1163:
1185:, and is believed to have been an important source of food since at least 7500 B.C.E. in Scotland. It is still collected in quantity in Scotland, mostly for export to the Continent and also for local consumption. The official landings figures for Scotland indicate over 2,000 tonnes of winkles are exported annually. This makes winkles the sixth most important shellfish harvested in Scotland in terms of tonnage, and seventh most important in terms of value. However, since actual harvests are probably twice reported levels, the species may actually be the fourth and sixth most important, respectively.
1304:
49:
90:
1358:
1345:
1455:
66:
668:
2311:
1450:
After grading, the periwinkles are "climbed" close to the consumer, which involves checking whether they are still alive. This can take anywhere from a few hours to several days, depending on how healthy the periwinkles are and the temperature of the water they climb in. Any periwinkles left immobile
1469:
To sell large quantities, distributors are commonly used to move the periwinkles to the retailer. These have networks of transport available both internationally, regionally and locally inside a city. Several distributors are usually involved in the complete journey, each focusing on its own part of
1525:
In a fridge, the common periwinkle can usually be stored for up to a week, but this may vary depending on how long they have been stored prior to sale, and how they have been kept since the moment they are fished. As long as they are kept moist and cold, they can survive well for a longer period of
798:
Female specimens have been observed to be ripe from
February until end of May, when most are spawning. Male specimens are mainly ripe from January until the end of May and lose weight after copulation. The young seem to settle primarily from the end of May to the end of June, although other sources
1503:
Raising the common periwinkle has not been a focus due to its abundance in nature and relatively low price; however, there are potential benefits from aquaculture of this species, including a more controlled environment, easier harvesting, less damages from predators, as well as saving the natural
1494:
Ongrowing has been investigated as a potential way of increasing commercial value, but no documented pilot facilities have been established. By harvesting the periwinkle during the summer and storing them with feed until
December, not only should the grade have been increased, but the market value
794:
escape and eventually settle to the bottom. This species can breed year round depending on the local climate. Benson suggests that it reaches maturity at 10 mm and normally lives five to ten years. while Moore suggests that maturity is reached in 18 months. Some specimens have lived 20 years.
1981:
1299:
As for seafood supply chains in general, the supply chain consists of a collector, processor, distributor and finally the retailer. The true nature of the supply chain is usually more complex and opaque, with the potential for records of harvesting areas and date of catch to be falsified.
1123:
has also been found to excavate burrows in the shell of the common periwinkle when the snail is mature (above 10 mm long). The reason why this happens only to mature snails is not yet known, but one hypothesis is that a mature snail will excrete a signal substance which attracts the
930:
is now the most common marine snail along the North
Atlantic coast. It has changed North Atlantic intertidal ecosystems via grazing activities, altering the distribution and abundance of algae on rocky shores and converting soft-sediment habitats to hard substrates, as well as
1526:
time. It is not recommended to store at temperatures below 0 degrees
Celsius, even if research has shown a Median Lower Lethal Temperature of -13.0 degree Celsius. Even if the common periwinkle survives when put back into seawater, they seem to be unable to move and climb.
1516:
or thin wood, depending on the market demands. Holes in the box ensures that any water lost by the snails drains out, so that they remain in better condition for longer. A label indicates the fishing zone, packaging date, and any other information required by law.
1943:
Polyphenols in brown algae Fucus vesiculosus and
Ascophyllum nodosum: Chemical defenses against the marine herbivorous snail, Littorina littorea. J. A. Geiselman and O. J. McConnell, Journal of Chemical Ecology,1981, Volume 7, Number 6, pages 1115-1133,
1394:
Periwinkles are graded by number of snails per kilogram. The following table displays some common grades in France. The actual value depends upon supply and demand, with seasonal variations. The actual ranges may also differ from each establishment.
1058:
1114:
sp. More studies are needed before any conclusions regarding the effect of parasites on growth can be reached. It seems that growth rate is primarily affected on available food and time available for feeding, rather than parasites.
679:
is broadly ovate, thick, and sharply pointed except when eroded. The shell contains six to seven whorls with some fine threads and wrinkles. The color varies from grayish to gray-brown, often with dark spiral bands. The base of the
1960:
Influence of trematode infections on in situ growth rates of
Littorina littorea. Kim N. Mouritsen, A. Gorbushin O and K. Thomas Jensen, Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the UK, Volume 79, Issue 3, 1999, pages
1815:
The biology of
Littorina littorea. Part 1. Growth of the shell and tissues, spawning, length of life and mortality. Hillary B. Moore,Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the UK, Volume 21, Issue 2, 1937, pages
782:, reproducing annually with internal fertilization of egg capsules that are then shed directly into the sea, leading to a planktotrophic larval development time of four to seven weeks. Females lay 10,000 to 100,000
1482:
at seafood markets in large cities around the world, and is also commonly found in seafood restaurants as an appetizer or as a part of a seafood platter. In some countries, pubs may serve periwinkles as a snack.
971:
and can reach depths of 55 metres (180 feet). When exposed to either extreme cold or heat while climbing, a periwinkle will withdraw into its shell and start rolling, which may allow it to fall to the water.
1382:
If fresh seawater is readily available, the periwinkles are first graded if possible, using a machine custom built for the purpose. The method used for grading differs, but two proven methods include a
1057:
831: in) by the end of the second year. Females seem to grow more rapidly than males, and in specimens above 25 mm (1 in) in height, females seem to dominate. Another study undertaken in
1053:
The radula is taenioglossate, consisting of seven teeth per row: one middle tooth, flanked on each side by one lateral and two marginal teeth. The radula is used to scrape algae and detritus.
1888:
Chapman J. W., Carlton J. T., Bellinger M. R. & Blakeslee A. M. H. (2007). "Premature refutation of a human-mediated marine species introduction: the case history of the marine snail
749:
to 2 in), The length is measured from the end of the aperture to the apex. The height is measured by placing the shell with the aperture flat on a surface and measuring vertically.
1693:
Eschweiler, N., Molis, M. & Buschbaum, C. Helgol Mar Res (2009) "Habitat-specific size structure variations in periwinkle populations (Littorina littorea) caused by biotic factors"
2188:
1825:
Report on the Maldon (Essex) Periwinkle
Fishery. F.S. Wright, Great Britain. Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries. Fishery Investigations. Ser. II, Vol. 14, no. 5 & 6., 1936
980:
Movement both horizontally and vertically in response to light and dark as well as temperatures have been observed, but over a short timespan the movement seems to be random.
4003:
3796:
857:
Common periwinkles are native to the northeastern coasts of the
Atlantic Ocean, including northern Spain, France, Great Britain, Ireland, Scandinavia, and Russia.
3861:
2235:
1970:
On the shell growth of
Littorina Littorea and the occurrence of Polydora Ciliata. Lars Orrhage, Zoologiska bidrag frÄn Uppsala, Volume 38, 1969, pages 137-152
1251:
1571:
per regna tria naturĂŠ, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis. Tomus I. Editio decima, reformata.
1162:
2696:
2171:
3990:
3757:
1857:
1140:
A mortality rate of up to 94% per annum has been observed for the first two months, followed by up to 60% per annum for the rest of the first year:
1461:
Hereafter, the winkles are commonly packed in smaller quantities before being distributed to customers. Mesh bags from 3 to 10 kg are common.
4077:
3822:
4057:
3887:
2067:
4082:
1552:
1627:
655:
species with a dark and sometimes banded shell. It is native to the rocky shores of the northeastern, and introduced to the northwestern,
1738:
Chang A. L., Blakeslee A. M. H., Miller A. W. & Ruiz G. M. (2011). "Establishment Failure in Biological Invasions: A Case History of
1783:
2193:
4072:
3744:
2665:
2228:
2184:
4016:
3936:
3770:
1599:
1332:
A report on the state of the periwinkle industry in Ireland suggests a maximum catch size in order to preserve the population.
885:
567:
215:
1388:
860:
There have been more than 14,000 observations made available as a dataset at the Global Biodiversity Information Facility -
3827:
3848:
2689:
1144:...out of every 950 shells of all ages at that time, 850 are first year, and 100 are in their second or subsequent year.
4062:
2221:
1132:
larvae to settle. The infection by this parasite does not seem to alter the growth and proportions of the snail shell.
3809:
3692:
1982:"The Biology of Littorina littorea. Part 1. Growth of the Shell and Tissues, Spawning, Length of Life and Mortality"
1315:
Commonly harvested in buckets by workers walking in the intertidal zone on low tide; other methods have been tried.
3492:
868:. The NBN Gateway - Littorina littorea has a distribution map over the UK and Ireland. These datasets may overlap.
89:
3866:
864:, which can be explored. More distribution information can also be found at Ocean Biographic Information System -
3281:
3256:
2614:
932:
77:
3617:
3313:
3069:
2682:
2411:
2179:
1128:
larvae. Another hypothesis is that a mature snail has a change in the shell surface that makes it suitable for
1451:
at the bottom are considered dead and are discarded. It is not uncommon to have up to 8% waste in a shipment.
4034:
2102:"Effects of shore height, wave exposure and geographical distance on thermal niche width of intertidal fauna"
688:. The white outer lip is sometimes checkered with brown patches. The inside of the shell is chocolate brown.
3574:
3477:
3152:
3063:
2875:
2817:
2728:
2565:
2453:
3670:
2168:
1104:
3632:
3567:
3213:
3180:
2780:
2510:
1291:
The record for the farthest a human has spat a winkle was 10.4 metres by Alain Jourden (France) in 2006.
1150:
4067:
3697:
3527:
3503:
3487:
3058:
3046:
2933:
2446:
1865:
1303:
1092:
905:
681:
641:
194:
1375:
The processor buys in bulk from the collector, involving a possibly long transport route by land in a
767:, as it may represent an opportunity to observe a transitional phase in the evolution of an organism.
4021:
3941:
3718:
3679:
3208:
3111:
3036:
2908:
2870:
2807:
2743:
2516:
2404:
2116:
2059:
2053:
1993:
1913:
1587:
897:
764:
48:
3522:
3308:
2484:
1098:
1074:
685:
3840:
1200:, where they are commonly referred to as winkles or in some areas buckies, willicks, or wilks. In
983:
Experiments seem to indicate that the snail responds to light and current, and moves accordingly.
3228:
3131:
3121:
3106:
3101:
3010:
3002:
2997:
2865:
2785:
2775:
2733:
2491:
2460:
2433:
2009:
1376:
1243:
889:
832:
224:
84:
3918:
4008:
3801:
1787:
1631:
1110:
3977:
3900:
3705:
3560:
3537:
3454:
3340:
3297:
3291:
3262:
2987:
2982:
2918:
2913:
2770:
2498:
2467:
2299:
2292:
2200:
2063:
1277:
1068:
1042:
2101:
3928:
3905:
3449:
3401:
3351:
3345:
3286:
3223:
3116:
3052:
2852:
2759:
2473:
2397:
2347:
2285:
2278:
2124:
2001:
1945:
1752:
1694:
1677:
1667:
Welch J. J. (2010). "The "Island Rule" and Deep-Sea Gastropods: Re-Examining the Evidence".
1536:
1171:
1119:
3684:
3874:
3233:
3218:
3203:
3198:
2802:
2791:
2548:
2438:
2175:
1568:
1391:
also using bars. The price to purchase a complete sorting machine can be âŹ10,000 or more.
1269:
1231:
953:
676:
151:
141:
1154:
is known to be fatal to the snail, but this does not account for the observed mortality.
2120:
1997:
3591:
3532:
3482:
3472:
3376:
3147:
3126:
3041:
2977:
2957:
2629:
2624:
2390:
2333:
1384:
1273:
1258:
808:
656:
627:
65:
2083:
1148:
Older individuals above 15 months old seem to have a mortality of only 23% per annum.
759:, with several different morphs known. Its phenotypic variations may be indicative of
667:
4051:
3596:
3497:
3390:
3383:
3303:
3175:
3170:
2972:
2967:
2962:
2928:
2880:
2860:
2634:
2609:
2384:
2326:
1549:
1486:
Most of the volume fished is consumed by France, Belgium, Spain and the Netherlands.
1235:
909:
877:
783:
563:
211:
2013:
1454:
3982:
3710:
3243:
2765:
2644:
2619:
2542:
2354:
2340:
1063:
1036:
1003:
645:
161:
3775:
3968:
1756:
1681:
17:
3913:
3853:
3835:
3783:
3664:
3409:
3136:
3016:
2992:
2923:
2903:
2885:
2822:
2797:
2575:
1513:
1047:
949:
913:
31:
1265:. The shell is usually crushed and the soft parts extracted and put on a hook.
1223:
attached to the bag to enable the extraction of the soft parts from the shell.
3601:
3441:
3367:
3084:
2753:
2649:
2593:
2254:
2005:
1845:
1698:
1655:
1479:
1361:
1348:
1326:
1285:
1019:
1015:
995:
901:
893:
760:
652:
131:
2207:
1219:
near beaches in Ireland and Scotland, boiled in their local seawater, with a
3749:
3731:
3414:
3357:
3332:
2938:
2827:
2748:
1216:
1167:
968:
957:
779:
756:
630:
623:
171:
101:
3814:
3655:
763:, as opposed to phenotypic plasticity. This is of particular importance to
2310:
3962:
3879:
3649:
3606:
2711:
2654:
2360:
2245:
1744:
1669:
1319:
1227:
1193:
1189:
1090:
The common periwinkle can act as a host for various parasites, including
1007:
921:
787:
571:
121:
1512:
Commonly packed in 3 kg boxes by the processor, the box is usually
1254:, raw snails in general are about 80% water, 15% protein, and 1.4% fat.
4029:
3995:
3762:
3464:
3432:
3141:
3093:
3028:
2841:
2738:
2583:
2478:
2379:
2371:
2262:
2129:
1949:
1834:
1239:
1201:
1197:
1027:
1023:
964:
881:
633:
615:
2213:
3788:
3551:
3190:
2949:
2895:
2812:
2537:
2532:
2504:
1182:
1178:
1011:
917:
111:
57:
3626:
1925:
The Biology of Rocky Shores, page 94 By Colin Little, J. A. Kitching
1188:
Periwinkles are usually picked off the rocks by hand or caught in a
3736:
1908:
711: in) at maturity, with an average length of 16 to 38 mm (
3514:
3323:
3273:
3162:
2833:
2674:
2639:
2588:
2272:
1986:
Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom
1934:
The Biology of Rocky Shores, page 83, Colin Little, J. A. Kitching
1495:
should be higher since supply is lower in the cold winter months.
1453:
1161:
999:
836:
791:
666:
619:
3892:
2720:
2428:
1262:
637:
30:
This article is about the mollusc. For the flowering plant, see
3723:
3630:
2678:
2217:
821: in) in height December the first year, and 17.4 mm (
1268:
In accordance with their history as an ancient food source in
1247:
1220:
1031:
961:
1835:
Global Biodiversity Information Facility - Littorina Littorea
896:. The first recorded sighting in the East was in 1840 in the
876:
Common periwinkles were introduced to the Atlantic coast of
1784:"Nonindigenous Aquatic Species Database: Littorina littorea"
1628:"Nonindigenous Aquatic Species Database: Littorina littorea"
1192:
from a boat. They are mostly eaten in the coastal areas of
884:
in the mid-19th century. This species is also found on the
2178:
from the Invasive Species Specialist Group website of the
1379:
or airplane, taking care to avoid temperatures below 0°C.
735: in). Shell height can reach up to 30 to 52 mm (
1555:) from references and CC-BY-2.5 text from the reference
691:
The width of the shell ranges from 10 to 12 millimetres (
1846:
Ocean Biographic Information System - Littorina Littorea
2189:
Marine Life Information Network for Britain and Ireland
1170:
Lower Magdalenian layer (15 000 before present) in the
1252:
USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference
811:
suggests an initial growth reaching up to 14 mm (
3952:
3639:
3584:
3550:
3513:
3463:
3440:
3431:
3400:
3366:
3331:
3322:
3272:
3242:
3189:
3161:
3092:
3083:
3027:
2948:
2894:
2851:
2719:
2710:
2602:
2574:
2558:
2525:
2421:
2369:
2318:
2252:
2151:. Second edition. New York: Van Nostrand Rheinhold.
1337:
998:, grazing intertidal gastropod. It is primarily an
1715:Journal of experimental marine Biology and Ecology
1548:This article incorporates a public domain text (a
2100:Davenport, John; Davenport, Julia L. (May 2005).
1318:In Maine, the snails are commonly collected by a
1166:Remains of an ancient meal. Winkle shells from
1034:. Macroalgae that are readily consumed include
1387:with horizontal bars instead of a mesh, and a
1177:This species appears in prehistoric shellfish
2690:
2229:
8:
1811:
1809:
1807:
1805:
1777:
1775:
1773:
1771:
1769:
1767:
1734:
1732:
1730:
1728:
1726:
1621:
1619:
1617:
1615:
2058:. Guinness World Records Limited. pp.
3627:
3437:
3328:
3089:
2716:
2697:
2683:
2675:
2236:
2222:
2214:
2033:Ashmore, quoted in McKay and Fowler 1997 b
1884:
1882:
900:. It is now abundant on rocky shores from
64:
47:
38:
2128:
1272:, they are harvested and consumed in the
948:The common periwinkle is mainly found on
1651:
1649:
1397:
1302:
839:showed growth reaching up to 8 mm (
1581:
1579:
1559:
1504:population from commercial harvesting.
1014:to scrape algae from rocks and, in the
1334:
644:, and is classified within the family
76:on the edge of a small sandy beach in
1713:(L.) (Gastropoda: Prosobranchiata)".
7:
4035:7E67CB93-92CF-4435-A9BC-5A81CF8B5697
1658:at marlin.ac.uk retrieved 20.04.2016
1553:work of the United States Government
1490:Methods to increase commercial value
530:Littorina sphaeroidalis Locard, 1886
56:Periwinkle emerging from its shell,
533:Littorina vulgaris J. Sowerby, 1832
1026:that covers the surface of mud in
1002:grazer, but it will feed on small
517:Dautzenberg & P. Fischer, 1925
481:Dautzenberg & Durouchoux, 1906
431:Dautzenberg & Durouchoux, 1900
421:Dautzenberg & Durouchoux, 1900
411:Dautzenberg & Durouchoux, 1913
331:Dautzenberg & Durouchoux, 1912
25:
2666:List of fishing topics by subject
1478:The common periwinkle is sold by
1078:act as chemical defenses against
2309:
1709:Grahame J. (1975). "Spawning in
1600:World Register of Marine Species
1573:pp. , 1â824. Holmiae. (Salvius).
1356:
1343:
1280:, where they are usually called
1056:
908:. In Canada, its range includes
88:
2158:. New York: St. Martin's Press.
1980:Moore, Hilary B. (March 1937).
1892:in the northwestern Atlantic".
886:west coast of the United States
4078:Molluscs of the Atlantic Ocean
2319:Land and freshwater gastropods
2109:Marine Ecology Progress Series
1782:Benson, Amy (20 August 2007).
1389:circle-throw vibrating machine
1018:community, pick up algae from
956:. It sometimes lives in small
872:Introductions to North America
671:Shell of the common periwinkle
1:
2194:Invertebrate Anatomy OnLine:
1626:Benson, Amy (21 April 2009).
1257:Periwinkles are also used as
1226:Periwinkles are considered a
799:indicate earlier settlement.
684:is white. The shell lacks an
4058:Gastropods described in 1758
2169:Littorina littorea (mollusc)
1757:10.1371/journal.pone.0016035
1682:10.1371/journal.pone.0008776
849: in) the first winter.
4083:Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus
2055:Guinness World Records 2014
935:displacing native species.
790:capsule from which pelagic
4099:
2156:Seashells of North America
1362:Snorkeling for periwinkles
1215:They are commonly sold in
960:. It may also be found in
755:can be highly variable in
29:
4073:Marine molluscs of Europe
3615:
3199:Black-foot opihi/Hawaiian
2663:
2307:
2006:10.1017/S0025315400053844
1699:10.1007/s10152-008-0131-x
1355:
1342:
952:in the higher and middle
230:
223:
200:
193:
85:Scientific classification
83:
78:Woods Hole, Massachusetts
72:
63:
55:
46:
41:
3070:Placopecten magellanicus
2914:New Zealand green-lipped
2412:Placopecten magellanicus
2180:World Conservation Union
1586:Vinarski, Maxim (2022).
1349:Dredging for periwinkles
3575:Acanthopleura granulata
3144:(group of four species)
2566:Freshwater pearl mussel
2454:Austrovenus stutchburyi
2052:Glenday, Craig (2013).
2042:McKay and Fowler 1997 b
1470:the transport network.
1284:, the generic name for
1246:fatty acids and low in
277:Littorina litorea var.
3568:Acanthopleura echinata
3478:Atlantic white-spotted
2929:Asian/Philippine green
2511:Ruditapes largillierti
2154:Abbott, R. T. (1986).
2147:Abbott, R. T. (1974).
1458:
1307:
1238:. The meat is high in
1174:
1146:
672:
3504:Amphioctopus fangsiao
3148:South African abalone
3020:("true oyster" genus)
2786:California butterclam
2447:Mercenaria mercenaria
2370:Free-swimming marine
2210:on Sealife Collection
1742:in California, USA".
1457:
1322:towed from a vessel.
1306:
1196:, England, Wales and
1165:
1142:
1105:Microphallus pygmaeus
670:
240:Littorina bartonensis
3229:Ribbed Mediterranean
2744:Grooved carpet shell
2517:Grooved carpet shell
2405:Argopecten irradians
1914:Encyclopedia of Life
1894:Biological Invasions
1566:Linnaeus C. (1758).
1404:Number per kilogram
1329:has also been used.
1010:larvae. It uses its
898:Gulf of St. Lawrence
765:evolutionary biology
234:Littorina armoricana
4063:Commercial molluscs
3224:Rayed Mediterranean
2818:Japanese littleneck
2559:Freshwater bivalves
2485:Spisula solidissima
2121:2005MEPS..292...41D
1998:1937JMBUK..21..721M
1909:"Edible periwinkle"
1634:on 23 February 2012
1261:for catching small
1250:; according to the
1151:Cercaria emasculans
1099:Cryptocotyle lingua
1075:Ascophyllum nodosum
1066:in the brown algae
1050:can also be eaten.
920:, Newfoundland and
648:, the periwinkles.
507:Teilman-Friis, 1898
3685:Littorina_littorea
3671:Littorina littorea
3641:Littorina littorea
3597:Land snail farming
3011:Gillardeau oysters
2729:Atlantic jackknife
2492:Paphies ventricosa
2461:Saxidomus nuttalli
2434:Atlantic surf clam
2196:Littorina irrorata
2174:2011-06-11 at the
2149:American Seashells
2130:10.3354/meps292041
1950:10.1007/BF00987632
1890:Littorina littorea
1860:Littorina littorea
1790:on 10 January 2009
1740:Littorina littorea
1711:Littorina littorea
1590:Littorina littorea
1459:
1377:refrigerator truck
1308:
1204:, they are called
1175:
1093:Renicola roscovita
866:Littorina littorea
862:Littorina littorea
833:Blackwater Estuary
673:
611:Littorina littorea
495:Littorina littorea
485:Littorina littorea
475:Littorina littorea
465:Littorina littorea
455:Littorina littorea
445:Littorina littorea
435:Littorina littorea
425:Littorina littorea
415:Littorina littorea
405:Littorina littorea
395:Littorina littorea
385:Littorina littorea
375:Littorina littorea
365:Littorina littorea
355:Littorina littorea
345:Littorina littorea
335:Littorina littorea
325:Littorina littorea
315:Littorina littorea
305:Littorina littorea
295:Littorina littorea
246:Littorina communis
204:Littorina littorea
42:Common periwinkle
27:Species of mollusc
4045:
4044:
3901:Open Tree of Life
3633:Taxon identifiers
3624:
3623:
3602:Gastropod anatomy
3561:Chiton magnificus
3546:
3545:
3523:New Zealand arrow
3427:
3426:
3423:
3422:
3298:Kelletia lischkei
3263:Littorina sitkana
3209:Yellow-foot opihi
3079:
3078:
2973:Colchester native
2672:
2671:
2615:Gathering by hand
2499:Paphies australis
2468:Arctica islandica
2422:Infaunal bivalves
2300:Kelletia lischkei
2293:Kelletia kelletii
2208:Common periwinkle
2201:Lander University
2185:Common periwinkle
2069:978-1-908843-15-9
1656:Common periwinkle
1592:(Linnaeus, 1758)"
1448:
1447:
1368:
1367:
1278:Portuguese people
1069:Fucus vesiculosus
1043:Ulva intestinalis
651:This is a robust
602:common periwinkle
598:
597:
590:Turbo ventricosus
537:Turbo bicarinatus
501:Raeymaekers, 1889
441:Middendorff, 1849
401:Middendorff, 1849
285:Littorina litorea
268:Littorina litorea
258:Littorina litorea
252:Littorina litorea
18:Common Periwinkle
16:(Redirected from
4090:
4038:
4037:
4025:
4024:
4012:
4011:
3999:
3998:
3986:
3985:
3973:
3972:
3971:
3945:
3944:
3932:
3931:
3922:
3921:
3909:
3908:
3896:
3895:
3883:
3882:
3870:
3869:
3857:
3856:
3854:NBNSYS0000176211
3844:
3843:
3831:
3830:
3818:
3817:
3805:
3804:
3792:
3791:
3779:
3778:
3766:
3765:
3753:
3752:
3740:
3739:
3727:
3726:
3714:
3713:
3701:
3700:
3688:
3687:
3675:
3674:
3673:
3660:
3659:
3658:
3628:
3438:
3352:Chorus giganteus
3329:
3090:
3053:Pecten jacobaeus
2760:Mactra stultorum
2717:
2699:
2692:
2685:
2676:
2526:Sessile bivalves
2398:Pecten jacobaeus
2348:Cepaea nemoralis
2313:
2286:Bullacta exarata
2279:Buccinum undatum
2238:
2231:
2224:
2215:
2135:
2134:
2132:
2106:
2097:
2091:
2090:
2088:
2080:
2074:
2073:
2049:
2043:
2040:
2034:
2031:
2025:
2024:
2022:
2020:
1977:
1971:
1968:
1962:
1958:
1952:
1941:
1935:
1932:
1926:
1923:
1917:
1906:
1900:
1886:
1877:
1876:
1874:
1873:
1864:. Archived from
1854:
1848:
1843:
1837:
1832:
1826:
1823:
1817:
1813:
1800:
1799:
1797:
1795:
1786:. Archived from
1779:
1762:
1736:
1721:
1707:
1701:
1691:
1685:
1665:
1659:
1653:
1644:
1643:
1641:
1639:
1630:. Archived from
1623:
1610:
1609:
1607:
1606:
1583:
1574:
1564:
1537:Tegula pfeifferi
1514:polystyrene foam
1398:
1360:
1359:
1347:
1346:
1335:
1120:Polydora ciliata
1060:
848:
847:
843:
830:
829:
825:
820:
819:
815:
748:
747:
743:
740:
734:
733:
729:
726:
720:
719:
715:
710:
709:
705:
700:
699:
695:
618:of small edible
439:pallidefasciatus
206:
186:L. littorea
93:
92:
68:
51:
39:
21:
4098:
4097:
4093:
4092:
4091:
4089:
4088:
4087:
4048:
4047:
4046:
4041:
4033:
4028:
4020:
4015:
4007:
4002:
3994:
3989:
3981:
3976:
3967:
3966:
3961:
3954:Turbo littoreus
3948:
3940:
3935:
3927:
3925:
3917:
3912:
3904:
3899:
3891:
3886:
3878:
3875:Observation.org
3873:
3865:
3860:
3852:
3847:
3839:
3834:
3826:
3821:
3813:
3808:
3800:
3795:
3787:
3782:
3774:
3769:
3761:
3756:
3748:
3743:
3735:
3730:
3722:
3717:
3709:
3704:
3696:
3691:
3683:
3678:
3669:
3668:
3663:
3654:
3653:
3648:
3635:
3625:
3620:
3611:
3607:Bivalve anatomy
3580:
3542:
3528:Japanese flying
3509:
3459:
3419:
3396:
3362:
3318:
3268:
3238:
3219:Common European
3185:
3157:
3075:
3059:Peruvian calico
3023:
2944:
2941:(mussel family)
2890:
2847:
2792:Senilia senilis
2706:
2705:Edible mollusks
2703:
2673:
2668:
2659:
2598:
2570:
2554:
2549:Pinctada maxima
2521:
2439:Soft-shell clam
2417:
2365:
2314:
2305:
2248:
2242:
2176:Wayback Machine
2165:
2144:
2142:Further reading
2139:
2138:
2104:
2099:
2098:
2094:
2086:
2082:
2081:
2077:
2070:
2051:
2050:
2046:
2041:
2037:
2032:
2028:
2018:
2016:
1979:
1978:
1974:
1969:
1965:
1959:
1955:
1942:
1938:
1933:
1929:
1924:
1920:
1907:
1903:
1887:
1880:
1871:
1869:
1858:"NBN Gateway -
1856:
1855:
1851:
1844:
1840:
1833:
1829:
1824:
1820:
1814:
1803:
1793:
1791:
1781:
1780:
1765:
1737:
1724:
1708:
1704:
1692:
1688:
1666:
1662:
1654:
1647:
1637:
1635:
1625:
1624:
1613:
1604:
1602:
1585:
1584:
1577:
1569:Systema naturae
1565:
1561:
1546:
1532:
1523:
1510:
1501:
1492:
1476:
1467:
1373:
1364:, YouTube video
1357:
1351:, YouTube video
1344:
1338:External videos
1313:
1297:
1270:Atlantic Europe
1160:
1138:
1088:
1046:; if provided,
989:
978:
954:intertidal zone
946:
941:
874:
855:
845:
841:
840:
827:
823:
822:
817:
813:
812:
805:
786:contained in a
773:
745:
741:
738:
736:
731:
727:
724:
722:
717:
713:
712:
707:
703:
702:
697:
693:
692:
665:
584:Turbo ustulatus
561:Turbo littoreus
549:Turbo elongatus
543:Turbo carinatus
521:Littorina rudis
511:Littorina rudis
505:Littorina parva
219:
208:
202:
189:
152:Littorinimorpha
142:Caenogastropoda
87:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
4096:
4094:
4086:
4085:
4080:
4075:
4070:
4065:
4060:
4050:
4049:
4043:
4042:
4040:
4039:
4026:
4013:
4000:
3987:
3974:
3958:
3956:
3950:
3949:
3947:
3946:
3933:
3923:
3910:
3897:
3884:
3871:
3858:
3845:
3832:
3819:
3806:
3793:
3780:
3767:
3754:
3741:
3728:
3715:
3702:
3689:
3676:
3661:
3645:
3643:
3637:
3636:
3631:
3622:
3621:
3616:
3613:
3612:
3610:
3609:
3604:
3599:
3594:
3592:Oyster farming
3588:
3586:
3585:Related topics
3582:
3581:
3579:
3578:
3571:
3564:
3556:
3554:
3548:
3547:
3544:
3543:
3541:
3540:
3535:
3530:
3525:
3519:
3517:
3511:
3510:
3508:
3507:
3500:
3495:
3490:
3485:
3480:
3475:
3469:
3467:
3461:
3460:
3458:
3457:
3452:
3446:
3444:
3435:
3429:
3428:
3425:
3424:
3421:
3420:
3418:
3417:
3412:
3406:
3404:
3398:
3397:
3395:
3394:
3387:
3380:
3377:Cornu aspersum
3372:
3370:
3364:
3363:
3361:
3360:
3355:
3348:
3343:
3337:
3335:
3326:
3320:
3319:
3317:
3316:
3311:
3306:
3301:
3294:
3289:
3284:
3278:
3276:
3270:
3269:
3267:
3266:
3259:
3254:
3248:
3246:
3240:
3239:
3237:
3236:
3231:
3226:
3221:
3216:
3211:
3206:
3201:
3195:
3193:
3187:
3186:
3184:
3183:
3178:
3173:
3167:
3165:
3159:
3158:
3156:
3155:
3150:
3145:
3139:
3134:
3129:
3124:
3119:
3114:
3109:
3104:
3098:
3096:
3087:
3081:
3080:
3077:
3076:
3074:
3073:
3066:
3061:
3056:
3049:
3044:
3039:
3033:
3031:
3025:
3024:
3022:
3021:
3013:
3008:
3000:
2995:
2990:
2985:
2980:
2975:
2970:
2965:
2960:
2954:
2952:
2946:
2945:
2943:
2942:
2936:
2931:
2926:
2921:
2916:
2911:
2906:
2900:
2898:
2892:
2891:
2889:
2888:
2886:Giant Atlantic
2883:
2878:
2873:
2868:
2863:
2857:
2855:
2849:
2848:
2846:
2845:
2838:
2830:
2825:
2820:
2815:
2810:
2808:Triangle shell
2805:
2800:
2795:
2788:
2783:
2778:
2773:
2768:
2763:
2756:
2751:
2746:
2741:
2736:
2731:
2725:
2723:
2714:
2708:
2707:
2704:
2702:
2701:
2694:
2687:
2679:
2670:
2669:
2664:
2661:
2660:
2658:
2657:
2652:
2647:
2642:
2637:
2632:
2630:Oyster farming
2627:
2622:
2617:
2612:
2606:
2604:
2600:
2599:
2597:
2596:
2591:
2586:
2580:
2578:
2572:
2571:
2569:
2568:
2562:
2560:
2556:
2555:
2553:
2552:
2545:
2540:
2535:
2529:
2527:
2523:
2522:
2520:
2519:
2514:
2507:
2502:
2495:
2488:
2481:
2476:
2471:
2464:
2457:
2450:
2443:
2442:
2441:
2436:
2425:
2423:
2419:
2418:
2416:
2415:
2408:
2401:
2394:
2391:Pecten maximus
2387:
2382:
2376:
2374:
2367:
2366:
2364:
2363:
2358:
2351:
2344:
2337:
2334:Cornu aspersum
2330:
2322:
2320:
2316:
2315:
2308:
2306:
2304:
2303:
2296:
2289:
2282:
2275:
2270:
2265:
2259:
2257:
2250:
2249:
2243:
2241:
2240:
2233:
2226:
2218:
2212:
2211:
2204:
2191:
2182:
2164:
2163:External links
2161:
2160:
2159:
2152:
2143:
2140:
2137:
2136:
2092:
2075:
2068:
2044:
2035:
2026:
1972:
1963:
1953:
1936:
1927:
1918:
1901:
1878:
1849:
1838:
1827:
1818:
1801:
1763:
1722:
1702:
1686:
1660:
1645:
1611:
1575:
1558:
1557:
1545:
1542:
1541:
1540:
1531:
1528:
1522:
1519:
1509:
1506:
1500:
1497:
1491:
1488:
1475:
1472:
1466:
1463:
1446:
1445:
1442:
1438:
1437:
1434:
1430:
1429:
1426:
1422:
1421:
1418:
1414:
1413:
1410:
1406:
1405:
1402:
1385:Trommel screen
1372:
1369:
1366:
1365:
1353:
1352:
1340:
1339:
1312:
1309:
1296:
1293:
1274:Azores Islands
1236:Asian cuisines
1159:
1156:
1137:
1134:
1087:
1084:
988:
985:
977:
974:
945:
942:
940:
937:
880:, possibly by
873:
870:
854:
851:
809:Plymouth Sound
804:
801:
772:
769:
664:
661:
657:Atlantic Ocean
596:
595:
594:
593:
592:Woodward, 1833
587:
581:
580:Woodward, 1833
578:Turbo sulcatus
575:
558:
555:Turbo litoreus
552:
551:Woodward, 1833
546:
545:Woodward, 1833
540:
539:Woodward, 1833
534:
531:
528:
518:
508:
502:
492:
482:
472:
462:
452:
442:
432:
422:
412:
402:
399:fuscofasciatus
392:
382:
372:
362:
352:
342:
332:
322:
312:
302:
292:
291:Jeffreys, 1865
282:
281:Jeffreys, 1865
275:
274:Jeffreys, 1865
265:
264:Jeffreys, 1865
255:
254:(Turton, 1819)
249:
243:
237:
228:
227:
221:
220:
209:
198:
197:
191:
190:
183:
181:
177:
176:
169:
165:
164:
159:
155:
154:
149:
145:
144:
139:
135:
134:
129:
125:
124:
119:
115:
114:
109:
105:
104:
99:
95:
94:
81:
80:
70:
69:
61:
60:
53:
52:
44:
43:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4095:
4084:
4081:
4079:
4076:
4074:
4071:
4069:
4066:
4064:
4061:
4059:
4056:
4055:
4053:
4036:
4031:
4027:
4023:
4018:
4014:
4010:
4005:
4001:
3997:
3992:
3988:
3984:
3979:
3975:
3970:
3964:
3960:
3959:
3957:
3955:
3951:
3943:
3938:
3934:
3930:
3924:
3920:
3915:
3911:
3907:
3902:
3898:
3894:
3889:
3885:
3881:
3876:
3872:
3868:
3863:
3859:
3855:
3850:
3846:
3842:
3837:
3833:
3829:
3824:
3820:
3816:
3811:
3807:
3803:
3798:
3794:
3790:
3785:
3781:
3777:
3772:
3768:
3764:
3759:
3755:
3751:
3746:
3742:
3738:
3733:
3729:
3725:
3720:
3716:
3712:
3707:
3703:
3699:
3694:
3690:
3686:
3681:
3677:
3672:
3666:
3662:
3657:
3651:
3647:
3646:
3644:
3642:
3638:
3634:
3629:
3619:
3614:
3608:
3605:
3603:
3600:
3598:
3595:
3593:
3590:
3589:
3587:
3583:
3577:
3576:
3572:
3570:
3569:
3565:
3563:
3562:
3558:
3557:
3555:
3553:
3549:
3539:
3536:
3534:
3531:
3529:
3526:
3524:
3521:
3520:
3518:
3516:
3512:
3506:
3505:
3501:
3499:
3496:
3494:
3491:
3489:
3488:Pacific giant
3486:
3484:
3481:
3479:
3476:
3474:
3471:
3470:
3468:
3466:
3462:
3456:
3453:
3451:
3448:
3447:
3445:
3443:
3439:
3436:
3434:
3430:
3416:
3413:
3411:
3408:
3407:
3405:
3403:
3399:
3393:
3392:
3391:Helix pomatia
3388:
3386:
3385:
3384:Helix lucorum
3381:
3379:
3378:
3374:
3373:
3371:
3369:
3365:
3359:
3356:
3354:
3353:
3349:
3347:
3344:
3342:
3339:
3338:
3336:
3334:
3330:
3327:
3325:
3321:
3315:
3312:
3310:
3307:
3305:
3302:
3300:
3299:
3295:
3293:
3290:
3288:
3285:
3283:
3280:
3279:
3277:
3275:
3271:
3265:
3264:
3260:
3258:
3255:
3253:
3250:
3249:
3247:
3245:
3241:
3235:
3232:
3230:
3227:
3225:
3222:
3220:
3217:
3215:
3212:
3210:
3207:
3205:
3202:
3200:
3197:
3196:
3194:
3192:
3188:
3182:
3179:
3177:
3174:
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2015:
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1868:on 2016-08-22
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1004:invertebrates
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933:competitively
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910:New Brunswick
907:
904:northward to
903:
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586:Lamarck, 1822
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195:Binomial name
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19:
4068:Littorinidae
3953:
3640:
3573:
3566:
3559:
3502:
3493:Southern red
3389:
3382:
3375:
3350:
3324:Other snails
3296:
3261:
3251:
3068:
3051:
3037:Atlantic bay
3015:
3003:
2968:Southern mud
2840:
2832:
2790:
2771:Ocean quahog
2758:
2645:Pearl diving
2635:Oyster boats
2620:Clam digging
2547:
2543:Pearl oyster
2509:
2497:
2490:
2483:
2466:
2459:
2452:
2445:
2410:
2403:
2396:
2389:
2355:Otala lactea
2353:
2346:
2341:Helix aperta
2339:
2332:
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2277:
2267:
2195:
2155:
2148:
2112:
2108:
2095:
2078:
2054:
2047:
2038:
2029:
2017:. Retrieved
1989:
1985:
1975:
1966:
1956:
1939:
1930:
1921:
1912:
1904:
1896:
1893:
1889:
1870:. Retrieved
1866:the original
1859:
1852:
1841:
1830:
1821:
1792:. Retrieved
1788:the original
1759:
1748:
1743:
1739:
1717:
1714:
1710:
1705:
1689:
1676:(1): e8776.
1673:
1668:
1663:
1636:. Retrieved
1632:the original
1603:. Retrieved
1595:
1589:
1567:
1562:
1547:
1535:
1524:
1511:
1502:
1493:
1485:
1477:
1468:
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1449:
1441:Super Jumbo
1393:
1381:
1374:
1331:
1324:
1317:
1314:
1298:
1295:Supply chain
1290:
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1267:
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1103:
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1073:
1067:
1062:
1055:
1052:
1041:
1037:Ulva lactuca
1035:
1022:or from the
991:
990:
982:
979:
950:rocky shores
947:
927:
926:
906:Newfoundland
882:rock ballast
875:
865:
861:
859:
856:
853:Distribution
806:
797:
775:
774:
752:
751:
690:
674:
650:
646:Littorinidae
610:
609:
605:
601:
599:
589:
583:
577:
560:
557:Turton, 1819
554:
548:
542:
536:
527:Harmer, 1921
524:
520:
514:
510:
504:
498:
494:
491:Harmer, 1920
488:
484:
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468:
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454:
451:Harmer, 1920
448:
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384:
381:Harmer, 1920
378:
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351:Harmer, 1920
348:
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341:Harmer, 1920
338:
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311:Harmer, 1920
308:
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271:
267:
261:
257:
251:
245:
239:
236:Locard, 1886
233:
203:
201:
185:
184:
172:
162:Littorinidae
73:
36:
3914:SeaLifeBase
3836:NatureServe
3784:iNaturalist
3665:Wikispecies
3538:Neon flying
3244:Periwinkles
3204:Turtle/talc
3137:Green ormer
3047:New Zealand
3017:Crassostrea
2998:Sydney rock
2876:New Zealand
2798:Smooth clam
2766:Blunt gaper
2576:Cephalopods
2244:Commercial
2084:"Documents"
2019:22 November
1499:Aquaculture
1480:fishmongers
1465:Distributor
1401:Grade name
1325:In Norway,
1181:throughout
1080:L. littorea
1048:blue mussel
992:L. littorea
928:L. littorea
914:Nova Scotia
807:A study in
803:Growth rate
776:L. littorea
753:L. littorea
663:Description
499:unicarinata
279:sinistrorsa
248:Brown, 1843
242:Brown, 1843
74:L. littorea
32:Vinca minor
4052:Categories
3455:Bottletail
3442:Cuttlefish
3402:Freshwater
3346:Korean mud
3309:Pear whelk
3085:Gastropods
3042:Great/king
2988:Windowpane
2983:Portuguese
2919:California
2823:Razor clam
2803:Soft-shell
2650:Ama divers
2603:Techniques
2594:Cuttlefish
2268:Periwinkle
2255:gastropods
2206:Photos of
1992:(2): 739.
1872:2016-08-08
1720:: 185â196.
1605:2011-05-16
1544:References
1327:snorkeling
1311:Collection
1286:sea snails
1217:paper bags
1168:Cantabrian
1130:P. ciliata
1126:P. ciliata
1020:cord grass
1016:salt marsh
996:omnivorous
958:tide pools
902:New Jersey
894:California
890:Washington
771:Life cycle
761:speciation
653:intertidal
471:Wood, 1848
469:pyramidata
461:Wood, 1848
391:Wood, 1848
371:Wood, 1848
369:delphinula
361:Wood, 1848
339:complanata
321:Wood, 1848
299:intermedia
272:paupercula
138:Subclass:
132:Gastropoda
3969:Q41168532
3450:Spineless
3314:Lightning
3282:Channeled
2939:Mytilidae
2828:Pod razor
2749:Hard clam
2187:from the
2115:: 41â50.
1899::737-750.
1508:Packaging
1371:Processor
1210:caracoles
1158:Human use
1136:Mortality
1111:Himasthla
1086:Parasites
1028:estuaries
969:estuaries
780:oviparous
757:phenotype
686:umbilicus
682:columella
642:operculum
636:that has
631:gastropod
624:sea snail
479:sanguinea
262:brevicula
180:Species:
173:Littorina
108:Kingdom:
102:Eukaryota
4009:11443963
3963:Wikidata
3841:2.808466
3802:10233521
3650:Wikidata
3618:Category
3533:Humboldt
3483:Big blue
3341:Mud-flat
3292:Kellet's
3132:Greenlip
3127:Blacklip
3029:Scallops
2712:Bivalves
2655:Trawling
2625:Dredging
2372:bivalves
2361:Escargot
2246:mollusks
2172:Archived
2014:53869716
1794:27 April
1745:PLoS ONE
1670:PLoS ONE
1638:27 April
1530:See also
1436:140â180
1428:180â240
1420:Unknown
1412:Unknown
1228:delicacy
1206:kreukels
1194:Scotland
1008:barnacle
1006:such as
967:such as
965:habitats
922:Labrador
788:corneous
572:basionym
564:Linnaeus
515:aurantia
489:truncata
379:distorta
359:deformis
329:balteata
309:angulata
225:Synonyms
212:Linnaeus
158:Family:
122:Mollusca
118:Phylum:
112:Animalia
98:Domain:
4030:ZooBank
3996:9515867
3763:2301117
3552:Chitons
3465:Octopus
3433:Inkfish
3415:Nerites
3304:Knobbed
3191:Limpets
3176:Elegant
3163:Conches
3153:Chilean
3094:Abalone
2978:Pacific
2963:Olympia
2958:Eastern
2950:Oysters
2896:Mussels
2853:Cockles
2842:Paphies
2739:Geoduck
2584:Octopus
2479:Geoduck
2380:Scallop
2263:Abalone
2253:Marine
2203:website
2199:from a
2117:Bibcode
1994:Bibcode
1961:425-430
1911:at the
1816:721-742
1521:Storing
1444:90â140
1417:Medium
1276:by the
1244:omega-3
1240:protein
1232:African
1202:Belgium
1198:Ireland
1179:middens
1024:biofilm
987:Feeding
944:Habitat
939:Ecology
888:, from
844:⁄
826:⁄
816:⁄
744:⁄
730:⁄
716:⁄
706:⁄
696:⁄
640:and an
634:mollusc
616:species
614:) is a
429:pallida
419:miniata
389:elegans
319:antiqua
289:turrita
168:Genus:
148:Order:
128:Class:
4022:151624
3942:140262
3929:500314
3926:uBio:
3906:622242
3893:140262
3737:LITTLR
3724:619396
3656:Q27935
3473:Common
3358:Bailer
3287:Common
3274:Whelks
3257:Banded
3252:Common
3234:Rustic
3006:/Bluff
2881:Sydney
2871:Goolwa
2861:Common
2813:Tuatua
2538:Mussel
2533:Oyster
2505:Tuatua
2474:Cockle
2066:
2012:
1474:Retail
1433:Jumbo
1425:Large
1409:Small
1320:dredge
1282:bĂșzios
1183:Europe
1012:radula
994:is an
918:Quebec
792:larvae
628:marine
606:winkle
525:reevei
349:conica
58:Sweden
4017:WoRMS
4004:IRMNG
3983:59N4Q
3937:WoRMS
3880:18767
3867:31216
3828:70419
3815:76460
3797:IRMNG
3789:81606
3750:60262
3745:EUNIS
3711:3VNPR
3698:27986
3515:Squid
3498:Mimic
3410:Apple
3214:China
3171:Queen
3117:Green
3112:Black
3102:White
3064:Yesso
2924:Brown
2866:Blood
2834:Ensis
2781:Venus
2754:Horse
2721:Clams
2589:Squid
2273:Whelk
2105:(PDF)
2087:(PDF)
2010:S2CID
1596:WoRMS
1000:algae
962:muddy
837:Essex
677:shell
638:gills
620:whelk
523:var.
513:var.
497:var.
487:var.
477:var.
467:var.
459:picta
457:var.
449:parva
447:var.
437:var.
427:var.
417:var.
409:major
407:var.
397:var.
387:var.
377:var.
367:var.
357:var.
347:var.
337:var.
327:var.
317:var.
307:var.
287:var.
270:var.
260:var.
3991:GBIF
3919:3442
3888:OBIS
3862:NCBI
3823:ITIS
3771:GISD
3758:GBIF
3732:EPPO
3693:BOLD
3368:Land
3142:PÄua
3122:Pink
2993:Rock
2934:Date
2904:Blue
2429:Clam
2064:ISBN
2021:2022
1796:2024
1640:2024
1263:fish
1259:bait
1234:and
1190:drag
1108:and
1072:and
1040:and
1032:bays
976:Zone
784:eggs
675:The
626:, a
600:The
568:1758
216:1758
3978:CoL
3849:NBN
3810:ISC
3776:400
3719:EoL
3706:CoL
3680:ADW
3333:Sea
3181:Dog
3107:Red
2125:doi
2113:292
2060:221
2002:doi
1946:doi
1753:doi
1695:doi
1678:doi
1248:fat
1230:in
1221:pin
1208:or
1030:or
892:to
778:is
721:to
701:to
622:or
604:or
297:f.
4054::
4032::
4019::
4006::
3993::
3980::
3965::
3939::
3916::
3903::
3890::
3877::
3864::
3851::
3838::
3825::
3812::
3799::
3786::
3773::
3760::
3747::
3734::
3721::
3708::
3695::
3682::
3667::
3652::
2123:.
2111:.
2107:.
2062:.
2008:.
2000:.
1990:21
1988:.
1984:.
1881:^
1804:^
1766:^
1725:^
1718:18
1648:^
1614:^
1598:.
1594:.
1578:^
1288:.
1242:,
1212:.
1102:,
1096:,
1082:.
924:.
916:,
912:,
835:,
659:.
566:,
214:,
2698:e
2691:t
2684:v
2237:e
2230:t
2223:v
2133:.
2127::
2119::
2089:.
2072:.
2023:.
2004::
1996::
1948::
1897:9
1875:.
1862:"
1798:.
1760:.
1755::
1749:6
1697::
1684:.
1680::
1674:5
1642:.
1608:.
1588:"
846:8
842:3
828:8
824:5
818:2
814:1
746:8
742:1
739:+
737:1
732:2
728:1
725:+
723:1
718:8
714:5
708:2
704:1
698:8
694:3
608:(
574:)
570:(
218:)
210:(
34:.
20:)
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