101:
88:
In a two-terminal measurement (as with a typical ohmmeter), the current used to make the measurement is injected through the measurement leads, which causes a potential drop not just across the contact area to be measured but also across the probe contacts and the leads. That means that the contact
582:
are gate-source and drain-source voltages. Therefore, the linear extrapolation of total resistance to the zero channel length provides the contact resistance. The slope of the linear function is related to the channel transconductance and can be used for estimation of the ”contact resistance-free”
714:
and resistor type contacts at strongly contacting asperities, where sufficient pressure is applied for asperities to penetrate the oxide layer, forming metal-to-metal contact patches. If a contact patch is sufficiently small, with dimensions comparable or smaller than the
401:
727:. Generally, over time, contact patches expand and the contact resistance at an interface relaxes, particularly at weakly contacting surfaces, through current induced welding and dielectric breakdown. This process is known also as resistance creep. The coupling of
39:
Contact resistance can cause significant voltage drops and heating in circuits with high current. Because contact resistance adds to the intrinsic resistance of the conductors, it can cause significant measurement errors when exact resistance values are needed.
594:
In the semiconductor industry, Cross-Bridge Kelvin
Resistor(CBKR) structures are the mostly used test structures to characterize metal-semiconductor contacts in the Planar devices of VLSI technology. During the measurement process, force the current
1185:
Nakao, Motoharu; Manaka, Takaaki; Weis, Martin; Lim, Eunju; Iwamoto, Mitsumasa (2009). "Probing carrier injection into pentacene field effect transistor by time-resolved microscopic optical second harmonic generation measurement".
1081:
Pesavento, Paul V.; Chesterfield, Reid J.; Newman, Christopher R.; Frisbie, C. Daniel (2004). "Gated four-probe measurements on pentacene thin-film transistors: Contact resistance as a function of gate voltage and temperature".
200:
225:
is the current density, or current per area. The units of specific contact resistivity are typically therefore in ohm-square metre, or Ω⋅m. When the current is a linear function of the voltage, the device is said to have
92:
In a four-terminal measurement, the current used to make the measurement is injected using a second, separate pair of leads, so the contact resistance of the measurement probes and their leads is not included in the
1043:
Weis, Martin; Lin, Jack; Taguchi, Dai; Manaka, Takaaki; Iwamoto, Mitsumasa (2010). "Insight into the contact resistance problem by direct probing of the potential drop in organic field-effect transistors".
590:
method (TOF). The direct methods able to measure potential drop on the injection electrode directly are the Kelvin probe force microscopy (KFM) and the electric-field induced second harmonic generation.
113:
For experimental characterization, a distinction must be made between contact resistance evaluation in two-electrode systems (for example, diodes) and three-electrode systems (for example, transistors).
32:) is resistance to the flow of electric current caused by incomplete contact of the surfaces through which the current is flowing, and by films or oxide layers on the contacting surfaces. It occurs at
286:
583:
carrier mobility. The approximations used here (linear potential drop across the channel region, constant contact resistance, ...) lead sometimes to the channel dependent contact resistance.
1540:
Huck, Manfred; Walczuk, Eugeniucz; Buresch, Isabell; et al. (2016) . Vinaricky, Eduard; Schröder, Karl-Heinz; Weiser, Josef; Keil, Albert; Merl, Wilhelm A.; Meyer, Carl-Ludwig (eds.).
698:
For given physical and mechanical material properties, parameters that govern the magnitude of electrical contact resistance (ECR) and its variation at an interface relate primarily to
688:
1119:
Weis, Martin; Lin, Jack; Taguchi, Dai; Manaka, Takaaki; Iwamoto, Mitsumasa (2009). "Analysis of
Transient Currents in Organic Field Effect Transistor: The Time-of-Flight Method".
775:
278:
580:
553:
458:
802:
640:
431:
72:
introduced the idea of a potential drop on an injection electrode to explain the difference between experimental results and the model of gradual channel approximation.
852:
526:
1577:
486:
896:
872:
613:
506:
223:
36:
such as switches, connectors, breakers, contacts, and measurement probes. Contact resistance values are typically small (in the microohm to milliohm range).
249:
The three electrode systems such as transistors require more complicated methods for the contact resistance approximation. The most common approach is the
134:
1271:
89:
resistance of the probes and their leads is inseparable from the resistance of the contact area to be measured, with which they are in series.
1553:
1533:
1480:
1395:
1515:
1430:
1472:
1225:"Cross-Bridge Kelvin Resistor Structures for Reliable Measurement of Low Contact Resistances and Contact Interface Characterization"
930:
are also subject to contact resistance, with particular significance in heat transport through granular media. Similarly, a drop in
396:{\displaystyle R_{\text{tot}}=R_{\text{c}}+R_{\text{ch}}=R_{\text{c}}+{\frac {L}{WC\mu \left(V_{\text{gs}}-V_{\text{ds}}\right)}}}
1326:
970:
or its holder can give the false impression that the fuse is blown. A sufficiently high contact resistance can cause substantial
1121:
731:, contact mechanics and charge transport mechanisms needs to be considered in the mechanistic evaluation of ECR phenomena.
250:
950:
Bad contacts are the cause of failure or poor performance in a wide variety of electrical devices. For example, corroded
711:
43:
Contact resistance may vary with temperature. It may also vary with time (most often decreasing) in a process known as
1223:
Stavitski, Natalie; Klootwijk, Johan H.; van Zeijl, Henk W.; Kovalgin, Alexey Y.; Wolters, Rob A. M. (February 2009).
1011:(September 1964). "Research and investigation of inverse epitaxial UHF power transistors". Report No. A1-TOR-64-207.
974:
in a high current device. Unpredictable or noisy contacts are a major cause of the failure of electrical equipment.
1572:
1188:
1084:
1148:
BĂĽrgi, L.; Sirringhaus, H.; Friend, R. H. (2002). "Noncontact potentiometry of polymer field-effect transistors".
1423:
615:) between contacts 1 and 2 and measure the potential deference between contacts 3 and 4. The contact resistance
1150:
1046:
645:
1016:
813:
742:
81:
1364:
1353:
Landauer, Rolf (August 1976). "Spatial carrier density modulation effects in metallic conductivity".
1286:
1197:
1159:
1093:
1055:
951:
931:
927:
724:
720:
239:
117:
In two-electrode systems, specific contact resistivity is experimentally defined as the slope of the
66:
is a more general term, of which it is usually assumed that contact resistance is a major component.
1270:
Zhai, Chongpu; Hanaor, Dorian; Proust, Gwénaëlle; Brassart, Laurence; Gan, Yixiang (December 2016).
256:
558:
531:
436:
235:
33:
780:
618:
409:
1440:
1252:
231:
1549:
1529:
1511:
1476:
1426:
1401:
1355:
1244:
967:
959:
911:
875:
819:
728:
703:
1372:
1335:
1302:
1294:
1236:
1205:
1167:
1130:
1101:
1063:
1008:
100:
80:
Because contact resistance is usually comparatively small, it can difficult to measure, and
69:
1339:
706:). Surfaces of metallic contacts generally exhibit an external layer of oxide material and
1545:
1507:
1452:
1029:
988:
983:
899:
511:
1542:
Elektrische
Kontakte, Werkstoffe und Anwendungen: Grundlagen, Technologien, PrĂĽfverfahren
463:
1368:
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1201:
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1097:
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598:
587:
491:
243:
208:
118:
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1321:
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907:
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227:
84:
gives better results than a simple two-terminal measurement made with an ohmmeter.
1522:
1256:
809:
195:{\displaystyle r_{\text{c}}=\left\{{\frac {\partial V}{\partial J}}\right\}_{V=0}}
1306:
586:
Beside the TLM it was proposed the gated four-probe measurement and the modified
1495:
1460:
1506:(3rd completely rewritten ed.). Berlin / Göttingen / Heidelberg, Germany:
1224:
1298:
955:
939:
707:
1376:
1320:
Zhai, Chongpu; Hanaor, Dorian A. H.; Proust, Gwenaelle; Gan, Yixiang (2015).
1248:
1240:
710:
water molecules, which lead to capacitor-type junctions at weakly contacting
1499:
1464:
1419:
963:
903:
104:
Sketch of the contact resistance estimation by the transmission line method.
97:
Specific contact resistance can be obtained by multiplying by contact area.
1322:"Stress-Dependent Electrical Contact Resistance at Fractal Rough Surfaces"
1405:
935:
1418:. Electrical engineering and electronics. Vol. 105 (2 ed.).
1209:
1171:
1134:
1105:
1067:
906:
than the classical wires of everyday life and may be described by the
1544:(in German) (3 ed.). Berlin / Heidelberg / New York / Tokyo:
99:
1528:" (1941) in German language, which is available as reprint under
1400:(reprint of 1st ed.). Deringer-Ney, originally JM Ney Co.
816:. Their conductance must be an integer multiple of the value
719:
of electrons resistance at the patch can be described by the
242:
without the complication of contact resistance. In practice,
1397:
Ney
Contact Manual - Electrical Contacts for Low Energy Uses
1272:"Interfacial electro-mechanical behaviour at rough surfaces"
238:
methods could be used in principle to measure an intrinsic
246:
methods are more typically used to determine resistance.
16:
Electrical resistance attributed to contacting interfaces
812:
does not hold anymore. These small devices are called
884:
860:
822:
783:
745:
648:
621:
601:
561:
534:
514:
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289:
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137:
460:are contact and channel resistances, respectively,
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866:
846:
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769:
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574:
547:
520:
508:is gate insulator capacitance (per unit of area),
500:
480:
452:
425:
395:
272:
217:
194:
739:When a conductor has spatial dimensions close to
723:, whereby electron transport can be described by
1416:Electrical Contacts: Principles and Applications
1229:IEEE Transactions on Semiconductor Manufacturing
280:is plotted as a function of the channel length:
1526:Die technische Physik der elektrischen Kontakte
1524:(NB. A rewrite and translation of the earlier "
1467:(June 29, 2013) . Williamson, J. B. P. (ed.).
914:is an important technique for characterizing
50:Electrical contact resistance is also called
8:
902:. Quantum point contacts behave more like
1469:Electric Contacts: Theory and Application
954:clamps can frustrate attempts to start a
942:transitions from one channel to another.
883:
859:
836:
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253:(TLM). Here, the total device resistance
210:
180:
156:
142:
136:
1410:(NB. Free download after registration.)
1000:
1448:
1438:
1025:
1014:
1578:Electrical resistance and conductance
1473:Springer Science & Business Media
1414:Slade, Paul G. (February 12, 2014) .
683:{\displaystyle R_{\text{k}}=V_{34}/I}
7:
910:scattering formalism. Point-contact
1471:(reprint of 4th revised ed.).
1340:10.1061/(ASCE)EM.1943-7889.0000967
770:{\displaystyle 2\pi /k_{\text{F}}}
167:
159:
14:
922:Other forms of contact resistance
1327:Journal of Engineering Mechanics
1487:(NB. A rewrite of the earlier "
1122:Journal of Physical Chemistry C
44:
273:{\displaystyle R_{\text{tot}}}
1:
575:{\displaystyle V_{\text{ds}}}
548:{\displaystyle V_{\text{gs}}}
488:is the channel length/width,
453:{\displaystyle R_{\text{ch}}}
109:Experimental characterization
22:Electrical contact resistance
1394:Pitney, Kenneth E. (2014) .
808:of the conducting material,
797:{\displaystyle k_{\text{F}}}
635:{\displaystyle R_{\text{k}}}
426:{\displaystyle R_{\text{c}}}
1594:
1504:Electric Contacts Handbook
1489:Electric Contacts Handbook
1424:Taylor & Francis, Inc.
1189:Journal of Applied Physics
1085:Journal of Applied Physics
642:can be then calculated as
1299:10.1016/j.eml.2016.03.021
1279:Extreme Mechanics Letters
934:(analogous to electrical
528:is carrier mobility, and
82:four-terminal measurement
1377:10.1103/PhysRevB.14.1474
1241:10.1109/TSM.2008.2010746
847:{\displaystyle 2e^{2}/h}
1151:Applied Physics Letters
1047:Applied Physics Letters
251:transmission line model
56:transitional resistance
1196:(1): 014511–014511–5.
1024:Cite journal requires
892:
868:
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814:quantum point contacts
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1307:1959.4/unsworks_60452
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928:thermal conductivity
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725:ballistic conduction
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521:{\displaystyle \mu }
512:
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135:
64:Parasitic resistance
52:interface resistance
1369:1976PhRvB..14.1474L
1291:2016ExML....9..422Z
1202:2009JAP...106a4511N
1164:2002ApPhL..80.2913B
1098:2004JAP....96.7312P
1060:2010ApPhL..97z3304W
481:{\displaystyle L/W}
76:Measurement methods
888:
864:
844:
794:
767:
702:and applied load (
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632:
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572:
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106:
30:contact resistance
1573:Materials science
1555:978-3-642-45426-4
1534:978-3-662-42222-9
1482:978-3-540-03875-7
1356:Physical Review B
1210:10.1063/1.3168434
1172:10.1063/1.1470702
1135:10.1021/jp908381b
1106:10.1063/1.1806533
1068:10.1063/1.3533020
1009:Shockley, William
891:{\displaystyle h}
876:elementary charge
867:{\displaystyle e}
791:
764:
729:surface chemistry
721:Sharvin mechanism
704:Contact mechanics
700:surface structure
656:
629:
608:{\displaystyle I}
569:
542:
501:{\displaystyle C}
447:
420:
391:
382:
369:
336:
323:
310:
297:
267:
218:{\displaystyle J}
174:
145:
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1559:
1521:
1517:978-3-66223790-8
1486:
1456:
1450:
1446:
1444:
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1432:978-1-43988130-9
1409:
1381:
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1363:(4): 1474–1479.
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926:Measurements of
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70:William Shockley
45:resistance creep
1593:
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1556:
1546:Springer-Verlag
1539:
1518:
1508:Springer-Verlag
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1388:Further reading
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1347:
1334:(3): B4015001.
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1013:
1007:
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1002:
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989:Wetting current
984:Contact cleaner
980:
958:that has a low
948:
924:
916:superconductors
900:Planck constant
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60:correction term
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1285:(3): 422–429.
1262:
1235:(1): 146–152.
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1073:
1054:(26): 263304.
1035:
1026:|journal=
999:
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966:contacts on a
947:
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588:time-of-flight
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1129:(43): 18459.
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735:Quantum limit
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