Combustion - Knowledge (XXG)

2680: 58: 3016: 2304: 2335: 1970: 2707: 1997: 74: 2675:{\displaystyle {\ce {C_{\mathit {\alpha }}H_{\mathit {\beta }}O_{\mathit {\gamma }}N_{\mathit {\delta }}S_{\mathit {\epsilon }}}}+\left(\alpha +{\frac {\beta }{4}}-{\frac {\gamma }{2}}+\epsilon \right)\left({\ce {O_{2}}}+3.77{\ce {N_{2}}}\right)\longrightarrow \alpha {\ce {CO_{2}}}+{\frac {\beta }{2}}{\ce {H_{2}O}}+\epsilon {\ce {SO_{2}}}+\left(3.77\left(\alpha +{\frac {\beta }{4}}-{\frac {\gamma }{2}}+\epsilon \right)+{\frac {\delta }{2}}\right){\ce {N_{2}}}} 3504: 7214: 4377: 958: 1711: 529: 3011:{\displaystyle {\ce {C_{\mathit {\alpha }}H_{\mathit {\beta }}O_{\mathit {\gamma }}F_{\mathit {\delta }}}}+\left(\alpha +{\frac {\beta -\delta }{4}}-{\frac {\gamma }{2}}\right)\left({\ce {O_{2}}}+3.77{\ce {N_{2}}}\right)\longrightarrow \alpha {\ce {CO_{2}}}+{\frac {\beta -\delta }{2}}{\ce {H_{2}O}}+\delta {\ce {HF}}+3.77\left(\alpha +{\frac {\beta -\delta }{4}}-{\frac {\gamma }{2}}\right){\ce {N_{2}}}} 2299:{\displaystyle {\ce {C_{\mathit {\alpha }}H_{\mathit {\beta }}O_{\mathit {\gamma }}S_{\mathit {\delta }}}}+\left(\alpha +{\frac {\beta }{4}}-{\frac {\gamma }{2}}+\delta \right)\left({\ce {O_{2}}}+3.77{\ce {N_{2}}}\right)\longrightarrow \alpha {\ce {CO_{2}}}+{\frac {\beta }{2}}{\ce {H_{2}O}}+\delta {\ce {SO_{2}}}+3.77\left(\alpha +{\frac {\beta }{4}}-{\frac {\gamma }{2}}+\delta \right){\ce {N_{2}}}} 7236: 4187: 4129:) discharged from the system represents a heating value loss (as well as a safety hazard). Since combustibles are undesirable in the offgas, while the presence of unreacted oxygen there presents minimal safety and environmental concerns, the first principle of combustion management is to provide more oxygen than is theoretically needed to ensure that all the fuel burns. For methane ( 7225: 3282: 4014: 1965:{\displaystyle {\ce {C_{\mathit {\alpha }}H_{\mathit {\beta }}O_{\mathit {\gamma }}}}+\left(\alpha +{\frac {\beta }{4}}-{\frac {\gamma }{2}}\right)\left({\ce {O_{2}}}+3.77{\ce {N_{2}}}\right)\longrightarrow \alpha {\ce {CO_{2}}}+{\frac {\beta }{2}}{\ce {H_{2}O}}+3.77\left(\alpha +{\frac {\beta }{4}}-{\frac {\gamma }{2}}\right){\ce {N_{2}}}} 783:. The formation of carbon monoxide produces less heat than formation of carbon dioxide so complete combustion is greatly preferred especially as carbon monoxide is a poisonous gas. When breathed, carbon monoxide takes the place of oxygen and combines with some of the hemoglobin in the blood, rendering it unable to transport oxygen. 812:, which return to Earth's surface as acid deposition, or "acid rain." Acid deposition harms aquatic organisms and kills trees. Due to its formation of certain nutrients that are less available to plants such as calcium and phosphorus, it reduces the productivity of the ecosystem and farms. An additional problem associated with 700:

Incomplete combustion will occur when there is not enough oxygen to allow the fuel to react completely to produce carbon dioxide and water. It also happens when the combustion is quenched by a heat sink, such as a solid surface or flame trap. As is the case with complete combustion, water is produced

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where q' is the heat release rate perturbation and p' is the pressure fluctuation. When the heat release oscillations are in phase with the pressure oscillations, the Rayleigh Index is positive and the magnitude of the thermoacoustic instability is maximised. On the other hand, if the Rayleigh Index

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The inclusion of such mechanisms within computational flow solvers still represents a pretty challenging task mainly in two aspects. First, the number of degrees of freedom (proportional to the number of chemical species) can be dramatically large; second, the source term due to reactions introduces

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dB, and long-term exposure to these cyclic pressure and thermal loads reduces the life of engine components. In rockets, such as the F1 used in the Saturn V program, instabilities led to massive damage to the combustion chamber and surrounding components. This problem was solved by re-designing the

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are mixed prior to heating: for example, a diffusion flame is formed if the fuel and oxidizer are separated initially, whereas a premixed flame is formed otherwise. Similarly, the type of burning also depends on the pressure: a detonation, for example, is an autoignitive reaction front coupled to a

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reactions that give more easily oxidized, gaseous fuels. These reactions are endothermic and require constant energy input from the ongoing combustion reactions. A lack of oxygen or other improperly designed conditions result in these noxious and carcinogenic pyrolysis products being emitted as

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The second principle of combustion management, however, is to not use too much oxygen. The correct amount of oxygen requires three types of measurement: first, active control of air and fuel flow; second, offgas oxygen measurement; and third, measurement of offgas combustibles. For each heating

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Detailed descriptions of combustion processes, from the chemical kinetics perspective, require the formulation of large and intricate webs of elementary reactions. For instance, combustion of hydrocarbon fuels typically involve hundreds of chemical species reacting according to thousands of

3499:{\displaystyle {\ce {{\underset {fuel}{C_{\mathit {x}}H_{\mathit {y}}}}+{\underset {oxygen}{{\mathit {z}}O2}}->{\underset {carbon\ dioxide}{{\mathit {a}}CO2}}+{\underset {carbon\ monoxide}{{\mathit {b}}CO}}+{\underset {water}{{\mathit {c}}H2O}}+{\underset {hydrogen}{{\mathit {d}}H2}}}}} 4670:

is negative, then thermoacoustic damping occurs. The Rayleigh Criterion implies that thermoacoustic instability can be optimally controlled by having heat release oscillations 180 degrees out of phase with pressure oscillations at the same frequency. This minimizes the Rayleigh Index.

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causes headache, dizziness, vomiting, and nausea. If carbon monoxide levels are high enough, humans become unconscious or die. Exposure to moderate and high levels of carbon monoxide over long periods is positively correlated with the risk of heart disease. People who survive severe

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in the combustion gas. The heat balance relates the heat available for the charge to the overall net heat produced by fuel combustion. Additional material and heat balances can be made to quantify the thermal advantage from preheating the combustion air, or enriching it in oxygen.

1298:) can be added to the equation (although it does not react) to show the stoichiometric composition of the fuel in air and the composition of the resultant flue gas. Treating all non-oxygen components in air as nitrogen gives a 'nitrogen' to oxygen ratio of 3.77, i.e. (100% − 856:

is the slow, low-temperature, flameless form of combustion, sustained by the heat evolved when oxygen directly attacks the surface of a condensed-phase fuel. It is a typically incomplete combustion reaction. Solid materials that can sustain a smoldering reaction include coal,

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The amount of air required for complete combustion is known as the "theoretical air" or "stoichiometric air". The amount of air above this value actually needed for optimal combustion is known as the "excess air", and can vary from 5% for a natural gas boiler, to 40% for

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In a perfect furnace, the combustion air flow would be matched to the fuel flow to give each fuel molecule the exact amount of oxygen needed to cause complete combustion. However, in the real world, combustion does not proceed in a perfect manner. Unburned fuel (usually

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internal reactions), followed by thermal runaway (self-heating which rapidly accelerates to high temperatures) and finally, ignition. For example, phosphorus self-ignites at room temperature without the application of heat. Organic materials undergoing bacterial

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of a burner during the combustion process. Also, the efficiency of an internal combustion engine can be measured in this way, and some U.S. states and local municipalities use combustion analysis to define and rate the efficiency of vehicles on the road today.

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occurs before combustion. In incomplete combustion, products of pyrolysis remain unburnt and contaminate the smoke with noxious particulate matter and gases. Partially oxidized compounds are also a concern; partial oxidation of ethanol can produce harmful

977:'s flame takes the shape of a sphere.). Microgravity combustion research contributes to the understanding of a wide variety of aspects that are relevant to both the environment of a spacecraft (e.g., fire dynamics relevant to crew safety on the 1685: 674:, and some of the hydrogens remain unreacted. A complete set of equations for the combustion of a hydrocarbon in the air, therefore, requires an additional calculation for the distribution of oxygen between the carbon and hydrogen in the fuel. 4275:

Combustion of hydrocarbons is thought to be initiated by hydrogen atom abstraction (not proton abstraction) from the fuel to oxygen, to give a hydroperoxide radical (HOO). This reacts further to give hydroperoxides, which break up to give

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of combustion in air is overwhelmingly on the side of the products. However, complete combustion is almost impossible to achieve, since the chemical equilibrium is not necessarily reached, or may contain unburnt products such as

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aligned, such that the molecule has nonzero total angular momentum. Most fuels, on the other hand, are in a singlet state, with paired spins and zero total angular momentum. Interaction between the two is quantum mechanically a

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process, there exists an optimum condition of minimal offgas heat loss with acceptable levels of combustibles concentration. Minimizing excess oxygen pays an additional benefit: for a given offgas temperature, the

4665: 3968:. The flash point of liquid fuel is the lowest temperature at which it can form an ignitable mix with air. It is the minimum temperature at which there is enough evaporated fuel in the air to start combustion. 4994: 4536:

fuel injector. In liquid jet engines, the droplet size and distribution can be used to attenuate the instabilities. Combustion instabilities are a major concern in ground-based gas turbine engines because of

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The term 'micro' gravity refers to a gravitational state that is 'low' (i.e., 'micro' in the sense of 'small' and not necessarily a millionth of Earth's normal gravity) such that the influence of

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Chiavazzo, Eliodoro; Karlin, Ilya; Gorban, Alexander; Boulouchos, Konstantinos (2010). "Coupling of the model reduction technique with the lattice Boltzmann method for combustion simulations".

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Chrystie, Robin S. M.; Burns, Iain S.; Kaminski, Clemens F. (2013). "Temperature Response of an Acoustically Forced Turbulent Lean Premixed Flame: A Quantitative Experimental Determination".

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in an oxidizing atmosphere actually happens in the gas phase. It is the vapor that burns, not the liquid. Therefore, a liquid will normally catch fire only above a certain temperature: its

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Valorani, M.; Goussis, D.; Najm, H.N. (2005). "Higher order corrections in the approximation of low-dimensional manifolds and the construction of simplified problems with the csp method".

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Ren, Z.; Pope, S.B.; Vladimirsky, A.; Guckenheimer, J.M. (2006). "The invariant constrained equilibrium edge preimage curve method for the dimension reduction of chemical kinetics".

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The rate of combustion is the amount of a material that undergoes combustion over a period of time. It can be expressed in grams per second (g/s) or kilograms per second (kg/s).

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Therefore, a plethora of methodologies have been devised for reducing the complexity of combustion mechanisms without resorting to high detail levels. Examples are provided by:

5167: 1539: 4280:. There are a great variety of these processes that produce fuel radicals and oxidizing radicals. Oxidizing species include singlet oxygen, hydroxyl, monatomic oxygen, and 547:

burns in oxygen, the reaction will primarily yield carbon dioxide and water. When elements are burned, the products are primarily the most common oxides. Carbon will yield

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The kinetic modelling may be explored for insight into the reaction mechanisms of thermal decomposition in the combustion of different materials by using for instance

3704: 3661: 4998: 4284:. Such intermediates are short-lived and cannot be isolated. However, non-radical intermediates are stable and are produced in incomplete combustion. An example is 3621: 6151:

Chiavazzo, Eliodoro; Karlin, Ilya; Frouzakis, Christos E.; Boulouchos, Konstantinos (2009). "Method of invariant grid for model reduction of hydrogen combustion".

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Most commonly, the adiabatic combustion temperatures for coals are around 2,200 °C (3,992 °F) (for inlet air and fuel at ambient temperatures and for

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on physical processes may be considered small relative to other flow processes that would be present at normal gravity. In such an environment, the thermal and

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Chiavazzo, Eliodoro (2012). "Approximation of slow and fast dynamics in multiscale dynamical systems by the linearized Relaxation Redistribution Method".

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conditions (i.e., no heat loss or gain), the adiabatic combustion temperature can be determined. The formula that yields this temperature is based on the

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stiff. As a result, the direct numerical simulation of turbulent reactive flows with heavy fuels soon becomes intractable even for modern supercomputers.

5018: 375:, since the combustion of nitrogen is thermodynamically favored at high, but not low temperatures. Since burning is rarely clean, fuel gas cleaning or 6921: 6833: 5067: 7130: 4814: 5656: 6509: 6395: 4531:

Combustion instabilities are typically violent pressure oscillations in a combustion chamber. These pressure oscillations can be as high as 180

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is only visible when substances undergoing combustion vaporize, but when it does, a flame is a characteristic indicator of the reaction. While

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These three equations are insufficient in themselves to calculate the combustion gas composition. However, at the equilibrium position, the

981:) and terrestrial (Earth-based) conditions (e.g., droplet combustion dynamics to assist developing new fuel blends for improved combustion, 595:

species appear in significant amounts above about 2,800 °F (1,540 °C), and more is produced at higher temperatures. The amount of

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John William Strutt, 3rd Baron Rayleigh, Sc.D., F.R.S.., Honorary Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge; "The Theory of Sound", §322h, 1878:

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Reyes, J.A.; Conesa, J.A.; Marcilla, A. (2001). "Pyrolysis and combustion of polycoated cartons recycling. kinetic model and ms analysis".

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is the basis for analysis of thermoacoustic combustion instability and is evaluated using the Rayleigh Index over one cycle of instability

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into the material being processed. There are many avenues of loss in the operation of a heating process. Typically, the dominant loss is

4264:", i.e. possible with a very low probability. To initiate combustion, energy is required to force dioxygen into a spin-paired state, or 4889: 174:

to produce gaseous fuels whose combustion then supplies the heat required to produce more of them. Combustion is often hot enough that

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emissions. The tendency is to run lean, an equivalence ratio less than 1, to reduce the combustion temperature and thus reduce the

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is used entirely for heating the fuel, the combustion air or oxygen, and the combustion product gases (commonly referred to as the

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with the liberation of heat and light characteristic of combustion. Although usually not catalyzed, combustion can be catalyzed by

4566: 4523:. For example, excess combustion air of 15 percent means that 15 percent more than the required stoichiometric air is being used. 986: 6911: 6823: 1492:{\displaystyle {\ce {C}}_{x}{\ce {H}}_{y}+z{\ce {O2}}+3.77z{\ce {N2 ->}}x{\ce {CO2}}+{y \over 2}{\ce {H2O}}+3.77z{\ce {N2}}} 582:

Combustion is not necessarily favorable to the maximum degree of oxidation, and it can be temperature-dependent. For example,

6886: 4468:) increases for higher heating values and inlet air and fuel temperatures and for stoichiometric air ratios approaching one. 4208: 961:

Colourized gray-scale composite image of the individual frames from a video of a backlit fuel droplet burning in microgravity

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pressure when z is less than 30% of the stoichiometric value, at which point the combustion products contain more than 98%

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Chiavazzo, Eliodoro; Karlin, Ilya (2008). "Quasi-equilibrium grid algorithm: geometric construction for model reduction".

4558: 77: 670:). On the other hand, when there is insufficient oxygen to combust the fuel completely, some fuel carbon is converted to 5673:

Maas, U.; Pope, S.B. (1992). "Simplifying chemical kinetics: intrinsic low-dimensional manifolds in composition space".

1167:{\displaystyle {\ce {C}}_{x}{\ce {H}}_{y}+\left(x+{y \over 4}\right){\ce {O2->}}x{\ce {CO2}}+{y \over 2}{\ce {H2O}}} 7265: 5494:

Chiavazzo, Eliodoro; Asinari, Pietro; Visconti, Filippo (2011). "Fast computation of multi-scale combustion systems".

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molecule. The lowest-energy configuration of the dioxygen molecule is a stable, relatively unreactive diradical in a

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of nitrogen. Nitrogen does not take part in combustion, but at high temperatures, some nitrogen will be converted to

4054:, when the mix of evolved flammable gases with oxygen is ignited. Energy is produced in the form of heat and light. 3719: 6502: 5977:

Keck, J.C.; Gillespie, D. (1971). "Rate-controlled partial-equilibrium method for treating reacting gas mixtures".

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Adherence to these two principles is furthered by making material and heat balances on the combustion process. The

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may suffer long-term health problems. Carbon monoxide from the air is absorbed in the lungs which then binds with

7034: 5356: 5319: 3985: 838: 745: 6305: 5872:"Approximation of slow attracting manifolds in chemical kinetics by tra trjectory-based optimization approaches" 5608:

Kooshkbaghi, Mahdi; Frouzakis, E. Christos; Chiavazzo, Eliodoro; Boulouchos, Konstantinos; Karlin, Ilya (2014).

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intermediates participate. The high energy required for initiation is explained by the unusual structure of the

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in human's red blood cells. This reduces the capacity of red blood cells that carry oxygen throughout the body.

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concerning the fuel, where there is no remaining fuel, and ideally, no residual oxidant. Thermodynamically, the

7135: 6603: 6595: 6539: 4819: 4739: 4694: 4068:, when the output of flammable gases from the material is too low for the persistent presence of flame and the 4058:

are often visible. Heat transfer from the combustion to the solid maintains the evolution of flammable vapours.

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is usually toxic and contains unburned or partially oxidized products. Any combustion at high temperatures in

970: 6903: 6618: 6378:(3rd ed.). European Centre for Research and Advanced Training in Scientific Computation. Archived from 5282: 5208: 4916: 4787: 57: 51: 4836: 902: 7039: 7029: 6977: 6116: 4755: 4452: 917: 35: 6057:

Valorani, M.; Paolucci, S. (2009). "The G-Scheme: a framework for multi-scale adaptive model reduction".

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Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part C: Journal of Mechanical Engineering Science

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that contain partially oxidized hydrocarbons. The thermal energy produced from the combustion of either

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In complete combustion, the reactant burns in oxygen and produces a limited number of products. When a

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emissions; however, running the combustion lean makes it very susceptible to combustion instability.

4261: 3543: 3211: 3142: 1680:{\displaystyle {\ce {{\underset {methane}{CH4}}+ 2O2}}+7.54{\ce {N2-> CO2 + 2H2O}}+7.54{\ce {N2}}} 1505: 469: 332: 81: 6415: 6121: 6093: 7260: 6644: 5433:

Chiavazzo, Eliodoro; Karlin, Ilya (2011). "Adaptive simplification of complex multiscale systems".

4244: 4002: 3203: 1295: 737: 376: 152: 149: 138: 4902: 4689: 4474: 6879: 6351: 6178: 6160: 6039: 6013: 5929:

Conventional Asymptotic and Computational Singular Perturbation for Symplified Kinetics Modelling

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The Rate Controlled Constrained Equilibrium (RCCE) and Quasi Equilibrium Manifold (QEM) approach.

4255:. Bonding can be described with three bonding electron pairs and two antibonding electrons, with 4090: 4086: 3064: 1006: 821: 753: 5700:

Bykov, V.; Maas, U (2007). "The extension of the ILDM concept to reaction–diffusion manifolds".

4519:, the more common way of expressing the usage of more than the stoichiometric combustion air is 4429: 3026:

Various other substances begin to appear in significant amounts in combustion products when the

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or industrial or domestic heating. Combustion is also currently the only reaction used to power

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for cars in most countries. They may be necessary to enable large combustion devices, such as

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Combustion resulting in a turbulent flame is the most used for industrial applications (e.g.

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Uncatalyzed combustion in air requires relatively high temperatures. Complete combustion is

3594: 405:, and continues to be the main method to produce energy for humanity. Usually, the fuel is 6967: 6853: 6838: 5831:"Entropy-related extremum principles for model reduction of dissipative dynamical systems" 4851: 4512: 4293: 3977: 3059: 942: 833: 813: 772: 706: 671: 583: 560: 556: 501: 368: 337: 6828: 6112: 6070: 6027: 5955: 5890: 5846: 5799: 5756: 5713: 5628: 5578: 5517: 5456: 3976:

Combustion of gaseous fuels may occur through one of four distinctive types of burning:

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A. A. Putnam and W. C. Dennis (1953) "Organ-pipe oscillations in a flame-filled tube",

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to light a fire), the heat from a flame may provide enough energy to make the reaction

6232: 5990: 4497:), around 2,150 °C (3,902 °F) for oil and 2,000 °C (3,632 °F) for 456:

Oxidants for combustion have high oxidation potential and include atmospheric or pure

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that tend to form with only a stoichiometric amount of oxygen, necessarily producing

1027: 897:. Common examples of smoldering phenomena are the initiation of residential fires on 473: 205: 175: 6355: 5764: 5594: 5541: 5153: 4376: 4141:) combustion, for example, slightly more than two molecules of oxygen are required. 4025:

The act of combustion consists of three relatively distinct but overlapping phases:

3264:. Such gas mixtures are commonly prepared for use as protective atmospheres for the 1690:

The stoichiometric composition of methane in air is 1 / (1 + 2 + 7.54) = 9.49% vol.

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is a type of combustion that occurs by self-heating (increase in temperature due to

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by weak heat sources (e.g., a cigarette, a short-circuited wire) and the persistent

7168: 7109: 6952: 6688: 6613: 6570: 5652: 5480: 4704: 4409: 4285: 4281: 3039: 878: 764: 718: 651: 450: 6043: 5610:"The global relaxation redistribution method for reduction of combustion kinetics" 5019:

Shuttle-Mir History/Science/Microgravity/Candle Flame in Microgravity (CFM) – MGBX

528: 397:) was the first controlled chemical reaction discovered by humans, in the form of 6347: 5307: 3122:

of air (120% of the stoichiometric amount), the combustion products contain 3.3%

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If the stoichiometric combustion takes place using air as the oxygen source, the

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The designs of combustion devices can improve the quality of combustion, such as

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The Intrinsic Low-Dimensional Manifold (ILDM) approach and further developments

4272:, and the reaction then produces additional heat, which allows it to continue. 3587:

is 80% of the stoichiometric value. The three elemental balance equations are:

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Dowling, A. P. (2000a). "Vortices, sound and flame – a damaging combination".

6078: 6035: 5963: 5721: 5586: 5381: 5233: 5035:. Centre for Research in Computational Thermochemistry, Polytechnique Montreal 4709: 4383:

conducting an experiment related to combustion generated by amplified sunlight

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The Computational Singular perturbation (CSP) method and further developments.

4037: 3992:. The type of burning that actually occurs depends on the degree to which the 3989: 926: 921: 853: 842: 725: 679: 559:. Nitrogen is not considered to be a combustible substance when oxygen is the 357: 156: 96: 17: 5145: 5132:

Bradley, D (2009-06-25). "Combustion and the design of future engine fuels".

945:, etc.) because the turbulence helps the mixing process between the fuel and 7183: 7173: 7163: 7104: 7076: 6972: 6848: 6843: 6797: 6782: 6777: 6757: 6709: 6656: 6585: 6435: 6401: 6271: 5196: 4719: 4388: 4308: 1002: 858: 768: 733: 713: 518: 386: 171: 5906: 5815: 5644: 5533: 5525: 5472: 5096: 4001:

strong shock wave giving it its characteristic high-pressure peak and high

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The degree of combustion can be measured and analyzed with test equipment.

6094:"The role of thermodynamics in model reduction when using invariant grids" 4412:

burnt in air, the combustion temperature depends on all of the following:

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Assuming perfect combustion conditions, such as complete combustion under

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The products of incomplete combustion can be calculated with the aid of a

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to vehicle nitrogen oxide emissions, which necessitate the use of special

7151: 6787: 6772: 6767: 6683: 6580: 6565: 6529: 5108: 5032: 4917:"Engineering Toolbox: Optimal Combustion Processes - Fuel vs. Excess Air" 4905:(Report). US Department of the Army. 1989. p. Glossary 26. TM 5-650. 4401: 4248: 4106: 4102: 4069: 3997: 3945: 3191: 3073: 1291: 966: 946: 906: 886: 695: 497: 493: 485: 481: 465: 461: 434: 398: 390: 364: 341: 216: 190: 117:, that produces oxidized, often gaseous products, in a mixture termed as 1275:{\displaystyle {\ce {{\underset {methane}{CH4}}+ 2O2 -> CO2 + 2H2O}}} 973:

can behave quite differently than in normal gravity conditions (e.g., a

317:{\displaystyle {\ce {2H_{2}(g){+}O_{2}(g)\rightarrow 2H_{2}O\uparrow }}} 6719: 6534: 4289: 4211: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 4018: 3514: 3112: 1178: 870: 563:. Still, small amounts of various nitrogen oxides (commonly designated 533: 438: 402: 110: 6394:

Lackner, Maximilian; Winter, Franz; Agarwal, Avinash K., eds. (2010).

5898: 5855: 5830: 5807: 5743:

Nafe, J.; Maas, U. (2002). "A general algorithm for improving ILDMs".

5636: 4105:). The temperature and quantity of offgas indicates its heat content ( 997:

Combustion processes that happen in very small volumes are considered

6998: 6575: 6312:(Dordrecht, the Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1996), p. 4 4772: 4301: 4297: 4268:. This intermediate is extremely reactive. The energy is supplied as 3898: 3854: 3532: 3156: 3137: 3033: 974: 866: 801: 702: 457: 446: 406: 345: 194: 114: 7239: 4013: 7055: 7013: 7008: 6818: 6802: 6724: 6693: 6555: 6165: 6018: 5569: 5508: 5447: 4729: 4375: 4055: 4012: 3867: 3542:, together with the assumption that the combustion products reach 3244: 3093: 956: 882: 797: 527: 353: 201: 198: 186: 178: 134: 126: 118: 99: 72: 62: 56: 4877:

colloquial meaning of burning is combustion accompanied by flames

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The invariant-constrained equilibrium edge preimage curve method.

3272:. The general reaction equation for incomplete combustion of one 1544:

For example, the stoichiometric combustion of methane in air is:

1001:. The high surface-to-volume ratio increases specific heat loss. 7003: 6993: 6895: 4724: 4292:. An intermediate in the combustion of carbon and hydrocarbons, 4269: 4033: 3993: 3941: 3207: 894: 874: 862: 760: 608: 422: 414: 394: 382: 349: 164: 160: 122: 106: 66: 31: 6868: 6491: 6487: 3531:

falls below roughly 35% of the stoichiometric value, elemental

3471: 3436: 3406: 3366: 3334: 3311: 3296: 627:). In the air, each mole of oxygen is mixed with approximately 189:

is produced. A simple example can be seen in the combustion of

7188: 5021:. Spaceflight.nasa.gov (1999-07-16). Retrieved on 2010-09-28. 4967:"Environmental Problems associated with incomplete combustion" 4180: 4146: 4040:. Flammable gases start being evolved in a process similar to 3195: 635: 612: 564: 426: 372: 360: 6472:

The John Zink Hamworthy Combustion Handbook: Three-Volume Set

6092:

Chiavazzo, Eliodoro; Karlin, Ilya; Gorban, Alexander (2010).

1005:

distance plays a vital role in stabilizing the flame in such

6470:

Baukal, Charles E. Jr, ed. (2013). "Industrial Combustion".

4678: 4660:{\displaystyle G(x)={\frac {1}{T}}\int _{T}q'(x,t)p'(x,t)dt} 4307:

Solid and heavy liquid fuels also undergo a great number of

3940:

Substances or materials which undergo combustion are called

586:

is not produced quantitatively by the combustion of sulfur.

4089:

requires recovery of the largest possible part of a fuel's

929:

can generate enough heat to reach the point of combustion.

133:

must be supplied to initiate combustion (e.g., using a lit

744:

into the combustion process. Such devices are required by

4072:

fuel does not burn rapidly and just glows and later only

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An Introduction to Combustion: Concepts and Applications

4462:

The adiabatic combustion temperature (also known as the

4323:

a disparate number of time scales which makes the whole

3865:

is 0.728. Solving, the combustion gas consists of 42.4%

6864: 6308:

in F. Culick, M. V. Heitor, and J. H. Whitelaw, ed.s,

989:, multiphase flow boiling dynamics, and many others). 30:"Burning" redirects here. For the type of injury, see 4995:"A Perfect Storm: Mulch Fire Dynamics and Prevention" 4569: 4477: 4432: 4300:, but also economically useful for the production of 3944:. The most common examples are natural gas, propane, 3841:{\displaystyle K_{eq}={\frac {a\times d}{b\times c}}} 3795: 3722: 3671: 3631: 3597: 3513:

falls below roughly 50% of the stoichiometric value,

3285: 3226:

with oxygen produces a gas mixture containing mainly

3198:

emissions. Both the United States and European Union

2710: 2338: 2000: 1714: 1553: 1508: 1343: 1190: 1043: 228: 5168:"Calculating the heat of combustion for natural gas" 4109:), so keeping its quantity low minimizes heat loss. 1018:

Stoichiometric combustion of a hydrocarbon in oxygen

219:

accordingly (at constant temperature and pressure):

7144: 7123: 7097: 7069: 7048: 7022: 6986: 6930: 6902: 6811: 6745: 6702: 6632: 6594: 6548: 5031:Bale, Christopher W.; Bélisle, Eve (8 March 2022). 4149:level is lowest when excess oxygen is kept lowest. 3037:. When excess air is used, nitrogen may oxidize to 712:For most fuels, such as diesel oil, coal, or wood, 4659: 4489: 4440: 3840: 3781: 3698: 3655: 3615: 3498: 3190:are run with an excess of oxygen to combust small 3010: 2674: 2298: 1964: 1679: 1533: 1491: 1274: 1166: 316: 3527:can become an important combustion product; when 1286:Stoichiometric combustion of a hydrocarbon in air 5870:Reinhardt, V.; Winckler, M.; Lebiedz, D. (112). 3583:, seven moles of combustion gas are formed, and 3218:Incomplete combustion of a hydrocarbon in oxygen 721:, and carbon can produce toxic carbon monoxide. 34:. For combustion without external ignition, see 6461:Ragland, Kenneth W; Bryden, Kenneth M. (2011). 4885: 4883: 3782:{\displaystyle {\ce {CO + H2O -> CO2 + H2}}} 6293:Fourth Symposium (International) on Combustion 4997:. Soilandmulchproducernews.com. Archived from 1177:For example, the stoichiometric combustion of 787:Problems associated with incomplete combustion 148:Combustion is often a complicated sequence of 6880: 6503: 5397:. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. 579:species) form when the air is the oxidative. 8: 6306:"Unsteady flames and the Rayleigh criterion" 2685:The stoichiometric combustion reaction for C 2309:The stoichiometric combustion reaction for C 1975:The stoichiometric combustion reaction for C 1693:The stoichiometric combustion reaction for C 779:Carbon monoxide is one of the products from 367:, will also create small amounts of several 204:, a reaction which is commonly used to fuel 6225:Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis 4296:, is of special importance because it is a 820:pollutants, contribute to the formation of 27:Chemical reaction between a fuel and oxygen 6887: 6873: 6865: 6510: 6496: 6488: 6372:Poinsot, Thierry; Veynante, Denis (2012). 4892:. Alentecinc.com. Retrieved on 2010-09-28. 4334:The Relaxation Redistribution Method (RRM) 453:) waste, both nonhazardous and hazardous. 6922:Native American use of fire in ecosystems 6834:Native American use of fire in ecosystems 6164: 6120: 6017: 5854: 5568: 5507: 5446: 4599: 4585: 4568: 4476: 4433: 4431: 4227:Learn how and when to remove this message 4036:is heated up to its flash point and then 3812: 3800: 3794: 3774: 3769: 3758: 3753: 3739: 3734: 3723: 3721: 3670: 3630: 3596: 3485: 3480: 3470: 3469: 3466: 3450: 3445: 3435: 3434: 3431: 3405: 3404: 3401: 3380: 3375: 3365: 3364: 3361: 3348: 3343: 3333: 3332: 3329: 3316: 3310: 3309: 3301: 3295: 3294: 3287: 3286: 3284: 3222:The incomplete (partial) combustion of a 3003: 2998: 2993: 2978: 2957: 2935: 2921: 2916: 2911: 2893: 2885: 2880: 2875: 2859: 2854: 2849: 2838: 2833: 2828: 2808: 2787: 2768: 2762: 2761: 2753: 2747: 2746: 2738: 2732: 2731: 2723: 2717: 2716: 2711: 2709: 2667: 2662: 2657: 2642: 2618: 2605: 2578: 2573: 2568: 2554: 2549: 2544: 2534: 2526: 2521: 2516: 2500: 2495: 2490: 2479: 2474: 2469: 2443: 2430: 2411: 2405: 2404: 2396: 2390: 2389: 2381: 2375: 2374: 2366: 2360: 2359: 2351: 2345: 2344: 2339: 2337: 2291: 2286: 2281: 2260: 2247: 2225: 2220: 2215: 2201: 2196: 2191: 2181: 2173: 2168: 2163: 2147: 2142: 2137: 2126: 2121: 2116: 2090: 2077: 2058: 2052: 2051: 2043: 2037: 2036: 2028: 2022: 2021: 2013: 2007: 2006: 2001: 1999: 1957: 1952: 1947: 1932: 1919: 1894: 1889: 1884: 1874: 1866: 1861: 1856: 1840: 1835: 1830: 1819: 1814: 1809: 1789: 1776: 1757: 1751: 1750: 1742: 1736: 1735: 1727: 1721: 1720: 1715: 1713: 1672: 1667: 1662: 1648: 1643: 1638: 1628: 1623: 1612: 1607: 1602: 1591: 1586: 1581: 1566: 1561: 1555: 1554: 1552: 1521: 1507: 1484: 1479: 1474: 1457: 1452: 1447: 1437: 1429: 1424: 1419: 1408: 1403: 1398: 1384: 1379: 1374: 1362: 1357: 1350: 1345: 1342: 1264: 1259: 1254: 1244: 1239: 1228: 1223: 1218: 1203: 1198: 1192: 1191: 1189: 1156: 1151: 1146: 1136: 1128: 1123: 1118: 1107: 1102: 1097: 1082: 1062: 1057: 1050: 1045: 1042: 740:) or by the simple partial return of the 732:. Further improvements are achievable by 303: 298: 293: 276: 272: 267: 258: 247: 243: 238: 233: 229: 227: 6295:, The Combustion Institute, pp. 566–574. 4548: 4539: 3869: 3546:. For example, in the combustion of one 3246: 3160:, the combustion products contain 0.17% 3095: 987:thermal management of electronic systems 709:are produced instead of carbon dioxide. 598: 589: 437:, is harvested for diverse uses such as 7131:International Flame Research Foundation 6153:Proceedings of the Combustion Institute 4953:"Burning showing incomplete combustion" 4870: 4815:International Flame Research Foundation 607:In most industrial applications and in 413:, or more complicated mixtures such as 121:. Combustion does not always result in 5055:Furnace atmospheres and carbon control 5053:ASM Committee on Furnace Atmospheres, 449:. Combustion is also used to destroy ( 141:. The study of combustion is known as 5422:. Springer Science. pp. 193–220. 5127: 5125: 3952:, petrol, charcoal, coal, wood, etc. 771:use combustion analyzers to test the 604:is also a function of oxygen excess. 7: 7224: 6397:Handbook of Combustion, 5 volume set 6375:Theoretical and Numerical Combustion 6323:The Aeronautical Journal of the RaeS 5174:: 28. September 2012. Archived from 4809:Scientific and engineering societies 4458:the air and fuel inlet temperatures. 4395:and takes note of the fact that the 4355:The Method of Invariant Grids (MIG). 4209:adding citations to reliable sources 3895:. Carbon becomes a stable phase at 701:by incomplete combustion; however, 6443:Glassman, Irvin; Yetter, Richard. 6304:E. C. Fernandes and M. V. Heitor, 6210:10.1016/j.combustflame.2010.06.009 5357:"Making a system balance (Part 1)" 5320:"Making a system balance (Part 2)" 3145:combustion products contain 0.03% 25: 6336:Combustion Science and Technology 3206:or treatment of the exhaust with 3043:and, to a much lesser extent, to 78:Air pollution abatement equipment 7234: 7223: 7213: 7212: 6430:Baukal, Charles E., ed. (1998). 6140:from the original on 2022-10-09. 5916:from the original on 2022-10-09. 5662:from the original on 2022-10-09. 5557:Journal of Computational Physics 4425:stoichiometric air to fuel ratio 4185: 80:provides combustion control for 6912:Control of fire by early humans 6824:Control of fire by early humans 5927:Lam, S.H.; Goussis, D. (1991). 5617:The Journal of Chemical Physics 5074:: 22. June 2013. Archived from 4939:"Incomplete combustion process" 4196:needs additional citations for 3276:of a hydrocarbon in oxygen is: 1534:{\displaystyle z=x+{y \over 4}} 983:materials fabrication processes 736:after-burning devices (such as 656:, with much smaller amounts of 69:undergoing combustion (burning) 6481:Gas-Phase Combustion Chemistry 5418:Goussis, D.; Maas, U. (2011). 4648: 4636: 4625: 4613: 4579: 4573: 4288:produced in the combustion of 3746: 3358: 3091:form by disproportionation of 2869: 2510: 2157: 1850: 1616: 1412: 1232: 1111: 310: 287: 283: 277: 254: 248: 38:. For the vehicle engine, see 1: 6247:"Adiabatic flame temperature" 6233:10.1016/S0165-2370(00)00123-6 5991:10.1016/S0010-2180(71)80166-9 5420:Turbulent Combustion Modeling 4521:percent excess combustion air 905:behind the flaming fronts of 824:, a major component of smog. 6348:10.1080/00102202.2012.714020 5687:10.1016/0010-2180(92)90034-m 4490:{\displaystyle \lambda =1.0} 4343:A few variational approaches 885:, synthetic foams, charring 804:in the atmosphere, creating 385:occur naturally, ignited by 352:or ash). Thus, the produced 208:. This reaction releases 242 6479:Gardiner, W. C. Jr (2000). 6175:10.1016/j.proci.2008.05.014 6131:10.4208/cicp.030709.210110a 5283:"Available combustion heat" 5209:"Making a material balance" 4981:"Carbon Monoxide Poisoning" 4700:Chemical looping combustion 4465:adiabatic flame temperature 4393:first law of thermodynamics 3986:autoignitive reaction front 979:International Space Station 730:internal combustion engines 48:Combustion (disambiguation) 7282: 6432:Oxygen-Enhanced Combustion 5465:10.1103/PhysRevE.83.036706 4798:Internal combustion engine 4783:External combustion engine 4441:{\displaystyle {\lambda }} 4366:Thermogravimetric analysis 4239:Combustion in oxygen is a 796:These oxides combine with 693: 516: 371:, commonly referred to as 40:internal combustion engine 29: 7207: 6525: 6079:10.1016/j.jcp.2009.03.011 6036:10.1016/j.jcp.2008.02.006 5964:10.1016/j.jcp.2005.03.033 5765:10.1088/1364-7830/6/4/308 5722:10.1080/13647830701242531 5587:10.1016/j.jcp.2011.11.007 3022:Trace combustion products 839:carbon monoxide poisoning 816:is that they, along with 746:environmental legislation 615:is the source of oxygen ( 7136:The Combustion Institute 6604:Autoignition temperature 5496:Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. A 5146:10.1243/09544062jmes1519 5068:"Exothermic atmospheres" 4820:The Combustion Institute 4740:Heterogeneous combustion 4695:Autoignition temperature 3713:gives another equation: 3711:water-gas shift reaction 3699:{\displaystyle 2a+b+c=8} 379:may be required by law. 215:of heat and reduces the 95:, is a high-temperature 65:caused as a result of a 44:Burning (disambiguation) 42:. For other uses, see 6619:Minimum ignition energy 6452:Turns, Stephen (2011). 5246:"Making a heat balance" 4243:in which many distinct 3656:{\displaystyle 2c+2d=8} 971:flow transport dynamics 513:Complete and incomplete 109:(the reductant) and an 52:Firing (disambiguation) 6978:Spontaneous combustion 6463:Combustion Engineering 5526:10.1098/rsta.2011.0026 4767:Machines and equipment 4756:Spontaneous combustion 4661: 4491: 4453:specific heat capacity 4442: 4384: 4022: 3842: 3783: 3700: 3657: 3617: 3500: 3012: 2676: 2300: 1966: 1681: 1535: 1493: 1276: 1168: 962: 918:Spontaneous combustion 792:Environmental problems 750:thermal power stations 555:, and iron will yield 540: 393:products. Combustion ( 363:, which is 78 percent 318: 181:in the form of either 113:, usually atmospheric 85: 70: 36:spontaneous combustion 5745:Combust. Theory Model 5702:Combust. Theory Model 4903:Central Boiler Plants 4847:Open burning of waste 4842:List of light sources 4662: 4492: 4443: 4379: 4160:to the percentage of 4156:directly relates the 4081:Combustion management 4016: 3843: 3784: 3701: 3658: 3618: 3616:{\displaystyle a+b=3} 3571:) with four moles of 3501: 3013: 2677: 2301: 1967: 1682: 1536: 1494: 1277: 1169: 960: 903:combustion of biomass 899:upholstered furniture 828:Human health problems 781:incomplete combustion 531: 319: 76: 60: 6101:Commun. Comput. Phys 4890:The formation of NOx 4567: 4475: 4430: 4312:thick, black smoke. 4262:forbidden transition 4205:improve this article 4032:, when the unburned 4017:A general scheme of 3793: 3720: 3669: 3629: 3595: 3283: 3212:Diesel exhaust fluid 3204:catalytic converters 2708: 2336: 1998: 1712: 1551: 1506: 1341: 1294:present in the air ( 1188: 1041: 738:catalytic converters 682:coal, to 300% for a 551:, sulfur will yield 470:chlorine trifluoride 377:catalytic converters 333:chemical equilibrium 226: 82:industrial processes 6645:Solar Spark Lighter 6483:(Revised ed.). 6310:Unsteady Combustion 6113:2010CCoPh...8..701C 6071:2009JCoPh.228.4665V 6028:2008JCoPh.227.5535C 5956:2005JCoPh.209..754V 5931:. Berlin: Springer. 5891:2008JPCA..112.1712R 5847:2010Entrp..12..706L 5829:Lebiedz, D (2010). 5800:2006JChPh.124k4111R 5757:2002CTM.....6..697N 5714:2007CTM....11..839B 5629:2014JChPh.141d4102K 5579:2012JCoPh.231.1751C 5518:2011RSPTA.369.2396C 5502:(1945): 2396–2404. 5457:2011PhRvE..83c6706C 5363:: 22. February 2012 5252:: 22. December 2012 5215:: 20. November 2012 5057:, Metals Park, OH . 4003:detonation velocity 3777: 3761: 3742: 3535:may become stable. 3488: 3453: 3383: 3351: 3319: 3304: 3006: 2924: 2888: 2862: 2841: 2771: 2756: 2741: 2726: 2670: 2581: 2557: 2529: 2503: 2482: 2414: 2399: 2384: 2369: 2354: 2294: 2228: 2204: 2176: 2150: 2129: 2061: 2046: 2031: 2016: 1960: 1897: 1869: 1843: 1822: 1760: 1745: 1730: 1675: 1651: 1631: 1615: 1594: 1569: 1487: 1460: 1432: 1411: 1387: 1296:Atmosphere of Earth 1267: 1247: 1231: 1206: 1159: 1131: 1110: 1007:combustion chambers 306: 275: 246: 7266:Chemical reactions 6474:(Second ed.). 6465:(Second ed.). 6447:(Fourth ed.). 6251:Industrial Heating 6227:. 58–59: 747–763. 5395:Combustion Physics 5393:Law, C.K. (2006). 5361:Industrial Heating 5324:Industrial Heating 5287:Industrial Heating 5250:Industrial Heating 5213:Industrial Heating 5172:Industrial Heating 5078:on 9 November 2023 5072:Industrial Heating 4983:. 8 December 2020. 4657: 4559:Rayleigh Criterion 4517:gas-fired turbines 4487: 4438: 4397:heat of combustion 4385: 4253:triplet spin state 4177:Reaction mechanism 4091:heat of combustion 4048:Distillation phase 4023: 3838: 3779: 3765: 3749: 3730: 3696: 3653: 3613: 3496: 3493: 3476: 3461: 3441: 3426: 3396: 3371: 3356: 3339: 3324: 3305: 3290: 3268:of metals and for 3104:For example, when 3065:disproportionation 3008: 2994: 2912: 2876: 2850: 2829: 2757: 2742: 2727: 2712: 2672: 2658: 2569: 2545: 2517: 2491: 2470: 2400: 2385: 2370: 2355: 2340: 2296: 2282: 2216: 2192: 2164: 2138: 2117: 2047: 2032: 2017: 2002: 1962: 1948: 1885: 1857: 1831: 1810: 1746: 1731: 1716: 1677: 1663: 1639: 1619: 1603: 1582: 1573: 1557: 1531: 1489: 1475: 1448: 1420: 1399: 1375: 1272: 1255: 1235: 1219: 1210: 1194: 1164: 1147: 1119: 1098: 1013:Chemical equations 963: 822:ground level ozone 754:emission standards 541: 532:The combustion of 314: 294: 263: 234: 143:combustion science 86: 71: 7248: 7247: 7157:List of wildfires 6862: 6861: 6411:978-3-527-32449-1 6204:(10): 1833–1849. 6065:(13): 4665–4701. 6012:(11): 5535–5560. 5899:10.1021/jp0739925 5856:10.3390/e12040706 5808:10.1063/1.2177243 5637:10.1063/1.4890368 5140:(12): 2751–2765. 5111:. Crct.polymtl.ca 4862: 4861: 4750:Phlogiston theory 4593: 4381:Antoine Lavoisier 4360:Kinetic modelling 4278:hydroxyl radicals 4237: 4236: 4229: 4097:leaving with the 3836: 3768: 3752: 3745: 3733: 3726: 3492: 3479: 3473: 3467: 3460: 3456: 3444: 3438: 3432: 3424: 3421: 3418: 3413: 3408: 3402: 3394: 3391: 3388: 3374: 3368: 3362: 3355: 3342: 3336: 3330: 3323: 3313: 3308: 3298: 3293: 3288: 3028:flame temperature 2997: 2986: 2973: 2938: 2927: 2915: 2909: 2879: 2853: 2832: 2816: 2803: 2760: 2745: 2730: 2715: 2661: 2650: 2626: 2613: 2572: 2560: 2548: 2542: 2520: 2494: 2473: 2451: 2438: 2403: 2388: 2373: 2358: 2343: 2285: 2268: 2255: 2219: 2207: 2195: 2189: 2167: 2141: 2120: 2098: 2085: 2050: 2035: 2020: 2005: 1951: 1940: 1927: 1900: 1888: 1882: 1860: 1834: 1813: 1797: 1784: 1749: 1734: 1719: 1666: 1654: 1642: 1622: 1606: 1585: 1572: 1560: 1556: 1529: 1478: 1463: 1451: 1445: 1423: 1402: 1378: 1360: 1348: 1334:% is 20.95% vol: 1270: 1258: 1238: 1222: 1209: 1197: 1193: 1162: 1150: 1144: 1122: 1101: 1090: 1060: 1048: 1024:chemical equation 891:polyurethane foam 752:, to reach legal 490:hydrogen chloride 309: 297: 282: 266: 253: 237: 153:radical reactions 131:activation energy 103:chemical reaction 16:(Redirected from 7273: 7238: 7227: 7226: 7216: 7215: 7061:Death by burning 7023:Individual fires 6889: 6882: 6875: 6866: 6812:Related articles 6512: 6505: 6498: 6489: 6484: 6475: 6466: 6457: 6448: 6439: 6426: 6424: 6423: 6414:. Archived from 6390: 6388: 6387: 6360: 6359: 6331: 6325: 6319: 6313: 6302: 6296: 6289: 6283: 6280: 6274: 6269: 6263: 6262: 6260: 6258: 6243: 6237: 6236: 6220: 6214: 6213: 6193: 6187: 6186: 6168: 6148: 6142: 6141: 6139: 6124: 6098: 6089: 6083: 6082: 6054: 6048: 6047: 6021: 6001: 5995: 5994: 5974: 5968: 5967: 5939: 5933: 5932: 5924: 5918: 5917: 5915: 5885:(8): 1712–1718. 5879:J. Phys. Chem. A 5876: 5867: 5861: 5860: 5858: 5826: 5820: 5819: 5783: 5777: 5776: 5740: 5734: 5733: 5697: 5691: 5690: 5681:(3–4): 239–264. 5670: 5664: 5663: 5661: 5614: 5605: 5599: 5598: 5572: 5563:(4): 1751–1765. 5552: 5546: 5545: 5511: 5491: 5485: 5484: 5450: 5430: 5424: 5423: 5415: 5409: 5408: 5390: 5384: 5379: 5373: 5372: 5370: 5368: 5353: 5347: 5342: 5336: 5335: 5333: 5331: 5326:: 24. March 2012 5316: 5310: 5305: 5299: 5298: 5296: 5294: 5289:: 22. April 2013 5279: 5273: 5268: 5262: 5261: 5259: 5257: 5242: 5236: 5231: 5225: 5224: 5222: 5220: 5205: 5199: 5194: 5188: 5187: 5185: 5183: 5164: 5158: 5157: 5129: 5120: 5119: 5117: 5116: 5105: 5099: 5094: 5088: 5087: 5085: 5083: 5064: 5058: 5051: 5045: 5044: 5042: 5040: 5028: 5022: 5016: 5010: 5009: 5007: 5006: 4991: 4985: 4984: 4977: 4971: 4970: 4963: 4957: 4956: 4949: 4943: 4942: 4935: 4929: 4928: 4926: 4924: 4913: 4907: 4906: 4899: 4893: 4887: 4878: 4875: 4832:Combustible dust 4745:Markstein number 4684:Related concepts 4679: 4666: 4664: 4663: 4658: 4635: 4612: 4604: 4603: 4594: 4586: 4553: 4544: 4534: 4513:steam generators 4496: 4494: 4493: 4488: 4455:of fuel and air; 4447: 4445: 4444: 4439: 4437: 4325:dynamical system 4232: 4225: 4221: 4218: 4212: 4189: 4181: 4171: 4170: 4169: 4154:material balance 4140: 4139: 4138: 4128: 4127: 4126: 4116: 4042:dry distillation 4030:Preheating phase 3960:Combustion of a 3936: 3935: 3934: 3924: 3920: 3919: 3918: 3908: 3901: 3894: 3890: 3889: 3888: 3874: 3857: 3851:For example, at 3847: 3845: 3844: 3839: 3837: 3835: 3824: 3813: 3808: 3807: 3788: 3786: 3785: 3780: 3778: 3776: 3773: 3766: 3760: 3757: 3750: 3743: 3741: 3738: 3731: 3724: 3705: 3703: 3702: 3697: 3662: 3660: 3659: 3654: 3622: 3620: 3619: 3614: 3582: 3581: 3580: 3570: 3569: 3568: 3560: 3559: 3540:material balance 3525: 3524: 3523: 3505: 3503: 3502: 3497: 3495: 3494: 3490: 3489: 3487: 3484: 3477: 3475: 3474: 3462: 3458: 3457: 3454: 3452: 3449: 3442: 3440: 3439: 3427: 3425: 3422: 3419: 3416: 3414: 3411: 3410: 3409: 3397: 3395: 3392: 3389: 3386: 3384: 3382: 3379: 3372: 3370: 3369: 3357: 3353: 3352: 3350: 3347: 3340: 3338: 3337: 3325: 3321: 3320: 3318: 3315: 3314: 3306: 3303: 3300: 3299: 3291: 3263: 3262: 3261: 3251: 3241: 3237: 3236: 3235: 3183: 3182: 3181: 3171: 3167: 3163: 3159: 3152: 3148: 3140: 3133: 3132: 3131: 3121: 3110: 3100: 3090: 3084: 3082: 3081: 3062: 3056: 3054: 3053: 3042: 3036: 3017: 3015: 3014: 3009: 3007: 3005: 3002: 2995: 2992: 2988: 2987: 2979: 2974: 2969: 2958: 2939: 2936: 2928: 2925: 2923: 2920: 2913: 2910: 2905: 2894: 2889: 2887: 2884: 2877: 2868: 2864: 2863: 2861: 2858: 2851: 2842: 2840: 2837: 2830: 2822: 2818: 2817: 2809: 2804: 2799: 2788: 2772: 2770: 2767: 2766: 2758: 2755: 2752: 2751: 2743: 2740: 2737: 2736: 2728: 2725: 2722: 2721: 2713: 2681: 2679: 2678: 2673: 2671: 2669: 2666: 2659: 2656: 2652: 2651: 2643: 2638: 2634: 2627: 2619: 2614: 2606: 2582: 2580: 2577: 2570: 2561: 2558: 2556: 2553: 2546: 2543: 2535: 2530: 2528: 2525: 2518: 2509: 2505: 2504: 2502: 2499: 2492: 2483: 2481: 2478: 2471: 2463: 2459: 2452: 2444: 2439: 2431: 2415: 2413: 2410: 2409: 2401: 2398: 2395: 2394: 2386: 2383: 2380: 2379: 2371: 2368: 2365: 2364: 2356: 2353: 2350: 2349: 2341: 2305: 2303: 2302: 2297: 2295: 2293: 2290: 2283: 2280: 2276: 2269: 2261: 2256: 2248: 2229: 2227: 2224: 2217: 2208: 2205: 2203: 2200: 2193: 2190: 2182: 2177: 2175: 2172: 2165: 2156: 2152: 2151: 2149: 2146: 2139: 2130: 2128: 2125: 2118: 2110: 2106: 2099: 2091: 2086: 2078: 2062: 2060: 2057: 2056: 2048: 2045: 2042: 2041: 2033: 2030: 2027: 2026: 2018: 2015: 2012: 2011: 2003: 1971: 1969: 1968: 1963: 1961: 1959: 1956: 1949: 1946: 1942: 1941: 1933: 1928: 1920: 1901: 1898: 1896: 1893: 1886: 1883: 1875: 1870: 1868: 1865: 1858: 1849: 1845: 1844: 1842: 1839: 1832: 1823: 1821: 1818: 1811: 1803: 1799: 1798: 1790: 1785: 1777: 1761: 1759: 1756: 1755: 1747: 1744: 1741: 1740: 1732: 1729: 1726: 1725: 1717: 1686: 1684: 1683: 1678: 1676: 1674: 1671: 1664: 1655: 1652: 1650: 1647: 1640: 1630: 1627: 1620: 1614: 1611: 1604: 1595: 1593: 1590: 1583: 1574: 1570: 1568: 1565: 1558: 1540: 1538: 1537: 1532: 1530: 1522: 1498: 1496: 1495: 1490: 1488: 1486: 1483: 1476: 1464: 1461: 1459: 1456: 1449: 1446: 1438: 1433: 1431: 1428: 1421: 1415: 1410: 1407: 1400: 1388: 1386: 1383: 1376: 1367: 1366: 1361: 1358: 1355: 1354: 1349: 1346: 1333: 1332: 1331: 1321: 1320: 1319: 1309: 1308: 1307: 1281: 1279: 1278: 1273: 1271: 1268: 1266: 1263: 1256: 1246: 1243: 1236: 1230: 1227: 1220: 1211: 1207: 1205: 1202: 1195: 1173: 1171: 1170: 1165: 1163: 1160: 1158: 1155: 1148: 1145: 1137: 1132: 1130: 1127: 1120: 1114: 1109: 1106: 1099: 1096: 1092: 1091: 1083: 1067: 1066: 1061: 1058: 1055: 1054: 1049: 1046: 1030:combustion of a 999:micro-combustion 993:Micro-combustion 943:gasoline engines 668: 667: 666: 654: 648: 647: 646: 633: 626: 625: 624: 603: 594: 577: 576: 575: 480:. For instance, 441:, production of 323: 321: 320: 315: 313: 307: 305: 302: 295: 286: 280: 274: 271: 264: 262: 257: 251: 245: 242: 235: 211: 167:, first undergo 21: 7281: 7280: 7276: 7275: 7274: 7272: 7271: 7270: 7251: 7250: 7249: 7244: 7203: 7140: 7119: 7093: 7065: 7044: 7018: 6982: 6968:Fire protection 6926: 6898: 6893: 6863: 6858: 6854:Survival skills 6839:Outdoor cooking 6807: 6746:Other equipment 6741: 6703:Modern starters 6698: 6628: 6590: 6544: 6521: 6516: 6478: 6469: 6460: 6451: 6442: 6429: 6421: 6419: 6412: 6393: 6385: 6383: 6371: 6368: 6366:Further reading 6363: 6333: 6332: 6328: 6320: 6316: 6303: 6299: 6290: 6286: 6281: 6277: 6270: 6266: 6256: 6254: 6245: 6244: 6240: 6222: 6221: 6217: 6195: 6194: 6190: 6150: 6149: 6145: 6137: 6122:10.1.1.302.9316 6096: 6091: 6090: 6086: 6059:J. Comput. Phys 6056: 6055: 6051: 6006:J. Comput. Phys 6003: 6002: 5998: 5976: 5975: 5971: 5944:J. Comput. Phys 5941: 5940: 5936: 5926: 5925: 5921: 5913: 5874: 5869: 5868: 5864: 5828: 5827: 5823: 5785: 5784: 5780: 5742: 5741: 5737: 5699: 5698: 5694: 5672: 5671: 5667: 5659: 5612: 5607: 5606: 5602: 5554: 5553: 5549: 5493: 5492: 5488: 5432: 5431: 5427: 5417: 5416: 5412: 5405: 5392: 5391: 5387: 5380: 5376: 5366: 5364: 5355: 5354: 5350: 5343: 5339: 5329: 5327: 5318: 5317: 5313: 5306: 5302: 5292: 5290: 5281: 5280: 5276: 5269: 5265: 5255: 5253: 5244: 5243: 5239: 5232: 5228: 5218: 5216: 5207: 5206: 5202: 5195: 5191: 5181: 5179: 5178:on 10 July 2013 5166: 5165: 5161: 5131: 5130: 5123: 5114: 5112: 5107: 5106: 5102: 5095: 5091: 5081: 5079: 5066: 5065: 5061: 5052: 5048: 5038: 5036: 5030: 5029: 5025: 5017: 5013: 5004: 5002: 4993: 4992: 4988: 4979: 4978: 4974: 4965: 4964: 4960: 4951: 4950: 4946: 4937: 4936: 4932: 4922: 4920: 4915: 4914: 4910: 4901: 4900: 4896: 4888: 4881: 4876: 4872: 4868: 4863: 4852:Stubble burning 4837:Biomass burning 4761: 4676: 4667: 4628: 4605: 4595: 4565: 4564: 4552: 4546: 4543: 4537: 4532: 4529: 4473: 4472: 4428: 4427: 4408:In the case of 4374: 4362: 4294:carbon monoxide 4233: 4222: 4216: 4213: 4202: 4190: 4179: 4168: 4165: 4164: 4163: 4161: 4137: 4134: 4133: 4132: 4130: 4125: 4122: 4121: 4120: 4118: 4114: 4087:process heating 4083: 4011: 3978:diffusion flame 3974: 3958: 3933: 3930: 3929: 3928: 3926: 3925:and about 0.5% 3922: 3917: 3914: 3913: 3912: 3910: 3903: 3896: 3892: 3887: 3884: 3883: 3882: 3880: 3878: 3871: 3866: 3863: 3852: 3825: 3814: 3796: 3791: 3790: 3718: 3717: 3667: 3666: 3627: 3626: 3593: 3592: 3579: 3576: 3575: 3574: 3572: 3567: 3564: 3563: 3562: 3558: 3555: 3554: 3553: 3551: 3522: 3519: 3518: 3517: 3515: 3468: 3433: 3415: 3403: 3385: 3363: 3331: 3289: 3281: 3280: 3270:gas carburizing 3260: 3257: 3256: 3255: 3253: 3248: 3243: 3239: 3234: 3231: 3230: 3229: 3227: 3220: 3180: 3177: 3176: 3175: 3173: 3169: 3165: 3161: 3154: 3150: 3146: 3135: 3130: 3127: 3126: 3125: 3123: 3116: 3115:is burned with 3105: 3097: 3092: 3086: 3080: 3077: 3076: 3075: 3072: 3070: 3058: 3052: 3049: 3048: 3047: 3044: 3038: 3031: 3030:is above about 3024: 2959: 2950: 2946: 2895: 2827: 2823: 2789: 2780: 2776: 2706: 2705: 2700: 2696: 2692: 2688: 2598: 2594: 2590: 2586: 2468: 2464: 2423: 2419: 2334: 2333: 2328: 2324: 2320: 2316: 2312: 2240: 2236: 2115: 2111: 2070: 2066: 1996: 1995: 1990: 1986: 1982: 1978: 1912: 1908: 1808: 1804: 1769: 1765: 1710: 1709: 1704: 1700: 1696: 1549: 1548: 1504: 1503: 1356: 1344: 1339: 1338: 1330: 1327: 1326: 1325: 1323: 1318: 1315: 1314: 1313: 1311: 1306: 1303: 1302: 1301: 1299: 1288: 1186: 1185: 1075: 1071: 1056: 1044: 1039: 1038: 1022:Generally, the 1020: 1015: 995: 955: 935: 915: 851: 834:carbon monoxide 830: 814:nitrogen oxides 794: 789: 707:carbon monoxide 698: 692: 672:carbon monoxide 665: 662: 661: 660: 658: 652: 645: 640: 639: 638: 636: 628: 623: 620: 619: 618: 616: 602: 596: 593: 587: 584:sulfur trioxide 574: 569: 568: 567: 565: 557:iron(III) oxide 526: 521: 515: 510: 502:contact process 431:renewable fuels 369:nitrogen oxides 338:carbon monoxide 224: 223: 209: 139:self-sustaining 55: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 7279: 7277: 7269: 7268: 7263: 7253: 7252: 7246: 7245: 7243: 7242: 7231: 7220: 7208: 7205: 7204: 7202: 7201: 7196: 7194:Slash-and-burn 7191: 7186: 7181: 7176: 7171: 7166: 7161: 7160: 7159: 7148: 7146: 7142: 7141: 7139: 7138: 7133: 7127: 7125: 7121: 7120: 7118: 7117: 7112: 7107: 7101: 7099: 7095: 7094: 7092: 7091: 7086: 7085: 7084: 7073: 7071: 7067: 7066: 7064: 7063: 7058: 7052: 7050: 7046: 7045: 7043: 7042: 7037: 7032: 7026: 7024: 7020: 7019: 7017: 7016: 7011: 7006: 7001: 6996: 6990: 6988: 6984: 6983: 6981: 6980: 6975: 6970: 6965: 6960: 6955: 6950: 6948:Dust explosion 6945: 6940: 6938:Chain reaction 6934: 6932: 6928: 6927: 6925: 6924: 6919: 6917:Historic fires 6914: 6908: 6906: 6900: 6899: 6894: 6892: 6891: 6884: 6877: 6869: 6860: 6859: 6857: 6856: 6851: 6846: 6841: 6836: 6831: 6826: 6821: 6815: 6813: 6809: 6808: 6806: 6805: 6800: 6795: 6790: 6785: 6780: 6775: 6770: 6765: 6760: 6755: 6749: 6747: 6743: 6742: 6740: 6739: 6738: 6737: 6732: 6722: 6717: 6712: 6706: 6704: 6700: 6699: 6697: 6696: 6691: 6686: 6681: 6676: 6671: 6670: 6669: 6664: 6659: 6649: 6648: 6647: 6636: 6634: 6633:Early starters 6630: 6629: 6627: 6626: 6621: 6616: 6611: 6606: 6600: 6598: 6592: 6591: 6589: 6588: 6583: 6578: 6573: 6568: 6563: 6558: 6552: 6550: 6546: 6545: 6543: 6542: 6537: 6532: 6526: 6523: 6522: 6517: 6515: 6514: 6507: 6500: 6492: 6486: 6485: 6476: 6467: 6458: 6449: 6440: 6427: 6410: 6391: 6367: 6364: 6362: 6361: 6326: 6314: 6297: 6284: 6275: 6264: 6253:: 20. May 2013 6238: 6215: 6198:Combust. Flame 6188: 6143: 6107:(4): 701–734. 6084: 6049: 5996: 5985:(2): 237–241. 5979:Combust. Flame 5969: 5950:(2): 754–786. 5934: 5919: 5862: 5841:(4): 706–719. 5821: 5794:(11): 114111. 5778: 5751:(4): 697–709. 5735: 5708:(6): 839–862. 5692: 5675:Combust. Flame 5665: 5600: 5547: 5486: 5425: 5410: 5403: 5385: 5374: 5348: 5337: 5311: 5300: 5274: 5263: 5237: 5226: 5200: 5189: 5159: 5121: 5109:"Reaction-Web" 5100: 5089: 5059: 5046: 5023: 5011: 4986: 4972: 4958: 4944: 4930: 4908: 4894: 4879: 4869: 4867: 4864: 4860: 4859: 4855: 4854: 4849: 4844: 4839: 4834: 4823: 4822: 4817: 4806: 4805: 4800: 4795: 4790: 4785: 4780: 4775: 4763: 4759: 4758: 4753: 4747: 4742: 4737: 4735:Global warming 4732: 4727: 4722: 4717: 4715:Dust explosion 4712: 4707: 4702: 4697: 4692: 4690:Air–fuel ratio 4677: 4675: 4672: 4656: 4653: 4650: 4647: 4644: 4641: 4638: 4634: 4631: 4627: 4624: 4621: 4618: 4615: 4611: 4608: 4602: 4598: 4592: 4589: 4584: 4581: 4578: 4575: 4572: 4563: 4528: 4525: 4504:In industrial 4486: 4483: 4480: 4460: 4459: 4456: 4449: 4436: 4421: 4373: 4370: 4361: 4358: 4357: 4356: 4353: 4350: 4347: 4344: 4341: 4338: 4335: 4266:singlet oxygen 4241:chain reaction 4235: 4234: 4193: 4191: 4184: 4178: 4175: 4166: 4158:air/fuel ratio 4135: 4123: 4082: 4079: 4078: 4077: 4062:Charcoal phase 4059: 4045: 4010: 4007: 3982:premixed flame 3973: 3970: 3957: 3954: 3931: 3915: 3885: 3876: 3861: 3849: 3848: 3834: 3831: 3828: 3823: 3820: 3817: 3811: 3806: 3803: 3799: 3772: 3764: 3756: 3748: 3737: 3729: 3707: 3706: 3695: 3692: 3689: 3686: 3683: 3680: 3677: 3674: 3663: 3652: 3649: 3646: 3643: 3640: 3637: 3634: 3623: 3612: 3609: 3606: 3603: 3600: 3577: 3565: 3556: 3520: 3507: 3506: 3483: 3465: 3448: 3430: 3400: 3378: 3360: 3346: 3328: 3266:heat-treatment 3258: 3232: 3219: 3216: 3200:enforce limits 3196:nitrogen oxide 3188:Diesel engines 3178: 3128: 3078: 3068: 3050: 3023: 3020: 3019: 3018: 3001: 2991: 2985: 2982: 2977: 2972: 2968: 2965: 2962: 2956: 2953: 2949: 2945: 2942: 2934: 2931: 2919: 2908: 2904: 2901: 2898: 2892: 2883: 2874: 2871: 2867: 2857: 2848: 2845: 2836: 2826: 2821: 2815: 2812: 2807: 2802: 2798: 2795: 2792: 2786: 2783: 2779: 2775: 2765: 2750: 2735: 2720: 2698: 2694: 2690: 2686: 2683: 2682: 2665: 2655: 2649: 2646: 2641: 2637: 2633: 2630: 2625: 2622: 2617: 2612: 2609: 2604: 2601: 2597: 2593: 2589: 2585: 2576: 2567: 2564: 2552: 2541: 2538: 2533: 2524: 2515: 2512: 2508: 2498: 2489: 2486: 2477: 2467: 2462: 2458: 2455: 2450: 2447: 2442: 2437: 2434: 2429: 2426: 2422: 2418: 2408: 2393: 2378: 2363: 2348: 2326: 2322: 2318: 2314: 2310: 2307: 2306: 2289: 2279: 2275: 2272: 2267: 2264: 2259: 2254: 2251: 2246: 2243: 2239: 2235: 2232: 2223: 2214: 2211: 2199: 2188: 2185: 2180: 2171: 2162: 2159: 2155: 2145: 2136: 2133: 2124: 2114: 2109: 2105: 2102: 2097: 2094: 2089: 2084: 2081: 2076: 2073: 2069: 2065: 2055: 2040: 2025: 2010: 1988: 1984: 1980: 1976: 1973: 1972: 1955: 1945: 1939: 1936: 1931: 1926: 1923: 1918: 1915: 1911: 1907: 1904: 1892: 1881: 1878: 1873: 1864: 1855: 1852: 1848: 1838: 1829: 1826: 1817: 1807: 1802: 1796: 1793: 1788: 1783: 1780: 1775: 1772: 1768: 1764: 1754: 1739: 1724: 1702: 1698: 1694: 1688: 1687: 1670: 1661: 1658: 1646: 1637: 1634: 1626: 1618: 1610: 1601: 1598: 1589: 1580: 1577: 1564: 1528: 1525: 1520: 1517: 1514: 1511: 1500: 1499: 1482: 1473: 1470: 1467: 1455: 1444: 1441: 1436: 1427: 1418: 1414: 1406: 1397: 1394: 1391: 1382: 1373: 1370: 1365: 1353: 1328: 1316: 1304: 1287: 1284: 1283: 1282: 1262: 1253: 1250: 1242: 1234: 1226: 1217: 1214: 1201: 1181:in oxygen is: 1175: 1174: 1154: 1143: 1140: 1135: 1126: 1117: 1113: 1105: 1095: 1089: 1086: 1081: 1078: 1074: 1070: 1065: 1053: 1034:in oxygen is: 1028:stoichiometric 1019: 1016: 1014: 1011: 994: 991: 954: 951: 934: 931: 914: 911: 850: 847: 829: 826: 810:sulfuric acids 793: 790: 788: 785: 691: 688: 663: 641: 621: 570: 553:sulfur dioxide 549:carbon dioxide 525: 522: 514: 511: 509: 506: 389:strikes or by 329:stoichiometric 325: 324: 312: 301: 292: 289: 285: 279: 270: 261: 256: 250: 241: 232: 206:rocket engines 26: 24: 18:Combustion gas 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 7278: 7267: 7264: 7262: 7259: 7258: 7256: 7241: 7237: 7232: 7230: 7221: 7219: 7210: 7209: 7206: 7200: 7197: 7195: 7192: 7190: 7187: 7185: 7182: 7180: 7177: 7175: 7172: 7170: 7167: 7165: 7162: 7158: 7155: 7154: 7153: 7150: 7149: 7147: 7143: 7137: 7134: 7132: 7129: 7128: 7126: 7124:Organizations 7122: 7116: 7113: 7111: 7108: 7106: 7103: 7102: 7100: 7096: 7090: 7087: 7083: 7080: 7079: 7078: 7075: 7074: 7072: 7068: 7062: 7059: 7057: 7054: 7053: 7051: 7047: 7041: 7038: 7036: 7033: 7031: 7028: 7027: 7025: 7021: 7015: 7012: 7010: 7007: 7005: 7002: 7000: 6997: 6995: 6992: 6991: 6989: 6985: 6979: 6976: 6974: 6971: 6969: 6966: 6964: 6961: 6959: 6956: 6954: 6951: 6949: 6946: 6944: 6941: 6939: 6936: 6935: 6933: 6929: 6923: 6920: 6918: 6915: 6913: 6910: 6909: 6907: 6905: 6901: 6897: 6890: 6885: 6883: 6878: 6876: 6871: 6870: 6867: 6855: 6852: 6850: 6847: 6845: 6842: 6840: 6837: 6835: 6832: 6830: 6827: 6825: 6822: 6820: 6817: 6816: 6814: 6810: 6804: 6801: 6799: 6796: 6794: 6791: 6789: 6786: 6784: 6781: 6779: 6776: 6774: 6771: 6769: 6766: 6764: 6763:Feather stick 6761: 6759: 6756: 6754: 6751: 6750: 6748: 6744: 6736: 6733: 6731: 6728: 6727: 6726: 6723: 6721: 6718: 6716: 6713: 6711: 6708: 6707: 6705: 6701: 6695: 6692: 6690: 6687: 6685: 6682: 6680: 6677: 6675: 6672: 6668: 6665: 6663: 6660: 6658: 6655: 6654: 6653: 6650: 6646: 6643: 6642: 6641: 6640:Burning glass 6638: 6637: 6635: 6631: 6625: 6622: 6620: 6617: 6615: 6614:Friction fire 6612: 6610: 6607: 6605: 6602: 6601: 6599: 6597: 6593: 6587: 6584: 6582: 6579: 6577: 6574: 6572: 6569: 6567: 6564: 6562: 6561:Fire triangle 6559: 6557: 6554: 6553: 6551: 6547: 6541: 6538: 6536: 6533: 6531: 6528: 6527: 6524: 6520: 6513: 6508: 6506: 6501: 6499: 6494: 6493: 6490: 6482: 6477: 6473: 6468: 6464: 6459: 6455: 6450: 6446: 6441: 6437: 6433: 6428: 6418:on 2011-01-17 6417: 6413: 6407: 6403: 6399: 6398: 6392: 6382:on 2017-09-12 6381: 6377: 6376: 6370: 6369: 6365: 6357: 6353: 6349: 6345: 6341: 6337: 6330: 6327: 6324: 6318: 6315: 6311: 6307: 6301: 6298: 6294: 6288: 6285: 6279: 6276: 6272: 6268: 6265: 6252: 6248: 6242: 6239: 6234: 6230: 6226: 6219: 6216: 6211: 6207: 6203: 6199: 6192: 6189: 6184: 6180: 6176: 6172: 6167: 6162: 6158: 6154: 6147: 6144: 6136: 6132: 6128: 6123: 6118: 6114: 6110: 6106: 6102: 6095: 6088: 6085: 6080: 6076: 6072: 6068: 6064: 6060: 6053: 6050: 6045: 6041: 6037: 6033: 6029: 6025: 6020: 6015: 6011: 6007: 6000: 5997: 5992: 5988: 5984: 5980: 5973: 5970: 5965: 5961: 5957: 5953: 5949: 5945: 5938: 5935: 5930: 5923: 5920: 5912: 5908: 5904: 5900: 5896: 5892: 5888: 5884: 5880: 5873: 5866: 5863: 5857: 5852: 5848: 5844: 5840: 5836: 5832: 5825: 5822: 5817: 5813: 5809: 5805: 5801: 5797: 5793: 5789: 5788:J. Chem. Phys 5782: 5779: 5774: 5770: 5766: 5762: 5758: 5754: 5750: 5746: 5739: 5736: 5731: 5727: 5723: 5719: 5715: 5711: 5707: 5703: 5696: 5693: 5688: 5684: 5680: 5676: 5669: 5666: 5658: 5654: 5650: 5646: 5642: 5638: 5634: 5630: 5626: 5623:(4): 044102. 5622: 5618: 5611: 5604: 5601: 5596: 5592: 5588: 5584: 5580: 5576: 5571: 5566: 5562: 5558: 5551: 5548: 5543: 5539: 5535: 5531: 5527: 5523: 5519: 5515: 5510: 5505: 5501: 5497: 5490: 5487: 5482: 5478: 5474: 5470: 5466: 5462: 5458: 5454: 5449: 5444: 5441:(3): 036706. 5440: 5436: 5429: 5426: 5421: 5414: 5411: 5406: 5404:9780521154215 5400: 5396: 5389: 5386: 5382: 5378: 5375: 5362: 5358: 5352: 5349: 5345: 5341: 5338: 5325: 5321: 5315: 5312: 5309:AvailHeatCalc 5308: 5304: 5301: 5288: 5284: 5278: 5275: 5271: 5267: 5264: 5251: 5247: 5241: 5238: 5234: 5230: 5227: 5214: 5210: 5204: 5201: 5197: 5193: 5190: 5177: 5173: 5169: 5163: 5160: 5155: 5151: 5147: 5143: 5139: 5135: 5128: 5126: 5122: 5110: 5104: 5101: 5097: 5093: 5090: 5077: 5073: 5069: 5063: 5060: 5056: 5050: 5047: 5034: 5033:"Equilib-Web" 5027: 5024: 5020: 5015: 5012: 5001:on 2018-07-01 5000: 4996: 4990: 4987: 4982: 4976: 4973: 4968: 4962: 4959: 4954: 4948: 4945: 4940: 4934: 4931: 4918: 4912: 4909: 4904: 4898: 4895: 4891: 4886: 4884: 4880: 4874: 4871: 4865: 4858: 4853: 4850: 4848: 4845: 4843: 4840: 4838: 4835: 4833: 4830: 4829: 4828: 4827: 4821: 4818: 4816: 4813: 4812: 4811: 4810: 4804: 4803:Rocket engine 4801: 4799: 4796: 4794: 4791: 4789: 4786: 4784: 4781: 4779: 4778:Bunsen burner 4776: 4774: 4771: 4770: 4769: 4768: 4764: 4762: 4757: 4754: 4751: 4748: 4746: 4743: 4741: 4738: 4736: 4733: 4731: 4728: 4726: 4723: 4721: 4718: 4716: 4713: 4711: 4708: 4706: 4703: 4701: 4698: 4696: 4693: 4691: 4688: 4687: 4686: 4685: 4681: 4680: 4673: 4671: 4654: 4651: 4645: 4642: 4639: 4632: 4629: 4622: 4619: 4616: 4609: 4606: 4600: 4596: 4590: 4587: 4582: 4576: 4570: 4562: 4560: 4555: 4551: 4542: 4527:Instabilities 4526: 4524: 4522: 4518: 4514: 4511: 4510:power station 4507: 4506:fired heaters 4502: 4500: 4484: 4481: 4478: 4469: 4467: 4466: 4457: 4454: 4450: 4434: 4426: 4422: 4419: 4418:heating value 4415: 4414: 4413: 4411: 4406: 4404: 4403: 4398: 4394: 4390: 4382: 4378: 4371: 4369: 4367: 4359: 4354: 4352:The G-Scheme. 4351: 4348: 4345: 4342: 4339: 4336: 4333: 4332: 4331: 4328: 4326: 4320: 4316: 4313: 4310: 4305: 4303: 4299: 4298:poisonous gas 4295: 4291: 4287: 4283: 4279: 4273: 4271: 4267: 4263: 4258: 4254: 4250: 4246: 4242: 4231: 4228: 4220: 4210: 4206: 4200: 4199: 4194:This section 4192: 4188: 4183: 4182: 4176: 4174: 4159: 4155: 4150: 4148: 4142: 4110: 4108: 4104: 4100: 4096: 4095:sensible heat 4092: 4088: 4080: 4075: 4071: 4067: 4063: 4060: 4057: 4053: 4052:gaseous phase 4049: 4046: 4043: 4039: 4035: 4031: 4028: 4027: 4026: 4020: 4015: 4008: 4006: 4004: 3999: 3995: 3991: 3987: 3983: 3979: 3972:Gaseous fuels 3971: 3969: 3967: 3963: 3955: 3953: 3951: 3947: 3943: 3938: 3907: 3900: 3873: 3864: 3858:the value of 3856: 3832: 3829: 3826: 3821: 3818: 3815: 3809: 3804: 3801: 3797: 3770: 3762: 3754: 3735: 3727: 3716: 3715: 3714: 3712: 3693: 3690: 3687: 3684: 3681: 3678: 3675: 3672: 3664: 3650: 3647: 3644: 3641: 3638: 3635: 3632: 3624: 3610: 3607: 3604: 3601: 3598: 3590: 3589: 3588: 3586: 3549: 3545: 3541: 3536: 3534: 3530: 3526: 3512: 3481: 3463: 3446: 3428: 3398: 3376: 3344: 3326: 3279: 3278: 3277: 3275: 3271: 3267: 3250: 3225: 3217: 3215: 3213: 3209: 3205: 3201: 3197: 3193: 3189: 3185: 3172:, and 0.004% 3158: 3144: 3139: 3120: 3114: 3109: 3102: 3099: 3089: 3083: 3066: 3061: 3055: 3041: 3035: 3029: 3021: 2999: 2989: 2983: 2980: 2975: 2970: 2966: 2963: 2960: 2954: 2951: 2947: 2943: 2940: 2932: 2929: 2917: 2906: 2902: 2899: 2896: 2890: 2881: 2872: 2865: 2855: 2846: 2843: 2834: 2824: 2819: 2813: 2810: 2805: 2800: 2796: 2793: 2790: 2784: 2781: 2777: 2773: 2763: 2748: 2733: 2718: 2704: 2703: 2702: 2663: 2653: 2647: 2644: 2639: 2635: 2631: 2628: 2623: 2620: 2615: 2610: 2607: 2602: 2599: 2595: 2591: 2587: 2583: 2574: 2565: 2562: 2550: 2539: 2536: 2531: 2522: 2513: 2506: 2496: 2487: 2484: 2475: 2465: 2460: 2456: 2453: 2448: 2445: 2440: 2435: 2432: 2427: 2424: 2420: 2416: 2406: 2391: 2376: 2361: 2346: 2332: 2331: 2330: 2287: 2277: 2273: 2270: 2265: 2262: 2257: 2252: 2249: 2244: 2241: 2237: 2233: 2230: 2221: 2212: 2209: 2197: 2186: 2183: 2178: 2169: 2160: 2153: 2143: 2134: 2131: 2122: 2112: 2107: 2103: 2100: 2095: 2092: 2087: 2082: 2079: 2074: 2071: 2067: 2063: 2053: 2038: 2023: 2008: 1994: 1993: 1992: 1953: 1943: 1937: 1934: 1929: 1924: 1921: 1916: 1913: 1909: 1905: 1902: 1890: 1879: 1876: 1871: 1862: 1853: 1846: 1836: 1827: 1824: 1815: 1805: 1800: 1794: 1791: 1786: 1781: 1778: 1773: 1770: 1766: 1762: 1752: 1737: 1722: 1708: 1707: 1706: 1691: 1668: 1659: 1656: 1644: 1635: 1632: 1624: 1608: 1599: 1596: 1587: 1578: 1575: 1562: 1547: 1546: 1545: 1542: 1526: 1523: 1518: 1515: 1512: 1509: 1480: 1471: 1468: 1465: 1453: 1442: 1439: 1434: 1425: 1416: 1404: 1395: 1392: 1389: 1380: 1371: 1368: 1363: 1351: 1337: 1336: 1335: 1297: 1293: 1285: 1260: 1251: 1248: 1240: 1224: 1215: 1212: 1199: 1184: 1183: 1182: 1180: 1152: 1141: 1138: 1133: 1124: 1115: 1103: 1093: 1087: 1084: 1079: 1076: 1072: 1068: 1063: 1051: 1037: 1036: 1035: 1033: 1029: 1025: 1017: 1012: 1010: 1008: 1004: 1000: 992: 990: 988: 984: 980: 976: 972: 968: 959: 953:Micro-gravity 952: 950: 948: 944: 940: 932: 930: 928: 923: 919: 912: 910: 908: 904: 900: 896: 892: 888: 884: 880: 876: 872: 868: 864: 860: 855: 848: 846: 844: 840: 835: 827: 825: 823: 819: 815: 811: 807: 803: 799: 791: 786: 784: 782: 777: 774: 770: 766: 763:contractors, 762: 757: 755: 751: 747: 743: 742:exhaust gases 739: 735: 731: 727: 722: 720: 715: 710: 708: 704: 697: 689: 687: 685: 681: 675: 673: 669: 655: 649: 644: 632: 614: 610: 605: 601: 592: 585: 580: 578: 573: 562: 558: 554: 550: 546: 539: 535: 530: 523: 520: 512: 507: 505: 503: 499: 495: 491: 487: 483: 479: 475: 474:nitrous oxide 471: 467: 463: 459: 454: 452: 448: 444: 440: 436: 432: 428: 424: 420: 416: 412: 408: 404: 400: 396: 392: 388: 384: 380: 378: 374: 370: 366: 362: 359: 355: 351: 347: 343: 339: 334: 330: 299: 290: 268: 259: 239: 230: 222: 221: 220: 218: 214: 207: 203: 200: 196: 192: 188: 184: 180: 177: 173: 170: 166: 162: 158: 154: 151: 146: 144: 140: 136: 132: 128: 124: 120: 116: 112: 108: 104: 101: 98: 94: 90: 83: 79: 75: 68: 64: 59: 53: 49: 45: 41: 37: 33: 19: 7169:Firefighting 7110:Fire worship 6953:Fire ecology 6942: 6829:Firem'n Chit 6689:Fire striker 6608: 6519:Firelighting 6480: 6471: 6462: 6453: 6444: 6431: 6420:. Retrieved 6416:the original 6396: 6384:. Retrieved 6380:the original 6374: 6339: 6335: 6329: 6322: 6317: 6309: 6300: 6292: 6287: 6278: 6267: 6255:. Retrieved 6250: 6241: 6224: 6218: 6201: 6197: 6191: 6156: 6152: 6146: 6104: 6100: 6087: 6062: 6058: 6052: 6009: 6005: 5999: 5982: 5978: 5972: 5947: 5943: 5937: 5928: 5922: 5882: 5878: 5865: 5838: 5834: 5824: 5791: 5787: 5781: 5748: 5744: 5738: 5705: 5701: 5695: 5678: 5674: 5668: 5620: 5616: 5603: 5560: 5556: 5550: 5499: 5495: 5489: 5438: 5435:Phys. Rev. E 5434: 5428: 5419: 5413: 5394: 5388: 5377: 5365:. Retrieved 5360: 5351: 5340: 5328:. Retrieved 5323: 5314: 5303: 5291:. Retrieved 5286: 5277: 5266: 5254:. Retrieved 5249: 5240: 5229: 5217:. Retrieved 5212: 5203: 5192: 5180:. Retrieved 5176:the original 5171: 5162: 5137: 5133: 5113:. Retrieved 5103: 5092: 5080:. Retrieved 5076:the original 5071: 5062: 5054: 5049: 5037:. Retrieved 5026: 5014: 5003:. Retrieved 4999:the original 4989: 4975: 4961: 4947: 4933: 4921:. Retrieved 4911: 4897: 4873: 4856: 4825: 4824: 4808: 4807: 4766: 4765: 4760: 4752:(historical) 4705:Deflagration 4683: 4682: 4668: 4556: 4549: 4540: 4530: 4520: 4515:, and large 4503: 4470: 4463: 4461: 4410:fossil fuels 4407: 4400: 4386: 4363: 4329: 4321: 4317: 4314: 4306: 4286:acetaldehyde 4282:hydroperoxyl 4274: 4238: 4223: 4217:January 2017 4214: 4203:Please help 4198:verification 4195: 4151: 4143: 4111: 4084: 4065: 4061: 4051: 4047: 4029: 4024: 3975: 3959: 3956:Liquid fuels 3939: 3891:, and 13.9% 3859: 3850: 3708: 3584: 3550:of propane ( 3537: 3528: 3510: 3508: 3221: 3186: 3103: 3025: 2684: 2308: 1974: 1692: 1689: 1543: 1501: 1289: 1176: 1021: 996: 964: 939:gas turbines 936: 916: 852: 831: 795: 778: 765:firefighters 758: 723: 719:acetaldehyde 711: 699: 676: 642: 606: 599: 590: 581: 571: 542: 500:, as in the 455: 419:fossil fuels 411:hydrocarbons 381: 326: 176:incandescent 147: 142: 125:, because a 92: 88: 87: 7199:Fire making 7115:Terra preta 7089:Firefighter 6963:Flash point 6958:Fire piston 6715:Ferrocerium 6679:Fire plough 6674:Fire piston 6624:Smouldering 6342:: 180–199. 6159:: 519–526. 5346:SysBalCalc2 5272:HeatBalCalc 4793:Gas turbine 4499:natural gas 4372:Temperature 4319:reactions. 4101:(i.e., the 4066:solid phase 4009:Solid fuels 3966:flash point 3962:liquid fuel 3544:equilibrium 3224:hydrocarbon 3149:and 0.002% 3143:equilibrium 1032:hydrocarbon 913:Spontaneous 889:(including 818:hydrocarbon 806:nitric acid 684:gas turbine 545:hydrocarbon 538:hydrocarbon 478:nitric acid 443:electricity 358:atmospheric 169:endothermic 157:Solid fuels 7261:Combustion 7255:Categories 7240:Wiktionary 7179:Fire whirl 7077:Pyromanias 7035:By country 6987:Components 6943:Combustion 6753:Char cloth 6667:Pump drill 6662:Hand drill 6652:Fire drill 6609:Combustion 6549:Components 6445:Combustion 6422:2010-04-29 6386:2011-11-18 5383:SysBalCalc 5235:MatBalCalc 5115:2018-07-12 5005:2018-07-12 4866:References 4710:Detonation 4085:Efficient 4038:fire point 4021:combustion 3990:detonation 3988:, or as a 3897:1200 3875:, 29.0% CO 3853:1200 3625:Hydrogen: 3155:1800 3136:1400 3117:28.6 3032:1600 927:composting 922:exothermic 854:Smoldering 849:Smoldering 843:hemoglobin 832:Breathing 773:efficiency 694:See also: 690:Incomplete 680:anthracite 629:3.71 517:See also: 451:incinerate 429:, or from 159:, such as 150:elementary 105:between a 97:exothermic 89:Combustion 7184:Blue lava 7174:Firestorm 7164:Backdraft 7152:Wildfires 7105:Cremation 6973:Pyrolysis 6849:Pyromania 6844:Pyrolysis 6798:Tinderbox 6783:Matchbook 6778:Fire ring 6758:Chuckmuck 6710:Blowtorch 6657:Bow drill 6586:Wood fuel 6436:CRC Press 6402:Wiley-VCH 6183:118484479 6166:0712.2386 6117:CiteSeerX 6019:0704.2317 5773:120269918 5730:120624915 5570:1102.0730 5509:1011.3828 5448:1011.1618 4720:Explosion 4597:∫ 4479:λ 4435:λ 4389:adiabatic 4309:pyrolysis 4074:smoulders 3830:× 3819:× 3747:⟶ 3359:⟶ 3192:particles 3063:forms by 2981:γ 2976:− 2967:δ 2964:− 2961:β 2952:α 2933:δ 2903:δ 2900:− 2897:β 2873:α 2870:⟶ 2811:γ 2806:− 2797:δ 2794:− 2791:β 2782:α 2764:δ 2749:γ 2734:β 2719:α 2645:δ 2632:ϵ 2621:γ 2616:− 2608:β 2600:α 2566:ϵ 2537:β 2514:α 2511:⟶ 2457:ϵ 2446:γ 2441:− 2433:β 2425:α 2407:ϵ 2392:δ 2377:γ 2362:β 2347:α 2274:δ 2263:γ 2258:− 2250:β 2242:α 2213:δ 2184:β 2161:α 2158:⟶ 2104:δ 2093:γ 2088:− 2080:β 2072:α 2054:δ 2039:γ 2024:β 2009:α 1935:γ 1930:− 1922:β 1914:α 1877:β 1854:α 1851:⟶ 1792:γ 1787:− 1779:β 1771:α 1753:γ 1738:β 1723:α 1617:⟶ 1413:⟶ 1233:⟶ 1112:⟶ 1003:Quenching 933:Turbulent 907:wildfires 859:cellulose 769:engineers 734:catalytic 714:pyrolysis 519:pyrolysis 484:burns in 399:campfires 387:lightning 344:and even 311:↑ 288:→ 172:pyrolysis 7218:Category 6788:Matchbox 6773:Fire pit 6768:Fire pan 6735:Electric 6684:Fire-saw 6581:Wood ash 6566:Firewood 6540:Glossary 6530:Campfire 6356:46039754 6135:Archived 5911:Archived 5907:18247506 5816:16555878 5657:Archived 5645:25084876 5595:16979409 5542:14998597 5534:21576153 5473:21517624 5198:HeatCalc 5154:97218733 4674:See also 4633:′ 4610:′ 4402:flue gas 4249:dioxygen 4107:enthalpy 4103:flue gas 3998:oxidizer 3946:kerosene 3879:, 14.7% 3665:Oxygen: 3591:Carbon: 3491:hydrogen 3423:monoxide 3168:, 0.01% 3164:, 0.05% 1705:in air: 1322:% where 1292:nitrogen 967:buoyancy 947:oxidizer 887:polymers 696:Charring 650:(mostly 524:Complete 498:vanadium 494:platinum 488:to form 486:chlorine 482:hydrogen 466:fluorine 462:chlorine 435:firewood 433:such as 421:such as 403:bonfires 391:volcanic 365:nitrogen 342:hydrogen 217:enthalpy 191:hydrogen 7229:Commons 7098:Culture 7040:By year 7030:By type 6931:Science 6904:History 6720:Lighter 6535:Bonfire 6273:AFTCalc 6109:Bibcode 6067:Bibcode 6024:Bibcode 5952:Bibcode 5887:Bibcode 5843:Bibcode 5835:Entropy 5796:Bibcode 5753:Bibcode 5710:Bibcode 5653:1784716 5625:Bibcode 5575:Bibcode 5514:Bibcode 5481:7458232 5453:Bibcode 5098:ExoCalc 4788:Furnace 4290:ethanol 4245:radical 4070:charred 4019:polymer 3904:1 3393:dioxide 3113:propane 3106:1 1571:methane 1208:methane 1179:methane 871:tobacco 726:burners 561:oxidant 534:methane 447:rockets 439:cooking 183:glowing 111:oxidant 93:burning 7233: 7222: 7211: 7070:People 6999:Oxygen 6596:Topics 6576:Tinder 6408: 6354: 6257:5 July 6181: 6119: 6044:973322 6042: 5905: 5814: 5771: 5728: 5651: 5643: 5593: 5540: 5532: 5479: 5471: 5401: 5367:5 July 5330:5 July 5293:5 July 5256:5 July 5219:5 July 5182:5 July 5152: 5082:5 July 5039:15 May 4923:15 May 4919:. 2003 4857: 4773:Boiler 4533: 4302:syngas 4099:offgas 4056:Flames 3950:diesel 3533:carbon 3420: 3417:carbon 3390: 3387:carbon 3354:oxygen 3252:, and 3141:, the 3071:, and 1502:where 975:candle 893:) and 867:cotton 802:oxygen 703:carbon 458:oxygen 407:carbon 346:carbon 213:kJ/mol 210: 195:oxygen 115:oxygen 63:flames 50:, and 7145:Other 7082:Child 7056:Arson 7049:Crime 7014:Smoke 7009:Flame 6819:Arson 6803:Torch 6730:Black 6725:Match 6694:Flint 6571:Spark 6556:Ember 6352:S2CID 6179:S2CID 6161:arXiv 6138:(PDF) 6097:(PDF) 6040:S2CID 6014:arXiv 5914:(PDF) 5875:(PDF) 5769:S2CID 5726:S2CID 5660:(PDF) 5649:S2CID 5613:(PDF) 5591:S2CID 5565:arXiv 5538:S2CID 5504:arXiv 5477:S2CID 5443:arXiv 5150:S2CID 4826:Other 4730:Flame 4257:spins 3942:fuels 3509:When 3459:water 3210:(see 3153:. 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