528:
480:
492:
771:
516:
810:
scope"). By reversing the telescope and at the same time rotating the instrument through 180 degrees about the vertical axis, the instrument can be used in 'plate-left' or 'plate-right' modes ('plate' refers to the vertical protractor circle). By measuring the same horizontal and vertical angles in these two modes and then averaging the results, centering and collimating errors in the instrument can be eliminated. Some transit instruments are capable of reading angles directly to thirty arc-seconds (≈ 0.15
683:
468:
977:
normally used within about 15 degrees of the pole where the angle between the earth's rotation and the direction of gravity is too small for it to work reliably. When available, astronomical star sights are able to give the meridian bearing to better than one hundred times the accuracy of the gyrotheodolite. Where this extra precision is not required, the gyrotheodolite is able to produce a result quickly without the need for night observations.
759:
850:
and azimuth scales reading zero degrees. A balloon is released in front of the theodolite, and its position is precisely tracked, usually once a minute. The balloons are carefully constructed and filled, so their rate of ascent can be known fairly accurately in advance. Mathematical calculations on time, rate of ascent, azimuth and angular altitude can produce good estimates of wind speed and direction at various altitudes.
504:
183:
861:
33:
953:
might be connected by a horizontal tunnel. A gyrotheodolite can be operated at the surface and then again at the foot of the shafts to identify the directions needed to tunnel between the base of the two shafts. Unlike an artificial horizon or inertial navigation system, a gyrotheodolite cannot be relocated while it is operating. It must be restarted again at each site.
191:
1607:
846:). Early attempts at this were made in the opening years of the nineteenth century, but the instruments and procedures weren't fully developed until a hundred years later. This method was extensively used in World War II and thereafter, and was gradually replaced by radio and GPS measuring systems from the 1980s onward.
770:
636:
designed a theodolite with divided glass circles with readings from both sides presented at a single eyepiece close to the telescope so the observer did not have to move to read them. The Wild instruments were not only smaller, easier to use and more accurate than contemporary rivals but also sealed
280:
The horizontal and vertical axes of a theodolite must be perpendicular; if not then a horizontal axis error exists. This can be tested by aligning the tubular spirit bubble parallel to a line between two footscrews and setting the bubble central. A horizontal axis error is present if the bubble runs
849:
The pibal theodolite uses a prism to bend the optical path by 90 degrees so the operator's eye position does not change as the elevation is changed through a complete 180 degrees. The theodolite is typically mounted on a rugged steel stand, set up so it is level and pointed north, with the altitude
697:
around 1533, consists of making such direction plots of the surrounding landscape from two separate standpoints. The two graphing papers are superimposed, providing a scale model of the landscape, or rather the targets in it. The true scale can be obtained by measuring one distance both in the real
976:
A gyrotheodolite will function at the equator and in both the northern and southern hemispheres. The meridian is undefined at the geographic poles. A gyrotheodolite cannot be used at the poles where the Earth's axis is precisely perpendicular to the horizontal axis of the spinner, indeed it is not
608:
Railway engineers working in the 1830s in
Britain commonly referred to a theodolite as a "Transit". The 1840s was the start of a period of rapid railway building in many parts of the world which resulted in a high demand for theodolites wherever railways were being constructed. It was also popular
952:
is used when the north-south reference bearing of the meridian is required in the absence of astronomical star sights. This occurs mainly in the underground mining industry and in tunnel engineering. For example, where a conduit must pass under a river, a vertical shaft on each side of the river
667:
Aarau company. With continuing refinements, instruments steadily evolved into the modern theodolite used by surveyors today. By 1977 Wild, Kern and
Hewlett-Packard were all offering "Total stations" which combined angular measurements, electronic distance measurement and microchip functions in a
964:
and thus, in conjunction with the direction of gravity, the plane of the meridian. The meridian is the plane that contains both the axis of the Earth's rotation and the observer. The intersection of the meridian plane with the horizontal defines the true north-south direction found in this way.
809:
for short, refers to a type of theodolite where the telescope is short enough to rotate in a full circle on its horizontal axis as well as around its vertical axis. It features a vertical circle which is graduated through the full 360 degrees and a telescope that could "flip over" ("transit the
253:
directly visible to the eye. Gradually these scales were enclosed for physical protection, and finally became an indirect optical readout, with convoluted light paths to bring them to a convenient place on the instrument for viewing. The modern digital theodolites have electronic displays.
637:
from rain and dust. Canadian surveyors reported that while the Wild T2 with 3.75 inch circles was not able to provide the accuracy for primary triangulation it was the equal in accuracy to a 12 inch traditional design. The Wild T2, T3, and A1 instruments were made for many years.
127:
and provide angular readouts. These indicate the orientation of the telescope, and are used to relate the first point sighted through the telescope to subsequent sightings of other points from the same theodolite position. These angles can be measured with accuracies down to
739:
In network measurement, the use of forced centering speeds up operations while maintaining the highest precision. The theodolite or the target can be rapidly removed from, or socketed into, the forced centering plate with sub-millimeter precision. Nowadays
479:
209:
Temporary adjustments are a set of operations necessary in order to make a theodolite ready for taking observations at a station. These include its setting up, centering, leveling up and elimination of parallax, and are achieved in four steps:
527:
231:
error by proper focusing of objective and eye-piece. The eye-piece only requires adjustment once at a station. The objective will be re-focused for each subsequent sighting from this station because of the different distances to the
281:
off central when the tubular spirit bubble is reversed (turned through 180°). To adjust, the operator removes half the amount the bubble has run off using the adjusting screw, then re-level, test and refine the adjustment.
491:
245:
align with the desired sighting point. Both angles are read either from exposed or internal scales and recorded. The next object is then sighted and recorded without moving the position of the instrument and tripod.
274:) when the sight axis is horizontal, or 270° (300 grad) when the instrument is transited. Half of the difference between the two positions is called the index error. This can only be checked on transit instruments.
621:. Theodolites were later adapted to a wider variety of mountings and uses. In the 1870s, an interesting waterborne version of the theodolite (using a pendulum device to counteract wave movement) was invented by
418:. In Digges's book of 1571, the term "theodolite" was applied to an instrument for measuring horizontal angles only, but he also described an instrument that measured both altitude and azimuth which he called a
515:
299:
and are removed by mechanical adjustment. Their existence is taken into account in the choice of measurement procedure in order to eliminate their effect on the measurement results of the theodolite.
1336:
434:
832:
There is a long history of theodolite use in measuring winds aloft, by using specially-manufactured theodolites to track the horizontal and vertical angles of special weather balloons called
334:) were used to obtain either vertical or horizontal angle measurements. Over time their functions were combined into a single instrument that could measure both angles simultaneously.
1639:
593:
and became the standard theodolite design. Development of the theodolite was spurred on by specific needs. In the 1820s progress on national surveying projects such as the
136:. From these readings a plan can be drawn, or objects can be positioned in accordance with an existing plan. The modern theodolite has evolved into what is known as a
705:, is the same procedure executed by numerical means. Photogrammetric block adjustment of stereo pairs of aerial photographs is a modern, three-dimensional variant.
656:
set about improving the accuracy of their products to match their competition. Cooke, Troughton and Simms developed the
Tavistock pattern theodolite and later the
577:
As technology progressed the vertical partial circle was replaced with a full circle, and both vertical and horizontal circles were finely graduated. This was the
1103:
457:. This instrument had an altazimuth mount with a sighting telescope. The base plate had spirit levels, compass and adjusting screws. The circles were read with a
922:", and perform all the necessary angular and distance calculations, and the results or raw data can be downloaded to external processors, such as ruggedized
903:, which can then be transformed to a preexisting coordinate system in the area by means of a sufficient number of control points. This technique is called a
1632:
814:). Modern theodolites are usually of the transit-theodolite design, but engraved plates have been replaced with glass plates designed to be read with
888:
allowing both auto-targeting and the automated measurement of residual target offset. All this is implemented in embedded software of the processor.
559:
467:
1929:
776:
1939:
1625:
503:
585:
used to measure accurate star positions. The technology was transferred to theodolites in the early 19th century by instrument makers such as
1324:
1155:
1976:
648:, UK where Wild theodolites were compared with British ones. The Wild product outclassed the British theodolites so manufacturers such as
204:
597:
in
Britain produced a requirement for theodolites capable of providing sufficient accuracy for large scale triangulation and mapping. The
1904:
1167:
1027:
1536:
1513:
1468:
1441:
1416:
1386:
1363:
1304:
590:
1272:
379:, meaning "evident" or "clear". Other Neo-Latin or Greek derivations have been suggested as well as an English origin from "the
1112:
1996:
1397:
Ralf Kern: Wissenschaftliche
Instrumente in ihrer Zeit/Band 4: Perfektion von Optik und Mechanik. Cologne, 2010, pp. 349–360.
287:
The optical axis of the telescope must also be perpendicular to the horizontal axis; if not, then a collimation error exists.
371:, "to behold or look attentively upon" The second part is often attributed to an unscholarly variation of the Greek word:
224:
Leveling: leveling of the base of the instrument to make the vertical axis vertical usually with an in-built bubble-level.
217:
Centering: bringing the vertical axis of theodolite immediately over station mark using a centering plate also known as a
1991:
1690:
625:. It was used by the U.S. Navy to take the first precision surveys of American harbors on the Atlantic and Gulf coasts.
628:
In the early 1920s a step change in theodolite design occurred with the introduction of the Wild T2 made by the Swiss
442:" to "half-theodolite". As late as the 19th century, the instrument for measuring horizontal angles only was called a
124:
908:
649:
241:
Sightings are taken by the surveyor, who adjusts the telescope's vertical and horizontal angular orientation so the
214:
Setting up: fixing the theodolite onto a tripod along with approximate leveling and centering over the station mark.
927:
346:
748:
use a similar mounting system. The height of the reference point of the theodolite—or the target—above the ground
1944:
758:
690:
677:
1129:
1098:
876:. These produce signals indicating the altitude and azimuth of the telescope which are fed to a microprocessor.
497:
A theodolite of the transit type with six-inch circles, manufactured in
Britain c. 1910 by Troughton & Simms
485:
A theodolite of 1851, showing the open construction, and the altitude and azimuth scales which are read directly
733:
133:
366:
1909:
1899:
1894:
931:
904:
900:
872:
In modern electronic theodolites, the readout of the horizontal and vertical circles is usually done with a
713:
521:
Sectioned Wild theodolite showing the complex light paths for optical readout, and the enclosed construction
403:
90:
1611:
891:
Many modern theodolites are equipped with integrated electro-optical distance measuring devices, generally
682:
1986:
1934:
1924:
1685:
1914:
877:
815:
749:
622:
571:
218:
36:
A direct-readout theodolite, manufactured in the Soviet Union in 1958 and used for topographic surveying
787:
or 1 μrad) resolution Wild T3 theodolite mounted on an observing stand. Photo was taken during an
166:
is sometimes mistaken for a theodolite, but it does not measure vertical angles, and is used only for
1954:
1949:
1660:
1648:
1234:
1116:
745:
453:
The first instrument to combine the essential features of the modern theodolite was built in 1725 by
1483:, Vol. XXIII, May 1895 – May 1896, Boston: University Press, John Wilson and Son (1896), pp. 359–360
1919:
1765:
1705:
1017:
618:
374:
140:
where angles and distances are measured electronically, and are read directly to computer memory.
1850:
1680:
1250:
1222:
729:
582:
551:
1740:
1720:
1532:
1509:
1464:
1437:
1412:
1382:
1359:
1320:
1300:
1151:
1056:
896:
653:
429:
1317:
Elizabethan
Instrument Makers: The Origins of the London Trade in Precision Instrument Making
1171:
1981:
1735:
1700:
1576:
1242:
1124:
1041:
702:
586:
563:
395:
391:
171:
47:
1800:
1524:
1501:
1456:
1374:
834:
725:
717:
598:
594:
555:
454:
315:
174:(though often combined with medium accuracy horizontal range and direction measurements).
428:]. Possibly the first instrument approximating to a true theodolite was the built by
1238:
1120:
562:. At this time the highest precision instruments were made in England by such makers as
1875:
1870:
1795:
1695:
1082:
987:
943:
873:
629:
602:
601:
at this time produced a requirement for more rugged and stable instruments such as the
361:
327:
267:
152:
102:
17:
546:
The theodolite became a modern, accurate instrument in 1787, with the introduction of
1970:
1880:
1860:
1830:
1755:
1750:
1282:
919:
709:
694:
633:
566:. Later the first practical German theodolites were made by Breithaupt together with
547:
458:
250:
163:
137:
956:
The gyrotheodolite comprises a normal theodolite with an attachment that contains a
1840:
1825:
1815:
1810:
1805:
1780:
1745:
1715:
1665:
1254:
1148:
Scientific
Instruments of the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries and Their Makers
997:
411:
271:
105:
860:
190:
182:
1193:
664:
1730:
1710:
1617:
1022:
1012:
992:
957:
915:
881:
819:
811:
784:
721:
439:
407:
331:
296:
242:
159:; for non-transit instruments vertical rotation is restricted to a limited arc.
129:
109:
1077:
32:
1855:
1790:
1775:
1760:
1725:
1675:
1007:
961:
567:
533:
319:
1549:
818:
and computer circuitry, greatly improving accuracy up to arc-second (≈ 0.005
1770:
885:
780:
641:
609:
with
American railroad engineers pushing west, and it replaced the railroad
354:
350:
338:
120:
94:
1207:
720:
for dividing angular scales accurately to within a second of arc (≈ 0.0048
1606:
895:
based, allowing the measurement in one step of complete three-dimensional
1835:
1670:
892:
724:
or 4.8 μrad), was commissioned to build a new instrument for the
British
228:
167:
148:
98:
1820:
966:
923:
914:
Such instruments are "intelligent" theodolites called self-registering
657:
614:
610:
581:. This type of theodolite was developed from 18th century astronomical
387:
380:
323:
398:
illustrated an altazimuth instrument in the appendix of his 1512 book
1246:
1051:
1046:
788:
156:
113:
960:, a device which senses the rotation of the Earth in order to find
1785:
1002:
865:
681:
645:
189:
181:
86:
31:
1577:"The End of An Era - On the genesis, life and death of the HP 48"
390:
instruments for measuring horizontal angles, while others had an
1865:
1621:
1274:
Sintesi di una storia degli strumenti per la misura topografica
663:
Wild went on to develop the DK1, DKM1, DM2, DKM2, and DKM3 for
509:
Wild T2 theodolite originally designed by Heinrich Wild in 1919
741:
732:
was used over the next few years to map the whole of southern
424:
337:
The first occurrence of the word "theodolite" is found in the
372:
364:
50:
1130:
10.1175/1520-0450(1962)001<0066:DTPEBC>2.0.CO;2
558:
of his own design. Ramsden's instruments were used for the
74:
65:
53:
59:
1481:
Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
123:
mounted so it can rotate around horizontal and vertical
386:
The early forerunners of the theodolite were sometimes
1279:
Summary of a history of topographic measurement tools
605:
pattern theodolite with its lower center of gravity.
68:
973:
north, the surface direction toward the north pole.
432:
in 1576, complete with compass and tripod. The 1728
295:) and collimation error are regularly determined by
147:, the telescope is short enough to rotate about the
77:
71:
62:
1550:"Pilot Weather Balloon (Pibal) Optical Theodolites"
56:
85:) is a precision optical instrument for measuring
1266:
1264:
314:Prior to the theodolite, instruments such as the
1099:"Double Theodolite Pibal Evaluation by Computer"
1434:The Men who Built Railways (reprint from 1837)
1297:Encyclopedia of Antique Scientific Instruments
1104:Journal of Applied Meteorology and Climatology
394:for measuring horizontal and vertical angles.
353:of the word is unknown. The first part of the
266:The angles in the vertical axis should read 90
93:planes. The traditional use has been for land
1633:
698:terrain and in the graphical representation.
249:The earliest angular readouts were from open
8:
701:Modern triangulation as, e.g., practiced by
414:made the device in that year calling it the
108:, and some specialized applications such as
326:, and various other graduated circles (see
1640:
1626:
1618:
1556:. California State University, Long Beach
1356:Nineteenth Century Scientific Instruments
1350:
1348:
1346:
1271:Colombo, Luigi; Selvini, Attilio (1988).
1128:
911:and is widely used in mapping surveying.
554:, which he created using a very accurate
89:between designated visible points in the
1554:Martin Brenner's Pilot Balloon Resources
1142:
1140:
864:A typical modern electronic theodolite:
859:
560:Principal Triangulation of Great Britain
473:Jesse Ramsden's Great Theodolite of 1787
194:Diagram of an optical readout theodolite
1479:American Academy of Arts and Sciences,
1069:
777:United States Coast and Geodetic Survey
754:
463:
343:A geometric practice named Pantometria
97:, but it is also used extensively for
1223:"Derivation of the word "Theodolite""
7:
1548:Brenner, Martin (25 November 2009).
291:Index error, horizontal-axis error (
205:Temporary adjustments of theodolites
186:The axes and circles of a theodolite
151:, turning the telescope through the
1575:Paiva, Joseph V. (1 October 2004).
1194:"languagehat.com : THEODOLITE"
1028:Temporary adjustments of theodolite
446:and the altazimuth instrument, the
1281:] (in Italian). Archived from
25:
1436:. Thomas Telford. pp. 4–56.
1319:, Oxford University Press, 2000,
969:, gyrocompasses are able to find
779:technicians observing with a 0.2
686:A student working on a theodolite
640:In 1926 a conference was held at
1605:
1340:, vol. 2 p. 50 for "Semi-Circle"
769:
757:
716:, England who had developed the
526:
514:
502:
490:
478:
466:
199:Preparation for making sightings
46:
1208:"Take Our Word for It Issue 16"
1113:American Meteorological Society
909:free station position surveying
880:sensors have been added to the
1529:Instrument Makers to the World
1506:Instrument Makers to the World
1461:Instrument Makers to the World
1409:Instrument Makers to the World
1379:Instrument Makers to the World
1358:, Sotheby Publications, 1983,
899:—albeit in instrument-defined
1:
1492:American Academy, pp. 359–360
1299:, Aurum Press, London, 1983,
1150:, Portman Books, London 1989
856:Modern electronic theodolites
542:Development of the theodolite
1691:Coordinate-measuring machine
1097:Thyer, Norman (March 1962).
752:must be measured precisely.
650:Cooke, Troughton & Simms
27:Optical surveying instrument
1977:Angle measuring instruments
1411:. Sessions. pp. 6–24.
2013:
1407:McConnells, Anita (1992).
1221:Melivll, E. H. V. (1909).
1168:"Theaomai – Greek Lexicon"
941:
675:
373:
365:
202:
119:It consists of a moveable
1889:
1656:
1295:Mills, John FitzMaurice,
1083:Dictionary.com Unabridged
828:Use with weather balloons
678:Triangulation (surveying)
420:topographicall instrument
1930:Machine and metalworking
1581:Point of Beginning (PoB)
932:programmable calculators
1940:Measuring and alignment
330:) and semicircles (see
178:Principles of operation
91:horizontal and vertical
18:Construction theodolite
869:
791:field party (c. 1950).
712:, a Yorkshireman from
687:
672:Operation in surveying
536:Zeiss Rk 76 A1 - 1970s
400:Margarita Philosophica
195:
187:
37:
1997:Surveying instruments
1315:Turner, Gerard L'E.,
863:
816:light-emitting diodes
685:
623:Edward Samuel Ritchie
310:Historical background
277:Horizontal axis error
258:Errors in measurement
193:
185:
35:
1905:Cutting and abrasive
1741:Laser measuring tool
1614:at Wikimedia Commons
1432:Conder, F R (1983).
1354:Turner, Gerard L'E.
1285:on 13 November 2007.
764:Surveying theodolite
746:geodetic positioning
404:Martin Waldseemüller
360:might stem from the
1992:Optical instruments
1651:and alignment tools
1239:1909Natur..81R.517M
1121:1962JApMe...1...66T
708:In the late 1780s,
583:Transit instruments
293:trunnion-axis error
227:Focusing: removing
1851:Thread pitch gauge
1681:Combination square
1210:. takeourword.com.
1196:. languagehat.com.
1174:on 8 December 2008
870:
803:transit theodolite
797:Transit theodolite
744:antennas used for
736:by triangulation.
730:Ramsden theodolite
688:
654:Hilger & Watts
579:transit theodolite
570:, Reichenbach and
196:
188:
145:transit theodolite
38:
1964:
1963:
1661:Architect's scale
1610:Media related to
1325:978-0-19-856566-6
1233:(2087): 517–518.
1156:978-0-7134-0727-3
1146:Daumas, Maurice,
1057:Trimble (company)
918:or colloquially "
901:polar coordinates
693:, as invented by
444:simple theodolite
284:Collimation error
16:(Redirected from
2004:
1736:Laser line level
1706:Engineer's scale
1701:Drafting machine
1642:
1635:
1628:
1619:
1609:
1593:
1592:
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1572:
1566:
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1484:
1477:
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1404:
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1389:
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1352:
1341:
1333:
1327:
1313:
1307:
1293:
1287:
1286:
1268:
1259:
1258:
1247:10.1038/081517b0
1218:
1212:
1211:
1204:
1198:
1197:
1190:
1184:
1183:
1181:
1179:
1170:. Archived from
1164:
1158:
1144:
1135:
1134:
1132:
1094:
1088:
1087:
1074:
1042:Leica Geosystems
1018:Rankine's method
965:Unlike magnetic
835:ceiling balloons
773:
761:
587:Edward Troughton
564:Edward Troughton
552:great theodolite
530:
518:
506:
494:
482:
470:
448:plain theodolite
396:Gregorius Reisch
392:altazimuth mount
378:
377:
370:
369:
320:geometric square
172:horizontal plane
84:
83:
80:
79:
76:
73:
70:
67:
64:
61:
58:
55:
52:
21:
2012:
2011:
2007:
2006:
2005:
2003:
2002:
2001:
1967:
1966:
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1960:
1959:
1885:
1801:Sliding T bevel
1652:
1646:
1602:
1597:
1596:
1586:
1584:
1574:
1573:
1569:
1559:
1557:
1547:
1546:
1542:
1525:Anita McConnell
1523:
1519:
1502:Anita McConnell
1500:
1496:
1491:
1487:
1478:
1474:
1457:Anita McConnell
1455:
1451:
1444:
1431:
1430:
1426:
1419:
1406:
1405:
1401:
1396:
1392:
1375:Anita McConnell
1373:
1369:
1353:
1344:
1334:
1330:
1314:
1310:
1294:
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1269:
1262:
1220:
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1215:
1206:
1205:
1201:
1192:
1191:
1187:
1177:
1175:
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1161:
1145:
1138:
1096:
1095:
1091:
1076:
1075:
1071:
1066:
1061:
1032:
983:
946:
940:
938:Gyrotheodolites
858:
830:
799:
792:
774:
765:
762:
726:Ordnance Survey
718:dividing engine
680:
674:
599:Survey of India
595:Ordnance Survey
556:dividing engine
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942:Main article:
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920:total stations
874:rotary encoder
857:
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34:
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1841:Tape measure
1826:Straightedge
1816:Steel square
1811:Spirit level
1806:Speed square
1781:Radius gauge
1746:Lesbian rule
1716:French curve
1666:Beam compass
1585:. Retrieved
1580:
1570:
1558:. Retrieved
1553:
1543:
1528:
1520:
1505:
1497:
1488:
1480:
1475:
1463:pp. 123–125
1460:
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1393:
1378:
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1335:
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1291:
1283:the original
1278:
1273:
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1226:
1216:
1202:
1188:
1178:15 September
1176:. Retrieved
1172:the original
1162:
1147:
1108:
1102:
1092:
1081:
1078:"theodolite"
1072:
998:Inclinometer
975:
970:
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949:
947:
916:tacheometers
913:
907:solution or
890:
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806:
802:
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738:
707:
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568:Utzschneider
545:
452:
447:
443:
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423:
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412:cartographer
399:
385:
358:theo-delitus
357:
342:
336:
313:
301:
292:
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248:
240:
208:
161:
155:through the
144:
142:
130:microradians
118:
106:construction
41:
39:
29:
1955:Woodworking
1731:Laser level
1711:Flat spline
1612:Theodolites
1583:. BNP Media
1337:Cyclopaedia
1023:Survey camp
1013:Plane table
993:Dumpy level
958:gyrocompass
882:focal plane
440:graphometer
435:Cyclopaedia
408:topographer
332:graphometer
297:calibration
263:Index error
243:cross-hairs
116:launching.
110:meteorology
1971:Categories
1856:Try square
1846:Theodolite
1791:Set square
1776:Protractor
1766:Micrometer
1761:Meterstick
1676:Chalk line
1587:20 October
1531:pp. 80–82
1508:pp. 79–80
1064:References
1008:Macrometer
962:true north
822:) levels.
572:Fraunhofer
550:'s famous
534:Bundeswehr
438:compares "
422: [
416:polimetrum
345:(1571) by
42:theodolite
1771:Plumb-bob
1649:Measuring
1381:pp. 6–44
1115:: 66–68.
967:compasses
905:resection
886:telescope
801:The term
781:arcsecond
750:benchmark
642:Tavistock
632:company.
355:Neo-Latin
341:textbook
339:surveying
237:Sightings
121:telescope
95:surveying
1910:Forestry
1900:Cleaning
1836:T-square
1671:Calipers
981:See also
893:infrared
703:Snellius
322:and the
229:parallax
219:tribrach
168:leveling
99:building
1982:Geodesy
1935:Masonry
1925:Kitchen
1876:Wiggler
1821:Stencil
1796:Skirret
1686:Compass
1560:25 July
1255:3955351
1235:Bibcode
1117:Bibcode
924:laptops
897:vectors
884:of the
868:DTM-520
807:transit
734:Britain
714:Halifax
660:V. 22.
658:Vickers
615:sextant
611:compass
603:Everest
388:azimuth
381:alidade
367:θεᾶσθαι
324:dioptra
305:History
232:target.
1945:Mining
1915:Garden
1831:Square
1535:
1512:
1467:
1440:
1415:
1385:
1362:
1323:
1303:
1253:
1227:Nature
1154:
1052:Topcon
1047:Sokkia
789:Arctic
728:. The
619:octant
351:origin
349:. The
157:zenith
114:rocket
87:angles
1950:Power
1786:Ruler
1277:[
1251:S2CID
1111:(1).
1003:LIDAR
866:Nikon
844:pibal
805:, or
646:Devon
375:δῆλος
362:Greek
316:groma
270:(100
170:on a
143:In a
1920:Hand
1866:Vise
1589:2015
1562:2014
1533:ISBN
1510:ISBN
1465:ISBN
1438:ISBN
1413:ISBN
1383:ISBN
1360:ISBN
1321:ISBN
1301:ISBN
1180:2008
1152:ISBN
971:true
928:PDAs
820:mrad
812:mrad
785:mrad
722:mrad
665:Kern
652:and
617:and
589:and
410:and
406:, a
272:grad
162:The
125:axes
112:and
101:and
1726:Jig
1243:doi
1125:doi
930:or
878:CCD
838:or
742:GPS
644:in
425:sic
383:".
132:or
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1579:.
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