (2014).
1388:Amadeus VI, Count of Savoy
1366:Possibility of restoration
1093:Confederation of the Rhine
984:War of the Third Coalition
805:The Coronation of Napoleon
713:Third Partitions of Poland
302:
266:Confederation of the Rhine
183:House of Habsburg-Lorraine
137:House of Habsburg-Lorraine
127:Confederation of the Rhine
2415:The Affairs of Italy 1847
1324:Electorate of Brandenburg
898:Imperial Crown of Austria
657:French Revolutionary Wars
529:Grosses Universal-Lexicon
441:at the conclusion of the
322:Marble bust of the final
231:French Revolutionary Wars
37:
2874:Whaley, Joachim (2012).
1348:Christian VII of Denmark
1346:offered no response and
1261:Christoph Martin Wieland
1103:Abdication of Francis II
1082:commission de méditation
1012:Conféderation Germanique
947:, which through holding
692:Battle of Fleurus (1794)
2972:Dissolutions of empires
2934:—— (2016).
2780:Muldoon, James (1999).
2637:Davies, Norman (2012).
2506:Berg, Scott M. (2010).
1149:'s legacy; replicas of
1095:, effectively a French
697:Jean-Baptiste Mauzaisse
666:imperial supreme courts
456:international relations
309:Problem of two emperors
197:had been recognized by
59:; 218 years ago
2919:. Palgrave Macmillan.
2838:Renna, Thomas (2017).
1524:
1463:
1331:Austrian envoy to the
1328:election of Francis II
1318:
1239:
1195:electoral capitulation
1167:Klemens von Metternich
1137:
1126:
979:
908:
814:
766:, Baden, Württemberg,
699:
524:Johann Heinrich Zedler
518:
338:was the idea that the
331:
2821:10.4324/9781315254135
2790:10.1057/9780230512238
2752:10.3917/napo.081.0002
2740:Napoleonica. La Revue
2731:10.1093/ahr/122.3.680
2568:The Holy Roman Empire
1518:
1501:House of Hohenzollern
1493:Kaiserthum Österreich
1453:
1344:Alexander I of Russia
1308:
1222:
1132:
1110:
1035:Free Imperial Knights
970:
941:Alexander I of Russia
895:
851:Emperor of the Romans
831:Emperor of the French
829:, assumed the title "
802:
704:French First Republic
695:, painted in 1837 by
689:
646:Electorate of Bavaria
512:
321:
246:Emperor of the French
139:continues to rule as
1431:Frankfurt Parliament
1419:German Confederation
1279:fall of ancient Troy
988:Battle of Austerlitz
925:Archduchy of Austria
642:Austrian Netherlands
554:Southern Netherlands
541:Samuel von Pufendorf
262:Battle of Austerlitz
131:German Confederation
2641:. Penguin. p.
2521:Historical Research
2480:, pp. 536–540.
2077:, pp. 643–644.
1975:, pp. 634–635.
1839:, pp. 719–720.
1333:Electorate of Hesse
1151:Charlemagne's crown
811:Jacques-Louis David
439:Peace of Westphalia
141:Emperors of Austria
34:
2982:August 1806 events
2144:, p. 21 (66).
2132:, p. 20 (65).
1525:
1464:
1412:Congress of Vienna
1386:to their ancestor
1319:
1287:Last Roman Emperor
1240:
1138:
1127:
1049:Imperial immediacy
992:Peace of Pressburg
980:
963:Peace of Pressburg
913:Emperor of Austria
909:
873:Ludwig von Cobenzl
856:translatio imperii
815:
700:
550:Peace of Lunéville
519:
426:Peace of Karlowitz
373:Byzantine emperors
340:Holy Roman Emperor
332:
324:Holy Roman Emperor
250:Emperor of Austria
215:universal monarchs
175:Holy Roman Emperor
155:German unification
57:6 August 1806
2926:978-0-2300-0893-9
2866:978-0-4650-1872-7
2830:978-1-315-25413-5
2799:978-1-3493-9644-3
2700:978-0-2531-6773-6
2652:978-0-1431-2295-1
2577:978-3-8496-7850-0
2555:978-9-0042-0683-0
2544:. Brill. p.
2303:, pp. 60–61.
1564:states of Germany
1521:states of Germany
1476:Imperial Treasury
1429:, whereafter the
1356:Swedish Pomerania
1215:Popular reactions
949:Swedish Pomerania
902:Habsburg monarchy
888:Empire of Austria
759:Habsburg monarchy
515:Holy Roman Empire
443:Thirty Years' War
336:Holy Roman Empire
281:Habsburg monarchy
279:, capital of the
199:Western Europeans
195:Holy Roman Empire
167:
166:
123:Holy Roman Empire
84:Holy Roman Empire
16:(Redirected from
2994:
2939:
2930:
2911:
2884:Wilson, Peter H.
2879:
2870:
2851:
2834:
2803:
2776:
2755:
2734:
2713:
2704:
2685:
2656:
2633:
2622:
2610:
2597:
2559:
2536:
2515:
2493:
2487:
2481:
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2445:
2439:
2430:
2424:
2418:
2412:
2406:
2400:
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2388:
2379:
2373:
2367:
2361:
2355:
2349:
2343:
2337:
2328:
2322:
2316:
2310:
2304:
2298:
2292:
2286:
2280:
2274:
2268:
2262:
2256:
2250:
2237:
2231:
2225:
2219:
2213:
2207:
2201:
2195:
2189:
2183:
2174:
2168:
2157:
2151:
2145:
2139:
2133:
2127:
2121:
2115:
2109:
2103:
2090:
2084:
2078:
2072:
2063:
2057:
2051:
2045:
2039:
2033:
2020:
2014:
2003:
1997:
1991:
1985:
1976:
1970:
1961:
1955:
1946:
1940:
1934:
1928:
1919:
1913:
1904:
1898:
1892:
1886:
1873:
1867:
1861:
1855:
1840:
1834:
1828:
1822:
1816:
1810:
1804:
1798:
1792:
1786:
1780:
1774:
1765:
1759:
1753:
1747:
1738:
1732:
1721:
1715:
1706:
1700:
1689:
1683:
1674:
1668:
1659:
1653:
1640:
1634:
1628:
1622:
1611:
1605:
1546:
1544:
1472:Imperial Regalia
1116:Austrian Emperor
670:Imperial circles
650:Charles Theodore
639:
637:
624:
622:
604:
602:
593:
591:
581:
579:
569:Habsburg dynasty
495:
493:
484:
482:
472:rex in regno suo
392:papal coronation
219:Christian Europe
145:Kings of Hungary
82:
80:
79:
67:
65:
60:
42:
35:
21:
3002:
3001:
2997:
2996:
2995:
2993:
2992:
2991:
2977:Napoleonic Wars
2957:
2956:
2947:
2942:
2933:
2927:
2914:
2882:
2873:
2867:
2859:. Basic Books.
2854:
2837:
2831:
2815:(3): 981–1015.
2806:
2800:
2779:
2758:
2737:
2716:
2707:
2701:
2688:
2659:
2653:
2636:
2625:
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2578:
2562:
2556:
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2472:
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2460:
2452:
2448:
2440:
2433:
2425:
2421:
2413:
2409:
2401:
2397:
2391:Flockerzie 1990
2389:
2382:
2374:
2370:
2362:
2358:
2350:
2346:
2338:
2331:
2323:
2319:
2311:
2307:
2299:
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2271:
2263:
2259:
2251:
2240:
2232:
2228:
2220:
2216:
2208:
2204:
2196:
2192:
2184:
2177:
2169:
2160:
2152:
2148:
2140:
2136:
2128:
2124:
2116:
2112:
2104:
2093:
2085:
2081:
2073:
2066:
2058:
2054:
2046:
2042:
2034:
2023:
2015:
2006:
1998:
1994:
1986:
1979:
1971:
1964:
1956:
1949:
1941:
1937:
1929:
1922:
1914:
1907:
1899:
1895:
1887:
1876:
1868:
1864:
1856:
1843:
1835:
1831:
1823:
1819:
1811:
1807:
1799:
1795:
1787:
1783:
1775:
1768:
1760:
1756:
1748:
1741:
1733:
1724:
1716:
1709:
1701:
1692:
1684:
1677:
1669:
1662:
1654:
1643:
1635:
1631:
1623:
1614:
1606:
1593:
1589:
1584:
1560:First World War
1556:Austria-Hungary
1541:
1468:Austrian Empire
1460:Austria-Hungary
1448:
1423:Bundespräsidium
1368:
1352:Gustav IV Adolf
1311:Gustav IV Adolf
1303:
1217:
1212:
1207:
1172:imperial vicars
1124:Salzburg Museum
1105:
1097:satellite state
1071:
1045:corpus equestre
1016:Duchy of Cleves
976:François Gérard
965:
953:Imperial estate
890:
823:French republic
797:
768:Hesse-Darmstadt
721:King of Hungary
684:
679:
634:
619:
599:
594:1705–1711) and
588:
576:
507:
490:
485:1519–1556) and
479:
458:and diplomacy.
447:Pope Innocent X
421:Imperial Church
377:Catholic Church
316:
311:
301:
270:satellite state
235:Napoleonic Wars
187:Imperial states
163:
151:German Question
107:
77:
75:
63:
61:
58:
49:
46:Napoleonic Wars
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3000:
2998:
2990:
2989:
2984:
2979:
2974:
2969:
2959:
2958:
2955:
2954:
2946:
2945:External links
2943:
2941:
2940:
2931:
2925:
2912:
2894:(4): 709–736.
2880:
2871:
2865:
2852:
2835:
2829:
2804:
2798:
2777:
2767:(3): 515–530.
2756:
2735:
2725:(3): 680–701.
2714:
2705:
2699:
2686:
2668:(4): 661–687.
2657:
2651:
2634:
2623:
2611:
2598:
2576:
2570:. Good Press.
2560:
2554:
2537:
2527:(227): 57–70.
2516:
2502:
2500:
2497:
2495:
2494:
2482:
2470:
2458:
2446:
2431:
2429:, p. 518.
2419:
2417:, p. 114.
2407:
2403:Chaloupek 2015
2395:
2393:, p. 662.
2380:
2368:
2366:, p. 174.
2356:
2344:
2342:, p. 735.
2329:
2317:
2305:
2293:
2281:
2269:
2267:, p. 711.
2257:
2255:, p. 734.
2238:
2226:
2214:
2212:, p. 281.
2210:Gagliardo 1980
2202:
2200:, p. 733.
2190:
2175:
2158:
2156:, p. 732.
2146:
2134:
2122:
2120:, p. 727.
2110:
2108:, p. 731.
2091:
2089:, p. 730.
2079:
2064:
2052:
2040:
2021:
2019:, p. 637.
2004:
2002:, p. 145.
1992:
1990:, p. 636.
1977:
1962:
1960:, p. 726.
1947:
1945:, p. 725.
1935:
1920:
1905:
1903:, p. 687.
1893:
1874:
1862:
1860:, p. 723.
1841:
1829:
1827:, p. 714.
1817:
1815:, p. 713.
1805:
1803:, p. 712.
1793:
1781:
1766:
1754:
1739:
1722:
1720:, p. 989.
1707:
1705:, p. 115.
1690:
1675:
1673:, p. 981.
1660:
1641:
1639:, p. 709.
1629:
1612:
1590:
1588:
1585:
1583:
1580:
1481:Jus exclusivae
1447:
1444:
1437:and designate
1380:Kings of Italy
1367:
1364:
1302:
1299:
1232:Imperial Crypt
1216:
1213:
1211:
1208:
1206:
1203:
1104:
1101:
1070:
1067:
1024:County of Mark
964:
961:
889:
886:
869:United Kingdom
796:
793:
683:
680:
678:
675:
627:Punch and Judy
506:
503:
360:Ottoman Empire
315:
312:
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207:Roman emperors
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50:
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26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2999:
2988:
2985:
2983:
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2973:
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2968:
2965:
2964:
2962:
2953:on Wikisource
2952:
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2826:
2822:
2818:
2814:
2810:
2805:
2801:
2795:
2791:
2787:
2783:
2778:
2774:
2770:
2766:
2762:
2761:The Historian
2757:
2753:
2749:
2745:
2741:
2736:
2732:
2728:
2724:
2720:
2715:
2711:
2706:
2702:
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2692:
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2683:
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2663:
2658:
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2635:
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2620:
2616:
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2608:
2604:
2599:
2595:
2591:
2587:
2583:
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2573:
2569:
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2561:
2557:
2551:
2547:
2543:
2538:
2534:
2530:
2526:
2522:
2517:
2513:
2509:
2504:
2503:
2498:
2492:, p. 70.
2491:
2490:Blanning 2012
2486:
2483:
2479:
2474:
2471:
2468:, p. 35.
2467:
2462:
2459:
2456:, p. 52.
2455:
2450:
2447:
2444:, p. 36.
2443:
2438:
2436:
2432:
2428:
2423:
2420:
2416:
2411:
2408:
2404:
2399:
2396:
2392:
2387:
2385:
2381:
2377:
2372:
2369:
2365:
2360:
2357:
2354:, p. 54.
2353:
2352:Burgdorf 2012
2348:
2345:
2341:
2336:
2334:
2330:
2327:, p. 64.
2326:
2325:Burgdorf 2012
2321:
2318:
2315:, p. 63.
2314:
2313:Burgdorf 2012
2309:
2306:
2302:
2301:Burgdorf 2012
2297:
2294:
2291:, p. 56.
2290:
2289:Burgdorf 2012
2285:
2282:
2279:, p. 59.
2278:
2277:Burgdorf 2012
2273:
2270:
2266:
2261:
2258:
2254:
2249:
2247:
2245:
2243:
2239:
2236:, p. 58.
2235:
2234:Burgdorf 2012
2230:
2227:
2224:, p. 55.
2223:
2222:Burgdorf 2012
2218:
2215:
2211:
2206:
2203:
2199:
2194:
2191:
2188:, p. 69.
2187:
2186:Blanning 2012
2182:
2180:
2176:
2173:, p. 52.
2172:
2171:Burgdorf 2012
2167:
2165:
2163:
2159:
2155:
2150:
2147:
2143:
2138:
2135:
2131:
2126:
2123:
2119:
2114:
2111:
2107:
2102:
2100:
2098:
2096:
2092:
2088:
2083:
2080:
2076:
2071:
2069:
2065:
2062:, p. 34.
2061:
2056:
2053:
2050:, p. 30.
2049:
2044:
2041:
2038:, p. 33.
2037:
2032:
2030:
2028:
2026:
2022:
2018:
2013:
2011:
2009:
2005:
2001:
1996:
1993:
1989:
1984:
1982:
1978:
1974:
1969:
1967:
1963:
1959:
1954:
1952:
1948:
1944:
1939:
1936:
1933:, p. 32.
1932:
1927:
1925:
1921:
1918:, p. 31.
1917:
1912:
1910:
1906:
1902:
1901:Harrison 2017
1897:
1894:
1891:, p. 26.
1890:
1885:
1883:
1881:
1879:
1875:
1872:, p. 57.
1871:
1866:
1863:
1859:
1854:
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1848:
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1842:
1838:
1833:
1830:
1826:
1821:
1818:
1814:
1809:
1806:
1802:
1797:
1794:
1791:, p. 60.
1790:
1789:Blanning 2012
1785:
1782:
1779:, p. 67.
1778:
1777:Blanning 2012
1773:
1771:
1767:
1764:, p. 24.
1763:
1758:
1755:
1752:, p. 23.
1751:
1746:
1744:
1740:
1737:, p. 68.
1736:
1735:Blanning 2012
1731:
1729:
1727:
1723:
1719:
1714:
1712:
1708:
1704:
1699:
1697:
1695:
1691:
1687:
1682:
1680:
1676:
1672:
1667:
1665:
1661:
1658:, p. 28.
1657:
1652:
1650:
1648:
1646:
1642:
1638:
1633:
1630:
1627:, p. 27.
1626:
1621:
1619:
1617:
1613:
1610:, p. 25.
1609:
1604:
1602:
1600:
1598:
1596:
1592:
1586:
1581:
1579:
1575:
1573:
1569:
1565:
1561:
1557:
1552:
1550:
1549:Frederick III
1539:
1538:Frederick III
1535:
1531:
1530:German Empire
1522:
1517:
1513:
1511:
1506:
1502:
1496:
1494:
1488:
1486:
1485:Pope Pius VII
1482:
1477:
1473:
1469:
1461:
1457:
1456:German Empire
1452:
1445:
1443:
1440:
1436:
1435:German Empire
1432:
1428:
1424:
1420:
1415:
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1405:
1401:
1395:
1393:
1389:
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1374:
1365:
1363:
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1360:Bremen-Verden
1357:
1353:
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1262:
1257:
1255:
1254:German Empire
1249:
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1214:
1209:
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1202:
1198:
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1063:
1058:
1052:
1050:
1046:
1042:
1041:
1036:
1031:
1029:
1028:Joachim Murat
1025:
1021:
1020:Duchy of Berg
1017:
1013:
1009:
1006:were granted
1005:
1001:
997:
993:
989:
985:
977:
973:
969:
962:
960:
958:
954:
950:
946:
942:
936:
934:
928:
926:
922:
918:
914:
907:
903:
899:
894:
887:
885:
882:
876:
874:
870:
866:
860:
858:
857:
852:
848:
844:
840:
839:Pope Pius VII
836:
832:
828:
824:
820:
812:
808:
806:
801:
792:
789:
785:
781:
777:
773:
769:
765:
760:
756:
755:
749:
746:
742:
738:
732:
730:
726:
722:
718:
714:
710:
705:
698:
694:
693:
688:
681:
676:
674:
671:
667:
663:
658:
653:
651:
647:
643:
632:
628:
617:
613:
609:
608:Maria Theresa
597:
586:
574:
570:
565:
563:
559:
555:
551:
545:
542:
537:
535:
531:
530:
525:
516:
511:
504:
502:
500:
488:
477:
473:
469:
464:
459:
457:
452:
448:
444:
440:
435:
429:
427:
422:
418:
414:
410:
406:
402:
397:
393:
389:
384:
380:
378:
374:
370:
365:
361:
357:
353:
349:
345:
341:
337:
329:
325:
320:
313:
310:
306:
298:
296:
294:
290:
286:
282:
278:
273:
271:
267:
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238:
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232:
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224:
220:
216:
212:
208:
204:
200:
196:
192:
188:
184:
180:
176:
172:
160:
159:German Empire
156:
152:
148:
146:
142:
138:
134:
132:
128:
124:
120:
117:
116:
114:
110:
104:
100:
98:
95:
94:
92:
88:
85:
74:
70:
56:
52:
47:
41:
36:
30:
19:
2935:
2916:
2891:
2887:
2875:
2856:
2847:
2843:
2812:
2808:
2784:. Springer.
2781:
2764:
2760:
2743:
2739:
2722:
2718:
2709:
2690:
2665:
2661:
2638:
2628:
2614:
2606:
2567:
2564:Bryce, James
2541:
2524:
2520:
2511:
2499:Bibliography
2485:
2473:
2461:
2449:
2422:
2410:
2405:, p. 2.
2398:
2371:
2359:
2347:
2320:
2308:
2296:
2284:
2272:
2260:
2229:
2217:
2205:
2193:
2149:
2137:
2125:
2113:
2082:
2055:
2043:
1995:
1938:
1896:
1865:
1832:
1820:
1808:
1796:
1784:
1757:
1703:Muldoon 1999
1688:, p. 2.
1632:
1576:
1568:Norman Stone
1553:
1526:
1510:Carolingians
1505:Frederick II
1497:
1492:
1489:
1465:
1416:
1396:
1390:) until the
1372:
1369:
1341:
1320:
1295:
1258:
1250:
1241:
1199:
1184:
1180:
1164:
1143:
1139:
1119:
1088:
1086:
1081:
1077:Reichskriege
1075:
1072:
1062:Landeshoheit
1060:
1056:
1053:
1044:
1038:
1032:
1011:
1007:
981:
971:
937:
929:
910:
877:
861:
854:
850:
843:Papal States
819:First Consul
816:
809:(painted by
803:
788:Hesse-Kassel
752:
750:
733:
701:
690:
654:
566:
546:
538:
534:nation state
527:
520:
487:Ferdinand II
471:
460:
433:
430:
388:Maximilian I
385:
381:
344:Roman Empire
333:
285:Fall of Troy
274:
239:
227:
203:Roman Empire
170:
168:
90:Participants
29:
2850:(2): 57–90.
2844:Expositions
2478:Watson 2014
2466:Wilson 2009
2442:Wilson 2009
2427:Morris 1977
2376:Davies 2012
2340:Wilson 2006
2265:Wilson 2006
2253:Wilson 2006
2198:Wilson 2006
2154:Wilson 2006
2118:Wilson 2006
2106:Wilson 2006
2087:Wilson 2006
2075:Whaley 2012
2060:Wilson 2009
2048:Wilson 2009
2036:Wilson 2009
2017:Whaley 2012
2000:Godsey 2004
1988:Whaley 2012
1973:Whaley 2012
1958:Wilson 2006
1943:Wilson 2006
1931:Wilson 2009
1916:Wilson 2009
1889:Wilson 2009
1858:Wilson 2006
1837:Wilson 2006
1825:Wilson 2006
1813:Wilson 2006
1801:Wilson 2006
1762:Wilson 2009
1750:Wilson 2009
1718:Orford 2009
1671:Orford 2009
1656:Wilson 2009
1637:Wilson 2006
1625:Wilson 2009
1608:Wilson 2009
1519:The modern
1458:(blue) and
1408:Württemberg
1226:of Emperor
1224:Sarcophagus
1147:Charlemagne
1040:Rittersturm
1004:Württemberg
847:Charlemagne
780:Württemberg
741:Württemberg
737:Brandenburg
729:Reichskrieg
612:Charles VII
451:Charlemagne
413:Lutheranism
409:Reformation
268:, a French
191:Middle Ages
119:Dissolution
2961:Categories
2364:Datta 1834
2142:Lentz 2008
2130:Lentz 2008
1870:Renna 2017
1686:Bryce 1864
1582:References
1384:Charles IV
1283:apocalypse
1228:Francis II
1135:Francis II
865:George III
835:coronation
717:Francis II
644:, for the
596:Charles VI
369:Christians
328:Francis II
303:See also:
299:Background
293:apocalypse
179:Francis II
64:1806-08-06
2908:154316830
2746:: 45–68.
2594:17729330M
2566:(2019) .
2454:Berg 2010
1587:Citations
1534:Wilhelm I
1394:in 1946.
1337:William I
1291:end times
1245:Thuringia
1210:Reactions
1112:Francis I
662:Reichstag
631:Joseph II
616:Francis I
573:Leopold I
476:Charles V
417:Calvinism
348:Antiquity
289:end times
2682:40106275
1377:Savoyard
1373:imperium
1274:Augustus
1160:Frankish
1022:and the
933:Augustus
827:Napoleon
813:in 1807)
776:Salzburg
668:and the
585:Joseph I
434:de facto
291:and the
242:Napoleon
233:and the
72:Location
2586:1347435
1545:
1466:In the
1400:Bavaria
1230:in the
1187:Hofburg
1120:undated
1074:future
996:Bavaria
921:Hungary
917:Bohemia
881:Austria
867:of the
821:of the
764:Bavaria
638:
623:
603:
592:
580:
562:Prussia
499:crowned
494:
483:
405:Denmark
258:Austria
209:by the
181:of the
121:of the
112:Outcome
62: (
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1404:Saxony
1315:Sweden
1266:Weimar
1236:Vienna
1191:Vienna
1175:Saxony
1018:, the
978:(1810)
945:Sweden
807:(1804)
772:Nassau
709:Second
401:Sweden
396:feudal
364:Russia
307:, and
277:Vienna
254:France
211:papacy
193:, the
81:
2904:S2CID
2678:JSTOR
1309:King
1155:sword
1000:Baden
951:, an
784:Baden
745:Baden
558:Italy
352:popes
2921:ISBN
2861:ISBN
2825:ISBN
2794:ISBN
2695:ISBN
2647:ISBN
2582:OCLC
2572:ISBN
2550:ISBN
1454:The
1406:and
1358:and
1153:and
1033:The
1002:and
982:The
919:and
896:The
837:was
817:The
786:and
770:and
743:and
711:and
556:and
513:The
415:and
403:and
356:Rome
256:and
169:The
149:The
143:and
135:The
101:The
54:Date
2896:doi
2817:doi
2786:doi
2769:doi
2748:doi
2727:doi
2723:122
2670:doi
2643:403
2619:114
2529:doi
1313:of
1293:).
1234:in
1114:as
974:by
354:in
346:of
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2067:^
2024:^
2007:^
1980:^
1965:^
1950:^
1923:^
1908:^
1877:^
1844:^
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1693:^
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1663:^
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1615:^
1594:^
1543:r.
1402:,
1197:.
1122:,
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927:.
825:,
782:,
636:r.
621:r.
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