Content theory - Knowledge (XXG)

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these instincts into sexual instincts, death instincts, and ego or self-preservation instincts. Sexual instincts are those that motivate humans to stay alive and ensure the continuation of mankind. On the other hand, Freud also maintains that humans have an inherent drive for self-destruction, or the death instinct. Similar to the devil and angel that everyone has on their shoulder, the sexual instinct and death instinct are constantly battling each other to both be satisfied. The death instinct can be closely related to Freud's other concept, the id, which is our need to experience pleasure immediately, regardless of the consequences. The last type of instinct that contributes to motivation is the ego or self-preservation instinct. This instinct is geared towards assuring that a person feels validated in whatever behavior or thought they have. The mental censor, or door between the unconscious and preconscious, helps satisfy this instinct. For example, one may be sexually attracted to a person, due to their sexual instinct, but the self-preservation instinct prevents them to act on this urge until that person finds that it is socially acceptable to do so. Quite similarly to his psychic theory that deals with the id, ego, and superego, Freud's theory of instincts highlights the interdependence of these three instincts. All three instincts serve as checks and balances system to control what instincts are acted on and what behaviors are used to satisfy as many of them at once.

1865:, Sigmund Freud explained his theory on the conscious-unconscious distinction. To explain this relationship, he used a two-room metaphor. The smaller of the two rooms is filled with a person's preconscious, which is the thoughts, emotions, and memories that are available to a person's consciousness. This room also houses a person's consciousness, which is the part of the preconscious that is the focus at that given time. Connected to the small room is a much larger room that houses a person's unconscious. This part of the mind is unavailable to a person's consciousness and consists of impulses and repressed thoughts. The door between these two rooms acts as the person's mental censor. Its job is to keep anxiety-inducing thoughts and socially unacceptable behaviors or desires out of the preconscious. Freud describes the event of a thought or impulse being denied at the door as repression, one of the many defense mechanisms. This process is supposed to protect the individual from any embarrassment that could come from acting on these impulses or thoughts that exist in the unconscious. 1190:

satisfaction or dissatisfaction does not need to be communicated, and so it is internalized. However, when with a group, people are more inclined to smile regardless of their results because it acts as a positive communication that is beneficial for pleasurable interaction and teamwork. Thus the act of bowling becomes a social activity as opposed to a dull action because it becomes an exercise in interaction, competition, team building and sportsmanship. It is because of this phenomenon that studies have shown that people are more intrigued in performing mundane activities so long as there is company because it provides the opportunity to interact in one way or another, be it for bonding, amusement, collaboration, or alternative perspectives. Examples of activities that one may not be motivated to do alone but could be done with others for the social benefit are things such as throwing and catching a baseball with a friend, making funny faces with children, building a treehouse, and performing a debate.

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recreation facilities, and cultural attractions, and traveler's perceptions and expectation, such as novelty, benefit expectation, and marketing image." Pull motivation can be seen as the desire to achieve a goal so badly that it seems that the goal is pulling us toward it. That is why pull motivation is stronger than push motivation. It is easier to be drawn to something rather than to push yourself for something you desire. It can also be an alternative force when compared to negative force. From the same study as previously mentioned, "Regret and dissatisfaction with an existing SNS service provider may trigger a heightened interest toward switching service providers, but such a motive will likely translate into reality in the presence of a good alternative. Therefore, alternative attractiveness can moderate the effects of regret and dissatisfaction with switching intention" And so, pull motivation can be an attracting desire when negative influences come into the picture.

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fatigue is seen in college students just before finals approach. One will notice that students start eating more than they usually do and care less about interactions with friends and classmates. Mental fatigue arises when an individual becomes involved in a complex task but does no physical activity and is still worn out, the reason for this is because the brain uses about 20 percent of the human body's metabolic heart rate. The brain consumes about 10.8 calories every hour. Meaning that a typical human adult brain runs on about twelve watts of electricity or a fifth of the power need to power a standard light bulb. These numbers represent an individual's brain working on routine tasks, things that are not challenging. One study suggests that after engaging in a complex task, an individual tends to consume about two hundred more calories than if they had been resting or relaxing; however, this appeared to be due to stress, not higher caloric expenditure.

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to an unexpected reward condition. This shows how if an individual expects an award they don't care about the outcome. VS. if an individual doesn't expect a reward they will care more about the task. However, another study showed that third graders who were rewarded with a book showed more reading behavior in the future, implying that some rewards do not undermine intrinsic motivation. While the provision of extrinsic rewards might reduce the desirability of an activity, the use of extrinsic constraints, such as the threat of punishment, against performing an activity has actually been found to increase one's intrinsic interest in that activity. In one study, when children were given mild threats against playing with an attractive toy, it was found that the threat actually served to increase the child's interest in the toy, which was previously undesirable to the child in the absence of threat.

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evolutionary perspective, romantic love creates bonds with the parents of offspring. This bond will make it so that the parents will stay together and take care of and protect the offspring until it is independent. By rearing the child together, it increases the chances that the offspring will survive and pass on its genes themselves, therefore continuing the survival of the species. Without the romantic love bond, the male will pursue satiation of his sexual desire with as many mates as possible, leaving behind the female to rear the offspring by herself. Child-rearing with one parent is more difficult and provides less assurance of the offspring's survival than with two parents. Romantic love therefore solves the commitment problem of parents needing to be together; individuals that are loyal and faithful to one another will have mutual survival benefits.

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members, and changes in one's mood. To treat mental fatigue, one must figure out what is causing the fatigue. Once the cause of the stress has been identified the individual must determine what they can do about it. Most of the time mental fatigue can be fixed by a simple life change like being more organized or learning to say no. According to the study: Mental fatigue caused by prolonged cognitive load associated with sympathetic hyperactivity, "there is evidence that decreased parasympathetic activity and increased relative sympathetic activity are associated with mental fatigue induced by a prolonged cognitive load in healthy adults." this means that though no physical activity was done, the sympathetic nervous system was triggered. An individual who is experiencing mental fatigue will not feel relaxed but feel the physical symptoms of stress.

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Deci and Richard Ryan's theory of intrinsic motivation is essentially examining the conditions that "elicit and sustain" this phenomenon. Deci and Ryan coined the term "cognitive evaluation theory" which concentrates on the needs of competence and autonomy. The CET essentially states that social-contextual events like feedback and reinforcement can cause feelings of competence and therefore increase intrinsic motivation. However, feelings of competence will not increase intrinsic motivation if there is no sense of autonomy. In situations where choices, feelings, and opportunities are present, intrinsic motivation is increased because people feel a greater sense of autonomy. Offering people choices, responding to their feelings, and opportunities for self-direction have been reported to enhance intrinsic motivation via increased autonomy.

1550:, in which goals are: specific, measurable, attainable/achievable, relevant, and time-bound. Time management is an important aspect, when regarding time as a contributing factor to goal achievement. Having too much time allows for distraction and procrastination, which also serves as a distraction to the subject by steering their attention away from the original goal. An ideal goal should present a situation where the time between the beginning of the effort and the end state is close. With an overly restricting time restraint, the subject could potentially feel overwhelmed, which could deter the subject from achieving the goal because the amount of time provided is not sufficient or rational. This explains why some children are more motivated to learn how to ride a bike than to master 851:

on-line gaming, virtual worlds, online shopping, learning/education, online dating, digital music repositories, social networking, online pornography, gamified systems, and general gamification. Even traditional management information systems (e.g., ERP, CRM) are being 'gamified' such that both extrinsic and intrinsic motivations must increasingly be considered. Deci's findings didn't come without controversy. Articles stretching over the span of 25 years from the perspective of behavioral theory argue that there isn't enough evidence to explain intrinsic motivation and this theory would inhibit "scientific progress." As stated above, we now can see technology such as various forms of computer systems are highly intrinsic.

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extrinsic motivation to attain a goal. For example, Eli, a 4-year-old with autism, wants to achieve the goal of playing with a toy train. To get the toy, he must first communicate to his therapist that he wants it. His desire to play is strong enough to be considered intrinsic motivation because it is a natural feeling, and his desire to communicate with his therapist to get the train can be considered extrinsic motivation because the outside object is a reward (see incentive theory). Communicating with the therapist is the first, the slightly more challenging goal that stands in the way of achieving his larger goal of playing with the train. Achieving these goals in attainable pieces is also known as the

1112:. A common example of this would be food deprivation, which functions as an EO in relation to food: the food-deprived organism will perform behaviors previously related to the acquisition of food more intensely, frequently, longer, or faster in the presence of food, and those behaviors would be especially strongly reinforced. For instance, a fast-food worker earning minimal wage, forced to work more than one job to make ends meet, would be highly motivated by a pay raise, because of the current deprivation of money (a conditioned establishing operation). The worker would work hard to try to achieve the raise, and getting the raise would function as an especially strong reinforcer of work behavior. 1762:, David Birch and their colleagues developed the theory of "Dynamics of Action" to mathematically model change in behavior as a consequence of the interaction of motivation and associated tendencies toward specific actions. The theory posits that change in behavior occurs when the tendency for a new, unexpressed behavior becomes dominant over the tendency currently motivating action. In the theory, the strength of tendencies rises and falls as a consequence of internal and external stimuli (sources of instigation), inhibitory factors, and consummatory in factors such as performing an action. In this theory, there are three causes responsible for behavior and change in behavior: 998:, such as in-born reflexes, or learned through the pairing of an unconditioned stimulus with a different stimulus, which then becomes a conditioned stimulus. In relation to motivation, classical conditioning might be seen as one explanation as to why an individual performs certain responses and behaviors in certain situations. For instance, a dentist might wonder why a patient does not seem motivated to show up for an appointment, with the explanation being that the patient has associated the dentist (conditioned stimulus) with the pain (unconditioned stimulus) that elicits a fear response (conditioned response), leading to the patient being reluctant to visit the dentist. 871:. Intrinsic motivation has been found to be hard to modify, and attempts to recruit existing intrinsic motivators require a non-trivially difficult individualized approach, identifying and making relevant the different motivators needed to motivate different students, possibly requiring additional skills and intrinsic motivation from the instructor. In a workplace situation, intrinsic motivation is likely to be rare and risks being falsely identified, as most workers will always be subject to extrinsic motivation such as the fear of unemployment, the need to gain a living and fear of rejection by coworkers in cases of poor performance. 735:

restriction on the employee and these constraints are viewed as "annoying and seemingly functioned only as subordinating or differentiating mechanisms." Accordingly, the natural management system assumes that employees prefer autonomy and responsibility on the job and dislike arbitrary rules and overwhelming supervision. An individual's motivation to complete a task is increased when the task is autonomous. When the motivation to complete a task comes from an "external pressure" that pressure then "undermines" the person's motivation, and as a result decreases the person's desire to complete the task.

1324:, cognitive dissonance occurs when an individual experiences some degree of discomfort resulting from an inconsistency between two cognitions: their views on the world around them and their own personal feelings and actions. For example, a consumer may seek to reassure themselves regarding a purchase, feeling that another decision may have been preferable. Their feeling that another purchase would have been preferable is inconsistent with their action of purchasing the item. The difference between their feelings and beliefs causes dissonance, so they seek to reassure themselves. 726:

the Bank Wiring Observation Room, using a piece rate incentive system does not lead to higher production. Employees actually set upper limits on each person's daily output. These actions stand "in direct opposition to the ideas underlying their system of financial incentive, which countenanced no upper limit to performance other than the physical capacity of the individual." Therefore, as opposed to the rational system that depends on economic rewards and punishments, the natural system of management assumes that humans are also motivated by non-economic factors.

890:(for example money or grades) for showing the desired behavior, and the threat of punishment following misbehavior. Competition is an extrinsic motivator because it encourages the performer to win and to beat others, not simply to enjoy the intrinsic rewards of the activity. A cheering crowd and the desire to win a trophy are also extrinsic incentives. For example, if an individual plays the sport tennis to receive an award, that would be extrinsic motivation. VS. if the individual plays because he or she enjoys the game, which would be intrinsic motivation. 341:

and over yourself. It confers the need to be able to exercise direction in the world surrounding you, and cause things to happen. Individuals who have high needs for achievement will tend to engage in competitive activities in order to fulfill this desire. Individuals who need to feel affiliated will tend to join clubs, groups and teams to satiate that want. Individuals who have the need for power will seek activities which likewise satisfy this need, such as, running for high positions in organizations and seeking opportunities to exercise that dominance.

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community. After having seen the benefits of collaboration and work, and also have the opportunity to be included, the child will be intrinsically motivated to participate in similar tasks. In this example, because the adults in the community do not impose the tasks upon the children, the children therefore feel self-motivated and have a desire to participate and learn through the task. As a result of the community values that surround the child, their source of motivation may vary according to the different communities and their different values.

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describe. To complete the assessment, each story created by the test subject must be carefully recorded and monitored to uncover underlying needs and patterns of reactions each subject perceives. After evaluation, two common methods of research, Defense Mechanisms Manual (DMM) and Social Cognition and Object Relations (SCOR), are used to score each test subject on different dimensions of the object and relational identification. From this, the underlying dynamics of each specific personality and specific motives and drives can be determined.

717:. As a result, individual employees have lost their sense of stability and security, which can be provided by being a member of a group. However, if teams continuously change within jobs, then employees feel anxious, empty, and irrational and become harder to work with. The innate desire for lasting human association and management "is not related to single workers, but always to working groups." In groups, employees will self-manage and form relevant customs, duties, and traditions. 1186:

participate in activities is a prominent belief within the family, the adolescents autonomy is significantly higher. This therefore demonstrates that when collaboration and non-segregative tasks are norms within a child's upbringing, their internal motivation to participate in community tasks increases. When given opportunities to work collaboratively with adults on shared tasks during childhood, children will therefore become more intrinsically motivated through adulthood.

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within the individual rather than relying on external pressures or a desire for consideration. Deci (1971) explained that some activities provide their own inherent reward, meaning certain activities are not dependent on external rewards. The phenomenon of intrinsic motivation was first acknowledged within experimental studies of animal behavior. In these studies, it was evident that the organisms would engage in playful and curiosity-driven behaviors in the absence of

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the apple and then immediately throwing up. Now it is hard to even be near an apple without feeling sick. Conditioned taste aversion can also come about by the mere associations of two stimuli. Eating a peanut butter and jelly sandwich, but also having the flu. Eating the sandwich makes one feel nauseous, so one throws up, now one cannot smell peanut butter without feeling queasy. Though eating the sandwich does not cause one to through up, they are still linked.

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they are motivated by the will to survive mostly, and will prefer a mate that can physically defend her, or financially provide for her (among humans). Some females are more attracted to charm, as it is an indicator of being a good loyal lover that will in turn make for a dependable child-rearing partner. Altogether, sex is a hedonistic pleasure-seeking behavior that satiates physical and psychological needs and is instinctively guided by principles of evolution.

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with a too small profit margin, deciding to give the CEO a new incentive package in order to motivate him to increase firm profits. If the CEO already has a lot of money, the incentive package might not be a very good way to motivate him, because he would be satiated on the money. Getting even more money wouldn't be a strong reinforcer for profit-increasing behavior, and wouldn't elicit increased intensity, frequency, or duration of profit-increasing behavior.

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together to solve collective problems. Although individuals will have internalized goals, they will also develop internalized goals of others, as well as new interests and goals collectively with those that they feel socially connected to. Oftentimes, it is believed that all cultural groups are motivated in the same way. However, motivation can come from different child-rearing practices and cultural behaviors that greatly vary between cultural groups.

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William James Fellow Roy Baumeister at Case Western University, college students were given ratings on an established scale of procrastination and tracked their academic performance, stress, and health throughout the semester. While procrastinators experienced some initial benefit in the form of lower stress levels (presumably by putting off their work at first), they ultimately earned lower grades and reported higher levels of stress and illness.

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relish the exhilaration of completing tasks close to the deadline. "Avoider" types procrastinate to avoid the outcome of whatever task they are pushing back - whether it be a potential failure or success. "Avoider" types are usually very self-conscious and care deeply about other people's opinions. Lastly, "Decisional" procrastinators avoid making decisions in order to protect themselves from the responsibility that follows the outcome of events.

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the reinforcing stimulus has been conditioned to make the person happier. As opposed to in drive theory, which involves negative reinforcement: a stimulus has been associated with the removal of the punishment—the lack of homeostasis in the body. For example, a person has come to know that if they eat when hungry, it will eliminate that negative feeling of hunger, or if they drink when thirsty, it will eliminate that negative feeling of thirst.

1044:. Behavior is punished or reinforced in the context of whatever stimuli were present just before the behavior was performed, which means that a particular behavior might not be affected in every environmental context, or situation, after it is punished or reinforced in one specific context. A lack of praise for school-related behavior might, for instance, not decrease after-school sports-related behavior that is usually reinforced by praise. 354: 1722:

be a justification for when the user ultimately has no choice but to undertake a task and performs below their standard. For example, a term paper could be seen as a daunting task. If the user puts it off until the night before, they can justify their poor score by telling themselves that they would have done better with more time. This kind of justification is extremely harmful and only helps to perpetuate the cycle of procrastination.

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product later. If an individual is in a room with two strangers they are more likely to gravitate towards the person that they occasionally pass on the street, than the person that they have never seen before. An example of the use of mere exposure theory can be seen in product placements in movies and TV shows. We see a product that is in our favorite movie, and hence we are more inclined to buy that product when we see it again.

1013:), the behavior is less likely to occur in the presence of the stimulus. In a similar manner, the removal of a stimulus directly following the behavior might either increase or decrease the frequency of that behavior in the future (negative reinforcement or punishment). For instance, a student that gained praise and a good grade after turning in a paper, might seem more motivated in writing papers in the future ( 1093:. The presence of a stimulus believed to function as a reinforcer does not according to this terminology explain the current behavior of an organism – only previous instances of reinforcement of that behavior (in the same or similar situations) do. Through the behavior-altering effect of MOs, it is possible to affect the current behavior of an individual, giving another piece of the puzzle of motivation. 77: 179: 36: 1886:"Priming refers to an increased sensitivity to certain stimuli, resulting from prior exposure to related visual or audio messages. When an individual is exposed to the word "cancer," for example, and then offered the choice to smoke a cigarette, we expect that there is a greater probability that they will choose not to smoke as a result of the earlier exposure." 814:

findings in 1971, and 1972, tangible rewards could actually undermine the intrinsic motivation of college students. However, these studies didn't just affect college students, Kruglanski, Friedman, and Zeevi (1971) repeated this study and found that symbolic and material rewards can undermine not just high school students, but preschool students as well.

4073: 1809:. Weiner's theory differentiates intrapersonal and interpersonal perspectives. Intrapersonal includes self-directed thoughts and emotions that are attributed to the self. The interpersonal perspective includes beliefs about the responsibility of others and emotions directed at other people, for instance attributing blame to another individual. 1302:, the theory became well known in the 1940s and 1950s. Many of the motivational theories that arose during the 1950s and 1960s were either based on Hull's original theory or were focused on providing alternatives to the drive-reduction theory, including Abraham Maslow's hierarchy of needs, which emerged as an alternative to Hull's approach. 546:: This is the most autonomous form of motivation and the action has been internalized and is aligned with the individual's values, beliefs and is perceived as necessary for their wellbeing. However, this is still classified as extrinsic motivation as it is still driven by external processes and not by inherent enjoyment for the task itself. 373:'s two-factor theory. Maslow's theory is one of the most widely discussed theories of motivation. Abraham Maslow believed that man is inherently good and argued that individuals possess a constantly growing inner drive that has great potential. The needs hierarchy system is a commonly used scheme for classifying human motives. 1070:"Reinforcers and reinforcement principles of behavior differ from the hypothetical construct of reward." A reinforcer is anything that follows an action, with the intention that the action will now occur more frequently. From this perspective, the concept of distinguishing between intrinsic and extrinsic forces is irrelevant. 1170:

mechanistic operand learning as primary determinants of motivation. Critical elements to socio-cultural theory applied to motivation include, but are not limited to, the role of social interactions and the contributions from culturally-based knowledge and practice. Sociocultural theory extends the social aspects of

305:. In this theory, the existence or physiological needs are at the base. These include the needs for things such as food, drink, shelter, and safety. Next come the Relatedness Needs, the need to feel connected to other individuals or a group. These needs are fulfilled by establishing and maintaining relationships. 1952:

incentive, the more the individual is willing to do to get to the end of a task. This is one of the reasons that college students will go on to graduate school. The students may be worn out, but they are willing to go through more school for the reward of getting a higher paying job when they are out of school.

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Procrastination can be seen as a defense mechanism. Because it is less demanding to simply avoid a task instead of dealing with the possibility of failure, procrastinators choose the short-term gratification of delaying a task over the long-term uncertainty of undertaking it. Procrastination can also

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Procrastination is the act to voluntarily postponing or delaying an intended course of action despite anticipating that you will be worse off because of that delay. While procrastination was once seen as a harmless habit, recent studies indicate otherwise. In a 1997 study conducted by Dianne Tice and

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A drive or desire can be described as a deficiency or need that activates behavior that is aimed at a goal or an incentive. These drives are thought to originate within the individual and may not require external stimuli to encourage the behavior. Basic drives could be sparked by deficiencies such as

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Additionally, a study has been conducted on social networking and its push and pull effects. One thing that is mentioned is "Regret and dissatisfaction correspond to push factors because regret and dissatisfaction are the negative factors that compel users to leave their current service provider." So

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The most simple distinction between extrinsic and intrinsic motivation is the type of reasons or goals that lead to an action. While intrinsic motivation refers to doing something because it is inherently interesting or enjoyable and satisfying, extrinsic motivation, refers to doing something because

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Intrinsic motivation has been studied since the early 1970s. Intrinsic motivation is a behavior that is driven by satisfying internal rewards. For example, an athlete may enjoy playing football for the experience, rather than for an award. It is an interest or enjoyment in the task itself, and exists

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Humans are motivated by additional factors besides wage incentives. Unlike the rational theory of motivation, people are not driven toward economic interests per the natural system. For instance, the straight piecework system pays employees based on each unit of their output. Based on studies such as

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The highest order of needs is for self-fulfillment, including recognition of one's full potential, areas for self-improvement, and the opportunity for creativity. This differs from the rational system, which assumes that people prefer routine and security to creativity. Unlike the rational management

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The next set of needs is social, which refers to the desire for acceptance, affiliation, reciprocal friendships, and love. As such, the natural system of management assumes that close-knit work teams are productive. Accordingly, if an employee's social needs are unmet, then he will act disobediently.

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Freud relied heavily upon the theories of unconscious motivation as explained above, but Allport (a researcher in 1967) looked heavily into the powers of conscious motivation and the effect it can have upon goals set for an individual. This is not to say that unconscious motivation should be ignored

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Priming can fit into these categories; Semantic Priming, Visual Priming, Response Priming, Perceptual and Conceptual Priming, Positive and Negative Priming, Associative and Context Priming, and Olfactory Priming. Visual and Semantic priming is the most used in motivation. Most priming is linked with

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and Christina D. Morgan at Harvard during the early 1930s. Their underlying goal was to test and discover the dynamics of personality such as internal conflict, dominant drives, and motives. Testing is derived from asking the individual to tell a story, given 31 pictures that they must choose ten to

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and their colleagues since the early 1950s. This type of motivation is a drive that is developed from an emotional state. One may feel the drive to achieve by striving for success and avoiding failure. In achievement motivation, one would hope that they excel in what they do and not think much about

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Achievement motivation can be measured by The Achievement Motivation Inventory, which is based on this theory and assesses three factors (in 17 separated scales) relevant to vocational and professional success. This motivation has repeatedly been linked with adaptive motivational patterns, including

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which just like food motivates us because it is essential to our survival. The desire for sex is wired deep into the brain of all human beings as glands secrete hormones that travel through the blood to the brain and stimulates the onset of sexual desire. The hormone involved in the initial onset of

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In more Westernized communities, segregation between adults and children participating in work-related tasks is a common practice. As a result of this, these adolescents demonstrate less internalized motivation to do things within their environment than their parents. However, when the motivation to

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Incentive theory distinguishes itself from other motivation theories, such as drive theory, in the direction of the motivation. In incentive theory, stimuli "attract" a person towards them, and push them towards the stimulus. In terms of behaviorism, incentive theory involves positive reinforcement:

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Incentive theory is a specific theory of motivation, derived partly from behaviorist principles of reinforcement, which concerns an incentive or motive to do something. The most common incentive would be a compensation. Compensation can be tangible or intangible. It helps in motivating the employees

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and timing. A reinforcer or punisher affects the future frequency of a behavior most strongly if it occurs within seconds of the behavior. A behavior that is reinforced intermittently, at unpredictable intervals, will be more robust and persistent, compared to the ones that are reinforced every time

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Where others would speculate about such things as values, drives, or needs, that may not be observed directly, behaviorists are interested in the observable variables that affect the type, intensity, frequency, and duration of the observable behavior. Through the basic research of such scientists as

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and a subsequent reduction in intrinsic motivation. In one study demonstrating this effect, children who expected to be (and were) rewarded with a ribbon and a gold star for drawing pictures spent less time playing with the drawing materials in subsequent observations than children who were assigned

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There are multiple theories for why sex is a strong motivation, and many fall under the theory of evolution. On an evolutionary level, the motivation for sex likely has to do with a species' ability to reproduce. Species that reproduce more, survive and pass on their genes. Therefore, species have a

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theory is the theory about an acquired ability to sustain the physical or mental effort. It can also be described as being persistent despite the building up subjective fatigue. This is the ability to push through to the end for a greater or bigger reward. The more significant or more rewarding the

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Attribution theory describes individual's motivation to formulate explanatory attributions ("reasons") for events they experience, and how these beliefs affect their emotions and motivations. Attributions are predicted to alter behavior, for instance attributing failure on a test to a lack of study

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article, it synthesizes into a single formulation, the primary aspects of several other major motivational theories, including Incentive Theory, Drive Theory, Need Theory, Self-Efficacy and Goal Setting. It simplifies the field of motivation and allows findings from one theory to be translated into

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Drive theory has some intuitive validity. For instance, when preparing food, the drive model appears to be compatible with sensations of rising hunger as the food is prepared, and, after the food has been consumed, a decrease in subjective hunger. There are several problems, however, that leave the

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Again using the example of food, satiation of food prior to the presentation of a food stimulus would produce a decrease on food-related behaviors, and diminish or completely abolish the reinforcing effect of acquiring and ingesting the food. Consider the board of a large investment bank, concerned

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Employees seek autonomy and responsibility in their work, contrary to assumptions of the rational theory of management. Because supervisors have direct authority over employees, they must ensure that the employee's actions are in line with the standards of efficient conduct. This creates a sense of

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Physiological needs are the lowest and the most important level. These fundamental requirements include food, rest, shelter, and exercise. After the physiological needs are satisfied, employees can focus on safety needs, which include "protection against danger, threat and deprivation." However, if

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The basic requirements build upon the first step in the pyramid: physiology. If there are deficits on this level, all behavior will be oriented to satisfy this deficit. Essentially, if you have not slept or eaten adequately, you won't be interested in your self-esteem desires. Subsequently, we have

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The Need for Achievement refers to the notion of getting ahead and succeeding. The Need for Affiliation is the desire to be around people and be well received socially. It also includes the desire for being a member in a group and conformity. The Need for Power is the desire for control over others

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and dissatisfaction do not exist on the same continuum, but on dual scales. In other words, certain things, which Herzberg called hygiene factors, could cause a person to become unhappy with their job. These things, including pay, job security, and physical work environment, could never bring about

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Pardee, R. L. (1990). The basic concept behind the hierarchy system is that it's like a food pyramid. Everybody starts at the bottom of the pyramid and is motivated to satisfy each level in ascending order to work our way to the top of the pyramid, and those levels (needs) are categorized into two

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Priming can be linked with the mere exposure theory. People tend to like things that they have been exposed to before. Mere exposer theory is used by advertising companies to get people to buy their products. An example of this is seeing a picture of the product on a signboard and then buying that

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In terms of motivation, Freud argues that unconscious instinctual impulses can still have great influence on behavior even though the person is not aware of the source. When these instincts serve as a motive, the person is only aware of the goal of the motive, and not its actual source. He divides

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Conditioned taste aversion is the only type of conditioning that only needs one exposure. It does not need to be the specific food or drinks that cause the taste. Conditioned taste aversion can also be attributed to extenuating circumstances. An example of this can be eating a rotten apple. Eating

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Pull motivation is the opposite of push. It is a type of motivation that is much stronger. "Some of the factors are those that emerge as a result of the attractiveness of a destination as it is perceived by those with the propensity to travel. They include both tangible resources, such as beaches,

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Csikszentmihalyi describes 8 characteristics of flow as - the complete concentration on the task, clarity of goals & reward in mind and immediate feedback, transformation of time (speeding up/slowing down of time), the experience is intrinsically rewarding, effortlessness & ease, a balance

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Extrinsic motivation comes from influences outside of the individual. In extrinsic motivation, the harder question to answer is where do people get the motivation to carry out and continue to push with persistence. Usually, extrinsic motivation is used to attain outcomes that a person wouldn't get

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Additionally, under the umbrella of evolution, is Darwin's term sexual selection. This refers to how the female selects the male for reproduction. The male is motivated to attain sex because of all the aforementioned reasons, but how he attains it can vary based on his qualities. For some females,

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One of the first influential figures to discuss the topic of hedonism was Socrates, and he did so around 470–399 BCE in ancient Greece. Hedonism, as Socrates described it, is the motivation wherein a person will behave in a manner that will maximize pleasure and minimize pain. The only instance in

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This is not to say that one person cannot have needs spanning all three categories. A person may have the need for affiliation at the same time they have the need for power. While this may initially seem contradictory, there are instances where both needs can be fulfilled. Also, timing may connote

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focus only on the observable behavior and the theories founded on experimental evidence. In the view of behaviorism, motivation is understood as a question about what factors cause, prevent, or withhold various behaviors, while the question of, for instance, conscious motivation would be ignored.

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The idea of flow theory was first conceptualized by Csikszentmihalyi. Flow in the context of motivation can be seen as an activity that is not too hard, frustrating or madding, or too easy boring and done too fast. If one has achieved perfect flow, then the activity has reached maximum potential.

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Advantages of extrinsic motivators are that they easily promote motivation to work and persist to goal completion. Rewards are tangible and beneficial. A disadvantage for extrinsic motivators relative to internal is that work does not persist long once external rewards are removed. As the task is

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An advantage (relative to extrinsic motivation) is that intrinsic motivators can be long-lasting, self-sustaining, and satisfying. For this reason, efforts in education sometimes attempt to modify intrinsic motivation with the goal of promoting future student learning performance, creativity, and

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Intrinsic motivation comes from one's desire to achieve or attain a goal. Pursuing challenges and goals come easier and more enjoyable when one is intrinsically motivated to complete a certain objective because the individual is more interested in learning, rather than achieving the goal. Edward

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that try to define what motivates people. Content theories of motivation often describe a system of needs that motivate peoples' actions. While process theories of motivation attempt to explain how and why our motivations affect our behaviors, content theories of motivation attempt to define what

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Priming also has an effect on drug users. In this case, it can be defined as, the reinstatement or increase in drug craving by a small dose of the drug or by stimuli associated with the drug. If a former drug user is in a place where they formerly did drugs, then they are tempted to do that same

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In some indigenous cultures, collaboration between children and adults in the community and household tasks is seen as very important A child from an indigenous community may spend a great deal of their time alongside family and community members doing different tasks and chores that benefit the

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The various mechanisms of operant conditioning may be used to understand the motivation for various behaviors by examining what happens just after the behavior (the consequence), in what context the behavior is performed or not performed (the antecedent), and under what circumstances (motivating

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The activity no longer becomes something seen as a means to an end and it becomes something an individual wants to do. This can be seen as someone who likes to run for the sheer joy of running and not because they need to do it for exercise or because they want to brag about it. Peak flow can be

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Not only can intrinsic motivation be used in a personal setting, but it can also be implemented and utilized in a social environment. Instead of attaining mature desires, such as those presented above via the internet which can be attained on one's own, intrinsic motivation can be used to assist

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McGregor personally held that the more optimistic theory, Y, was more valid. This theory holds that employees can view work as natural, are creative, can be self-motivated, and appreciate responsibility. This type of thinking is popular now, with people becoming more aware of the productivity of

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is being tired, exhausted, or not functioning effectively. Not wanting to proceed further with the current mental course of action is in contrast with physical fatigue, because in most cases no physical activity is done. This is best seen in the workplace or schools. A perfect example of mental

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Over the years, scientists have determined that not all procrastination is the same. The first type is chronic procrastinators whom exhibit a combination of qualities from the other, more specialized types of procrastinators. "Arousal" types are usually self-proclaimed "pressure performers" and

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Traditionally, researchers thought of motivations to use computer systems to be primarily driven by extrinsic purposes; however, many modern systems have their use driven primarily by intrinsic motivations. Examples of such systems used primarily to fulfill users' intrinsic motivations, include

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proposed two different motivational theories. Managers tend to believe one or the other and treat their employees accordingly. Theory X states that employees dislike and try to avoid work, so they must be coerced into doing it. Most workers do not want responsibilities, lack ambition, and value

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The symptoms of mental fatigue can range from low motivation and loss of concentration to the more severe symptoms of headaches, dizziness, and impaired decision making and judgment. Mental fatigue can affect an individual's life by causing a lack of motivation, avoidance of friends and family

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Motivation can develop through an individual's involvement within their cultural group. Personal motivation often comes from activities a person believes to be central to the everyday occurrences in their community. An example of socio-cultural theory would be social settings where people work

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and an increase in perceived competence. In short, the cause of the behavior must be internal, known as internal locus of causality, and the individual who engages in the behavior must perceive that the task increases their competence. According to various research reported by Deci's published

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Since the early 1970s Deci and Ryan have developed and tested their self-determination theory (SDT). SDT identifies three innate needs that, if satisfied, allow optimal function and growth: competence, relatedness, and autonomy. These three psychological needs are suggested to be essential for

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Sex is on the first level of Maslow's hierarchy of needs. It is a necessary physiological need like air, warmth, or sleep, and if the body lacks it will not function optimally. Without the orgasm that comes with sex, a person will experience "pain," and as hedonism would predict, a person will

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An example of intrinsic motivation is when an employee becomes an IT professional because he or she wants to learn about how computer users interact with computer networks. The employee has the intrinsic motivation to gain more knowledge, and will continue to want to learn even in the face of

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The American motivation psychologist Abraham H. Maslow (1954) developed the hierarchy of needs consisting of five hierarchic classes. According to Maslow, people are motivated by unsatisfied needs. The needs, listed from basic (lowest-earliest) to most complex (highest-latest) are as follows:

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Social motivation is tied to one's activity in a group. It cannot form from a single mind alone. For example, bowling alone is naught but the dull act of throwing a ball into pins, and so people are much less likely to smile during the activity alone, even upon getting a strike because their

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Incentive theory in psychology treats motivation and behavior of the individual as they are influenced by beliefs, such as engaging in activities that are expected to be profitable. Incentive theory is promoted by behavioral psychologists, such as B.F. Skinner. Incentive theory is especially

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There are two types of egoistic needs, the second-highest order of needs. The first type refers to one's self-esteem, which encompasses self-confidence, independence, achievement, competence, and knowledge. The second type of needs deals with reputation, status, recognition, and respect from

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In addition to sexual desire, the motivation for romantic love runs parallel in having an evolutionary function for the survival of a species. On an emotional level, romantic love satiates a psychological need for belonging. Therefore, this is another hedonistic pursuit of pleasure. From the

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perspective makes people want to justify things in a simple way in order to reduce the effort they put into cognition. They do this by changing their attitudes, beliefs, or actions, rather than facing the inconsistencies, because dissonance is a mental strain. Dissonance is also reduced by

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Sociocultural theory (also known as Social Motivation) emphasizes the impact of activity and actions mediated through social interaction, and within social contexts. Sociocultural theory represents a shift from traditional theories of motivation, which view the individual's innate drives or

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Achievement motivation is an integrative perspective based on the premise that performance motivation results from the way broad components of personality are directed towards performance. As a result, it includes a range of dimensions that are relevant to success at work but which are not

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different strengths of needs at different moments. So, while a person may strongly feel the need to affiliate during times of loneliness, they may at another time feel the strong need for power when instructed to organize an event. Needs may arise and change along with a change of context.

1174:, which espouses the important role of positive feedback from others during the action, but requires the individual as the internal locus of causality. Sociocultural theory predicts that motivation has an external locus of causality, and is socially distributed among the social group. 1074:

supported by Skinner in his philosophy of Radical behaviorism, meaning that a person's actions always have social ramifications: and if actions are positively received, people are more likely to act in this manner, or if negatively received people are less likely to act in this manner.

1839:. Research suggests that, all else being equal, avoidance motivations tend to be more powerful than approach motivations. Because people expect losses to have more powerful emotional consequences than equal-size gains, they will take more risks to avoid a loss than to achieve a gain. 1569:

when s/he has not had proper training. A smaller, more attainable goal is to first motivate oneself to take the stairs instead of an elevator or to replace a stagnant activity, like watching television, with a mobile one, like spending time walking and eventually working up to a jog.

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the second level, which awakens a need for security. After securing those two levels, the motives shift to the social sphere, the third level. Psychological requirements comprise the fourth level, while the top of the hierarchy consists of self-realization and self-actualization.

1748:. Volition is seen as a process that leads from intention to actual behavior. In other words, motivation and volition refer to goal setting and goal pursuit, respectively. Both processes require self-regulatory efforts. Several self-regulatory constructs are needed to operate in 3300:

StoryStudio. "One type of therapy is addressing autism, dementia, and so much more." San Francisco Gate, California Applied Behavior Analysis, 4 Aug. 2017, blog.sfgate.com/storystudio/2017/08/04/one-type-of-therapy-is-tackling-autism-dementia-and-so-much-more/. Accessed 15 Nov.

1565:'s Hierarchy of Needs, a larger end goal is easier to achieve if the subject has smaller, more attainable yet still challenging goals to achieve first in order to advance over a period of time. A classic example of a poorly specified goal is trying to motivate oneself to run a 308:

At the top of the hierarchy are Growth Needs, the needs for personal achievement and self-actualization. If a person is continuously frustrated in trying to satisfy growth needs, relatedness needs will re-emerge. This phenomenon is known as the frustration-regression process.

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Flow is a part of something called positive psychology of the psychology of happiness. Positive psychology looks into what makes a person happy. Flow can be considered as achieving happiness or at the very least positive feelings. A study that was published in the journal

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grows out of the concept that people have certain biological drives, such as hunger and thirst. As time passes, the strength of the drive increases if it is not satisfied (in this case by eating). Upon satisfying a drive, the drive's strength is reduced. Created by

534:: This form of external motivation arises when the individuals have somewhat internalized regulations but do not fully accept them as their own. They may comply for self-esteem reasons or social acceptability - essentially internal reasons but externally driven. 947:

different for each person. It could take an individual years to reach flow or only moments. If an individual becomes too good at an activity they can become bored. If the challenge becomes too hard then the individual could become discouraged and want to quit.

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The theory proposes eight meta-motivational states arranged into four pairs that drive and respond to all human experience. When a state is interrupted or satiated, one "reverses" to the other state in the pair (domain). Unlike many theories related to

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proposed a context for understanding the needs in people, which holds significance in understanding their motivations and behaviors. It is subdivided into three categories: the Need for Achievement, the Need for Affiliation, and the Need for Power.

939:. The students that were being evaluated on looks then told to wait and play Tetris. There were three categories; Easy, normal, and hard. The students that played Tetris on normal level experienced flow and were less stressed about the evaluation. 1207:

However, with push motivation, it's also easy to get discouraged when there are obstacles present in the path of achievement. Push motivation acts as a willpower and people's willpower is only as strong as the desire behind the willpower.

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described Flow theory as "A state in which people are so involved in an activity that nothing else seems to matter; the experience is so enjoyable that people will continue to do it even at great cost, for the sheer sake of doing it."

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Expectancy theory was proposed by Victor H. Vroom in 1964. Expectancy theory explains the behavior process in which an individual selects a behavior option over another, and why/how this decision is made in relation to their goal.

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Students who are intrinsically motivated are more likely to engage in the task willingly as well as work to improve their skills, which will increase their capabilities. Students are likely to be intrinsically motivated if they...

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When a motivating operation causes an increase in the effectiveness of a reinforcer or amplifies a learned behavior in some way (such as increasing frequency, intensity, duration, or speed of the behavior), it functions as an

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main groups with five different sections which are explained below. Motivation Theories of Maslow, Herzberg, McGregor & McClelland. A Literature Review of Selected Theories Dealing with Job Satisfaction and Motivation.

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Push motivations are those where people push themselves towards their goals or to achieve something, such as the desire for escape, rest & relaxation, prestige, health & fitness, adventure, and social interaction.

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To successfully manage and motivate employees, the natural system posits that being a part of a group is necessary. Because of structural changes in the social order, the workplace is more fluid and adaptive according to

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sexual desire that leads to sexual intercourse as a means to create more offspring. Without this innate motivation, a species may determine that attaining intercourse is too costly in terms of effort, energy, and danger.

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is not motivated to seek out the phobic stimulus because it acts as a punisher, and is over-motivated to avoid it (negative reinforcement). In accordance, therapies have been designed to address these problems, such as

1089:, MOs, relate to the field of motivation in that they help improve understanding aspects of behavior that are not covered by operant conditioning. In operant conditioning, the function of the reinforcer is to influence 1637: 1009:), the emitted behavior will increase in frequency in the future, in the presence of the stimulus that preceded the behavior (or a similar one). Conversely, if the behavior is followed by something undesirable (a 894:

it leads to a separable outcome. Extrinsic motivation thus contrasts with intrinsic motivation, which is doing an activity simply for the enjoyment of the activity itself, instead of for its instrumental value.

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with, for example, social motives like dominance. Personality is intimately tied to performance and achievement motivation, including such characteristics as tolerance for risk, fear of failure, and others.

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job satisfaction. Motivating factors, on the other hand, can increase job satisfaction. Giving employees things such as a sense of recognition, responsibility, or achievement can bring satisfaction about.

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Roethlisberger, F. J., et al. Management and the Worker; an Account of a Research Program Conducted by the Western Electric Company, Hawthorne Works, Chicago. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press,

1756:. Self-efficacy is supposed to facilitate the forming of behavioral intentions, the development of action plans, and the initiation of action. It can support the translation of intentions into action. 667:

The natural system assumes that people have higher-order needs, which contrasts with the rational theory that suggests that people dislike work and only respond to rewards and punishment. According to

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The author of the reductionist motivation model is Sigmund Freud. According to the model, physiological needs raise tension, thereby forcing an individual to seek an outlet by satisfying those needs

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E (Expectancy) is the person's perception that effort will result in performance. In other words, it's the person's assessment of how well and what kind of effort will relate to better performance.

2233: 809:. Intrinsic motivation is a natural motivational tendency and is a critical element in cognitive, social, and physical development. The two necessary elements for intrinsic motivation are 1375: 476:

which a person will behave in a manner that results in more pain than pleasure is when the knowledge of the effects of the behavior is lacking. Sex is one of the pleasures people pursue.

1282:(DHEA). The hormonal basis of both men and women's sex drives is testosterone. Men naturally have more testosterone than women do and so are more likely than women to think about sex. 1270:

hunger, which motivates a person to seek food whereas more subtle drives might be the desire for praise and approval, which motivates a person to behave in a manner pleasing to others.

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Most people are not optimally motivated, as many want a challenge (which assumes some kind of insecurity of success). At the same time, people want to feel that there is a substantial

1005:, the type and frequency of behavior are determined mainly by its consequences. If a certain behavior, in the presence of a certain stimulus, is followed by a desirable consequence (a 1363:

the terms of another. Another journal article that helped to develop temporal motivation theory, "The Nature of Procrastination", which received American Psychological Association's

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Gronhoj, Rhogersen, Alice, John (2017). "Why young people do things for the environment: the role of parenting for adolescents motivation to engage in pro-environmental behavior".

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minimize this pain by pursuing sex. That being said, sex as a basic need is different from the need for sexual intimacy, which is located on the third level in Maslow's hierarchy.

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the behavior is performed. For example, if the misbehaving student in the above example was punished a week after the troublesome behavior, that might not affect future behavior.

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and Dr. Ken Smith in the 1970s, is a structural, phenomenological explanation of psychological states and their dynamic interplay. The theory contributes to an understanding of

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Murray, Marjorie; Bowen, Sofia; Segura, Nicole; Verdugo, Marisol (2015). "Apprehending Volition in Early Socialization: Raising 'Little Persons' among Rural Mapuche Families".

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Elton Mayo, 1984 . "Hawthorne and the Western Electric Company." pp. 279-292 in Organization Theory: Selected Readings. Second Edition. Edited by D.S. Pugh. New York: Penguin.

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with this theory, but instead, it focuses on the thought that if we are aware of our surroundings and our goals, we can then actively and consciously take steps towards them.

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M (Motivation) is the amount an individual will be motivated by the condition or environment they placed themselves in, which is based on the following. Hence the equation.

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Conversely, a motivating operation that causes a decrease in the effectiveness of a reinforcer, or diminishes a learned behavior related to the reinforcer, functions as an

1138:

the disorder is seen as lacking motivation to perform socially relevant behaviors – social stimuli are not as reinforcing for people with autism compared to other people.

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in their corporate life, students in academics, and inspire them to do more and more to achieve profitability in every field. Studies show that if the person receives the

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Deci, Edward L.; Koestner, Richard; Ryan, Richard M. (1999). "A Meta-Analytic Review of Experiments Examining the Effects of Extrinsic Rewards on Intrinsic Motivation".

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Gonzaga, G.; Turner, R.; Keltner, D.; Campos, B.; Altemus, M.; Davidson, Richard J.; Scherer, Klaus R. (2006). "Romantic Love and Sexual Desire in Close Relationships".

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Lepper, Mark R.; Greene, David; Nisbet, Richard (1973). "Undermining Children's Intrinsic Interest with Extrinsic Reward; A Test of 'Overjustification' Hypothesis".

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Within Self-Determination Theory, Deci & Ryan distinguish between four different types of extrinsic motivation, differing in their levels of perceived autonomy:

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Priming is a phenomenon, often used as an experimental technique, whereby a specific stimulus sensitizes the subject to later presentation of a similar stimulus.

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Flow theory refers to desirable subjective state a person experiences when completely involved in some challenging activity that matches the individual's skills.

798: 2668:

Deci, Edward L.; Vansteenkiste, Maarten (2004). "Self-determination theory and basic need satisfaction: Understanding human development in positive psychology".

2012:. Optimal arousal theory proposes that the most comfortable or desirable arousal level is not too high or too low. Reversal theory proposes in its principle of 1142:

is understood as a lack of reinforcement (especially positive reinforcement) leading to the extinction of behavior in the depressed individual. A patient with

1528:

theories define motivation in terms of how people think about situations. Cognitive theories of motivation include goal-setting theory and expectancy theory.

1017:); if the same student put in a lot of work on a task without getting any praise for it, he or she might seem less motivated to do school work in the future ( 2745:

Dobbin, Frank. "From Incentives to Teamwork: Rational and Natural Management Systems." Lecture. Harvard University. Cambridge, Massachusetts. 1 October 2012.

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completed for the reward, the quality of work may need to be monitored, and it has been suggested that extrinsic motivators may diminish in value over time.

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the failures or the negatives. Their research showed that business managers who were successful demonstrated a high need to achieve no matter the culture.

859:. The three elements of goal-setting (STD) are Specific, Time-bound, and Difficult. Specifically, goals should be set in the 90th percentile of difficulty. 559:

proposed that 16 basic desires guide nearly all human behavior. In this model the basic desires that motivate our actions and define our personalities are:

1923:

Secondary traits: Present in all people, but strongly reliant on context- can be altered as needed and would be the focus of a conscious motivation effort.

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in itself. A goal's efficiency is affected by three features: proximity, difficulty, and specificity. One common goal setting methodology incorporates the

3162:

Wigfield, A.; Guthrie, J. T.; Tonks, S.; Perencevich, K. C. (2004). "Children's motivation for reading: Domain specificity and instructional influences".

1025:), that behavior would decrease in the future. The student might seem more motivated to behave in class, presumably in order to avoid further detention ( 3004:

Ryan, Richard M.; Deci, Edward L. (2000). "Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being".

2237: 976:, several basic mechanisms that govern behavior have been identified. The most important of these are classical conditioning and operant conditioning. 3316:

Rueda, Richard; Moll, Luis C. (1994). "Chapter 7: A Sociocultural Perspective on Motivation". In O'Neill, Jr., Harold F.; Drillings, Michael (eds.).

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system, which assumes that humans don't care about these higher-order needs, the natural system is based on these needs as a means for motivation.

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immediately, the effect is greater, and decreases as delay lengthens. Repetitive action-reward combination can cause the action to become a habit

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conventionally regarded as being part of performance motivation. The emphasis on performance seeks to integrate formerly separate approaches as

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Marinak, Barbara A.; Gambrell, Linda B. (2008). "Intrinsic Motivation and Rewards: What Sustains Young Children's Engagement with Text?".

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Gonzaga, G. C.; Keltner, D. A.; Londahl, E. D.; Smith, M. (2001). "Love and the commitment problem in romantic relations and friendship".

2325:

Murray, S (2018). "Heterosexual Men's Sexual Desire: Supported by, or Deviating from, Traditional Masculinity Norms and Sexual Scripts?".

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Goal-setting theory is based on the idea that individuals have a drive to reach a clearly defined end state. Often, this end state is a

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between challenge and skills, merged actions and awareness, loss of self-conscious rumination and a feeling of control over the task.

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Baumeister, R.; Leary, M. R. (1995). "The need to belong: Desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation".

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we now know that Push motivations can also be a negative force. In this case, that negative force is regret and dissatisfaction.

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Apter, M. J. (Ed.). (2001). Motivational Styles in Everyday Life: A Guide to Reversal Theory (1st ed.). Amer Psychological Assn.

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Chang, I.; Liu, C.; Chen, K. (2014). "The push, pull and mooring effects in virtual migration for social networking sites".

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Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior. New York, NY: Plenum

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psychological health & well-being along with behavioral motivation. There are three essential elements to the theory:

4294:

Xiang, P.; McBride, R.; Guan, J. (2004). "Children's motivation in elementary physical education: A longitudinal study".

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Ryan, Richard M.; Deci, Edward L. (2000). "Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivations: Classic Definitions and New Directions".

1021:). If a student starts to cause trouble in the class gets punished with something he or she dislikes, such as detention ( 1848:

A strong dislike (nausea reaction) for food because of prior Association with of that food with nausea or upset stomach.

1152: 618: 5053:

Mizuno, Kei; Tanaka, Masaaki; Yamaguti, Kouzi; Kajimoto, Osami; Kuratsune, Hirohiko; Watanabe, Yasuyoshi (2011-05-23).

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E.L. Deci; R. M. Ryan (2008). "Self-determination theory: A macrotheory of human motivation, development, and health".

1993:

proposes that human behavior is better understood by studying dynamic states than by the average of behavior over time

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Humans are inherently proactive with their potential and at mastering their inner forces (such as drive and emotions).

463:

Needs at higher levels in the hierarchy are held in abeyance until lower-level needs are at least minimally satisfied.

120: 3107:

Ryan, Richard; Edward L. Deci (2000). "Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivations: Classic Definitions and New Directions".

1506:

There are three major characteristics of people who have a great need to achieve according to McClelland's research.

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Weiner, Bernard (2000). "Interpersonal and intrapersonal theories of motivation from an attributional perspective".

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that they will succeed. The goal should be objectively defined and understandable for the individual. Similarly to

1355: 1349: 1033: 2117: 200: 87: 4167:"The nature of procrastination: A meta-analytic and theoretical review of quintessential self-regulatory failure" 4166: 1516:

They want to hear continuous recognition, as well as feedback, in order for them to know how well they are doing.

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Fried, Yitzhak; Slowik, Linda Haynes (2004). "Enriching Goal-Setting Theory with Time: An Integrated Approach".

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Needs at higher levels of the hierarchy are associated with individuality , humanness, and psychological health.

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Wilson, T. D.; Lassiter, G. D. (1982). "Increasing intrinsic interest with superfluous extrinsic constraints".

1835:) can be defined as when a certain behavior or reaction to a situation/environment is punished or results in a 1795: 1243:; it is suggested that although a person may be classed as highly intelligent (as measured by many traditional 898: 4861:

Elgendi, Mohamed; Kumar, Parmod; Barbic, Skye; Howard, Newton; Abbott, Derek; Cichocki, Andrzej (2018-05-30).

5033: 2627: 1680:{\displaystyle {\text{Motivation}}={\text{Expectancy}}\times {\text{Instrumentality}}\times {\text{Valence}}} 1096:

Motivating operations are factors that affect learned behavior in a certain context. MOs have two effects: a

1948: 1913:

He also believed that there are three hierarchical tiers of personality traits that affect this motivation:

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working hard, a willingness to pick learning tasks with much difficulty, and attributing success to effort.

1104:, which modifies learned behavior that has previously been punished or reinforced by a particular stimulus. 1010: 917: 682:

management makes arbitrary or biased employment decisions, then an employee's safety needs are unfulfilled.

433: 1431:{\displaystyle \mathrm {Motivation} ={\frac {\mbox{Expectancy × Value}}{\mbox{1 + Impulsiveness × Delay}}}} 109: 4181: 3118: 3013: 2885: 1510:

They would prefer a work environment in which they are able to assume responsibility for solving problems.

1476: 1364: 1279: 1240: 1026: 1014: 994:, behavior is understood as responses triggered by certain environmental or physical stimuli. They can be 991: 956: 4051: 2001: 1327:

While not a theory of motivation, per se, the theory of cognitive dissonance proposes that people have a

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justifying, blaming, and denying. It is one of the most influential and extensively studied theories in

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Achievement Motive and Text Anxiety Conceived as Motive to Approach Success and Motive to Avoid Failure

2023:

Reversal theory has been academically supported and put to practical use in more than 30 fields (e.g.,

2016:

that any level of arousal or stimulation may be found either desirable or undesirable depending on the

1702:

V (Valence) is the perceived amount of the reward or punishment that will result from the performance."

1255:" provides an account of when people may decide to exert self-control in pursuit of a particular goal. 844: 540:: This is more autonomously driven - when the individuals consciously perceive the actions as valuable. 674:, human behavior is based on satisfying a hierarchy of needs: physiological, safety, social, ego, and 5008: 2480: 2040: 1878: 1483: 1315: 1134:

Motivation lies at the core of many behaviorist approaches to psychological treatment. A person with

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Priming can affect motivation, in the way that we can be motived to do things by an outside source.

4352:

Covington, M. V. (2000). "Goal theory, motivation, and school achievement: An integrative review".

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believe they have the skills to be effective agents in reaching their desired goals, also known as

760: 756: 654: 55: 3914: 3350: 3225:"Taking 'fun and games' seriously: Proposing the hedonic-motivation system adoption model (HMSAM)" 822:

attribute their educational results to factors under their own control, also known as autonomy or

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Differing levels of importance to human life are reflected in a hierarchical structure of needs.

4037:

Schacter, D.L., Gilbert, D.L. and Wegner, D.M. (2009,2011) Psychology. 2nd ed. New York: Worth.

3223:

Benjamin Lowry, Paul; Gaskin, James; Twyman, Nathan W.; Hammer, Bryan; Roberts, Tom L. (2013).

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emotion, the stronger the emotion, the stronger the connection between memory and the stimuli.

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Another distinction of reversal theory is its direct contrast with the Hebbian version of the

1832: 1735: 1579: 1337: 1252: 1244: 931: 612: 528:: This is the least autonomous of the four and is determined by external punishment or reward. 5055:"Mental fatigue caused by prolonged cognitive load associated with sympathetic hyperactivity" 4952: 1769:

Inhibition (Taf) – decreases tendency when there are obstacles to performing an activity; and

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I (Instrumentality) is the person's perception that performance will be rewarded or punished.

357:

Maslow's hierarchy of needs, represented as a pyramid with the more basic needs at the bottom

5084: 5066: 4892: 4874: 4722: 4462: 4420: 4361: 4303: 4191: 4138: 4122: 3947: 3892: 3833: 3798: 3513: 3478: 3443: 3283: 3272:"Examining hedonic and utilitarian motivations for m-commerce fashion retail app engagement" 3236: 3171: 3128: 3023: 2941: 2895: 2696: 2642: 2554: 2495: 2443: 2404: 2369: 2334: 2053: 1981:

in which endogenous (cognitive) and exogenous (environmental) implications are considered.

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Optimal development and actions are inherent in humans but they do not happen automatically.

333: 321: 298: 277: 262: 134: 2628:"The "What" and "Why" of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior" 1766:

Instigation (Ts) – increases tendency when an activity has an intrinsic ability to satisfy;

2017: 2013: 1990: 1966: 1961: 1801:

might generate emotions of shame and motivate harder study. Important researchers include

1712: 1332: 1143: 1135: 752: 636: 4580: 1752:

to attain goals. An example of such a motivational and volitional construct is perceived

514:

Humans have an inherent tendency towards growth, development, and integrated functioning.

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or results in a positive or desirable outcome. In contrast, avoidance motivation (i.e.,

353: 5089: 5054: 4897: 4862: 4686: 4267: 2199: 1932: 1806: 1547: 1321: 1299: 969: 744: 624: 362: 266: 2513:

Harter, S (1978). "Effectance motivation reconsidered: Toward a developmental model".

1827:) can be defined as when a certain behavior or reaction to a situation/environment is 5196: 3896: 3490: 3183: 2599: 2346: 2009: 1970: 1828: 1753: 1749: 1543: 1452: 1064: 1006: 973: 887: 829: 806: 642: 4734: 4415:

Entwistle, Noel (1988). "Motivational Factors in Students' Approaches to Learning".

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Social-cognitive models of behavior change include the constructs of motivation and

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Human beings have wants and desires which, when unsatisfied, may influence behavior.

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Elliot, Andrew J; Covington, Martin V (2001). "Approach and Avoidance Motivation".

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The self-control aspect of motivation is increasingly considered to be a subset of

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Cardinal traits: Rare, but strongly determines a set behavior and can't be changed

4837: 4424: 4419:. Perspectives on Individual Differences. Springer, Boston, MA. pp. 21–51. 3837: 3715: 2945: 2646: 2558: 1986: 1978: 1558: 965: 960: 748: 648: 429: 76: 17: 4195: 3739:

Rogoff, Barbara (2009). "Side by Side: Learning by Observing and Pitching In".

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Social psychological research has indicated that extrinsic rewards can lead to

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Introduction to Educational Administration: Standards, Theories, and Practice

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A recent approach in developing a broad, integrative theory of motivation is

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is particularly concerned with the limits of rationality in economic agents.

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They would take a calculated risk and establish moderate, attainable goals.

591:, the need to be loyal to the traditional values of one's clan/ethnic group 2566: 1744:. Motivation is seen as a process that leads to the forming of behavioral 3240: 2028: 1974: 1781:

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) was developed by American psychologists

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McGregor, D., 1960. The Human Side of Enterprise, New York, McGraw-Hill.

2311: 3802: 3397: 3373: 2005: 1632:{\displaystyle {\text{M}}={\text{E}}\times {\text{I}}\times {\text{V}}} 1551: 4879: 3951: 835:

are interested in mastering a topic, not just in achieving good grades

4466: 3447: 2700: 2499: 1100:, which increases or decreases the efficiency of a reinforcer, and a 936: 792: 630: 582: 576: 416: 411: 399: 389: 385: 3878: 3876: 1554:. A goal should be moderate, not too hard, or too easy to complete. 207:. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed. 3573:"Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi: All About Flow & Positive Psychology" 701:

Personality Theories: Basic Assumptions, Research, and Applications

2587:

deCharms, R. (1968). Personal causation. New York: Academic Press.

588: 393: 352: 1247:), they may remain unmotivated to pursue intellectual endeavors. 453:

Maslow's hierarchy of needs theory can be summarized as follows:

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Empathy: A Quantum Approach – The Psychical Influence of Emotion

2481:"Effects of externally mediated rewards on intrinsic motivation" 1920:

Central traits: Present around certain people, but can be hidden

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There's also an equation for this theory which goes as follows:

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is guided by reason is an old one. However, recent research (on

420: 261:

those motives or needs are. Content theory includes the work of

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Walton, Gregory; Cohen, Geoffrey (2011). "Sharing Motivation".

2715:"New Theory of Motivation Lists 16 Basic Desires That Guide Us" 2073:

All goals are subject to the individual's skills and abilities.

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Motivation can be divided into two different theories known as

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colleagues. Egoistic needs are much more difficult to satisfy.

172: 70: 29: 4863:"Subliminal Priming—State of the Art and Future Perspectives" 4750:

Schacter, Daniel. "Psychology". Worth Publishers. 2011. p.340

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Uysal, Muzaffer (1994). "Testing the push and pull factors".

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Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior

779:(internal or inherent in the activity itself) motivation and 312: 2277:(5th ed.). New York: Routledge. pp. 30–38, 71–75. 1032:

The strength of reinforcement or punishment is dependent on

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from intrinsic motivation. Common extrinsic motivations are

847:

is an example of intrinsic motivation in the domain of art.

4048:"How Does Drive Reduction Theory Explain Human Motivation?" 783:(contingent on external rewards or punishment) motivation. 609:, the need for organized, stable, predictable environments 2145:

The culture code: the secrets of highly successful groups

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Motivation: Biological, Psychological, and Environmental

555:

Starting from studies involving more than 6,000 people,

313:

Herzberg's Motivation-Hygiene theory (Two-factor theory)

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Motivation Biological, Psychological, and Environmental

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Motivation Biological, Psychological, and Environmental

2176:"Summary of ERG Theory - Clayton P. Alderfer. Abstract" 1772:

Consummation – decreases a tendency as it is performed.

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award for outstanding contribution to general science.

935:

looked at flow experienced in college students playing

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Incentive theories: intrinsic and extrinsic motivation

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for example) has significantly undermined the idea of

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Journal of the Society for Psychological Anthropology

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The idea that human beings are rational and that the

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Motivation: biological, psychological, environmental

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thing again even if they have been clean for years.

4486: 4484: 3594:"Can't Stop Worrying? Try Tetris To Ease Your Mind" 3320:. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. 2997: 2995: 2993: 2991: 2989: 2987: 2985: 2983: 2981: 2979: 2052:McGregor, D. (1960). The human side of enterprise. 730:

Autonomy: increased motivation for autonomous tasks

101:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 4685: 4266: 3660:. Upper Saddle River, NJ, USA: Pearson Education. 3229:Journal of the Association for Information Systems 2626:Deci, Edward L.; Ryan, Richard M. (October 2000). 2598: 1679: 1631: 1494:Achievement motivation was studied intensively by 1430: 3933: 3931: 361:Content theory of human motivation includes both 3057:Deci, Edward L.; Ryan, Richard M. (2013-06-29). 5009:"Does Thinking Really Hard Burn More Calories?" 3374:"Intrinsic Motivation and Extrinsic Incentives" 2741: 2739: 1846: 1058:Motivational salience § Incentive salience 4511:"Why Wait? The Science Behind Procrastination" 799:intrinsic motivation (artificial intelligence) 4391:. New York: Prentice Hall. pp. 121–122. 3270:Parker, Christopher J.; Wang, Huchen (2016). 2808:. New York: Psychology Press. pp. 82–83. 2535:. New York: International Universities Press. 2430:Hosken, David J.; House, Clarissa M. (2011). 1463:is the individual's sensitivity to delay and 1306:validity of drive reduction open for debate. 8: 5173:Dangerous Edge: The Psychology of Excitement 5032:Services, Department of Health & Human. 4160: 4158: 3850:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 3506:Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 3436:Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 3199:"Examples of Intrinsic Workplace Motivation" 2818:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 2488:Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 2397:Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 2096:"Understanding Herzberg's Motivation Theory" 5113:"Learned Industriousness – Dr. Eisenberger" 4856: 4854: 3276:Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management 2757: 2755: 2753: 2751: 1459:is the reward associated with the outcome, 639:, the need for friends (peer relationships) 64:Learn how and when to remove these messages 4974: 4972: 4106:Steel, Piers; König, Cornelius J. (2006). 4075:Psychology in Physical Education and Sport 3694:. Richmond, MA, USA: Ledgetop Publishing. 3089:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 1155:for major depression and specific phobia. 1042:environmental stimuli also affect behavior 838:don't act from pressure, but from interest 5088: 5070: 4896: 4878: 4296:Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport 4250:Atkinson, John; George H. Litwin (1960). 4185: 3122: 3017: 2889: 2804:Walton, Cohen, Gregory, Geoffrey (2011). 2447: 1672: 1664: 1656: 1648: 1646: 1624: 1616: 1608: 1600: 1598: 1414: 1379: 1377: 955:While many theories on motivation have a 645:, the need for social standing/importance 241:Learn how and when to remove this message 223:Learn how and when to remove this message 161:Learn how and when to remove this message 5002: 5000: 4781:A General Introduction to Psychoanalysis 3869:. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. 2533:Ego and reality in psychoanalytic theory 1863:A General Introduction to Psychoanalysis 1447:is the desire for a particular outcome, 867:learning via long-term modifications in 657:, the need to strike back and to compete 5175:(1 ed.). Free Press. p. 222. 4629:Kuhl, Julius; John W. Atkinson (1986). 4417:Learning Strategies and Learning Styles 4269:Personality, Motivation and Achievement 4265:Atkinson, John; Joel O. Raynor (1978). 4225:Atkinson, John; Norman Feather (1974). 3102: 3100: 2771: 2769: 2767: 2086: 2066: 1040:In addition to these basic principles, 3843: 3082: 2811: 2008:, which can be found in many forms of 992:classical (or respondent) conditioning 4983:(5th ed.). New York: Routledge. 4947: 4945: 4533:"Defense Mechanisms: Procrastination" 4448: 4446: 4444: 4410: 4408: 4387:Schultz & Schultz, Duane (2010). 4121:(4). Academy of Management: 889–913. 3685: 3683: 3681: 3679: 3677: 3651: 3649: 3647: 3645: 3643: 3641: 3639: 3637: 3567: 3565: 3563: 3529: 3527: 2927: 2925: 2871: 2869: 2867: 2865: 2863: 2861: 2859: 272: 7: 5152:. American Psychological Association 4671:Understanding motivation and emotion 4658:. New York: D. Van Nostrand Company. 4654:Atkinson, John; David Birch (1978). 4604:Atkinson, John; David Birch (1970). 4341:. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts. 4108:"Integrating Theories of Motivation" 2268: 2266: 2264: 2262: 2260: 2258: 2256: 2254: 2234:"The Content Theories of Motivation" 99:adding citations to reliable sources 3973:Kelly, Theresa (February 6, 2012). 3826:Journal of Environmental Psychology 3110:Contemporary Educational Psychology 2878:Contemporary Educational Psychology 4227:A Theory of Achievement Motivation 3867:Growing Up in a Culture of Respect 3776:Growing Up in a Culture of Respect 1407: 1404: 1401: 1398: 1395: 1392: 1389: 1386: 1383: 1380: 980:Classical and operant conditioning 348: 25: 4673:(5 ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. 3471:Literacy Research and Instruction 627:, the need for sex and for beauty 45:This article has multiple issues. 4633:. New York: Praeger Publishers. 4455:The Academy of Management Review 2300:American Philosophical Quarterly 2298:Chandler, H (1975). "Hedonism". 708:Self-management through teamwork 621:, the need for influence of will 273:McGregor's Theory X and Theory Y 177: 75: 34: 4692:. Wadsworth: Cengage Learning. 4631:Motivation, Thought, and Action 4072:Kamlesh, M. L. (Jan 12, 2011). 3318:Motivation: Theory and Research 3164:Journal of Educational Research 1837:negative or undesirable outcome 1455:is the probability of success, 86:needs additional citations for 53:or discuss these issues on the 27:Subset of motivational theories 5146:"Principle of Optimal Arousal" 5059:Behavioral and Brain Functions 4366:10.1146/annurev.psych.51.1.171 4308:10.1080/02701367.2004.10609135 4229:(6 ed.). Krieger Pub Co. 2200:"McClelland - Theory of Needs" 2094:Ball, John (October 3, 2003). 1423:1 + Impulsiveness × Delay 1165:Cultural-historical psychology 301:as an extension to the famous 1: 4808:. Routledge. pp. 39–41. 4762:Educational Psychology Review 4715:Educational Psychology Review 3692:Learning and Complex Behavior 597:, the need for social justice 297:ERG Theory was introduced by 5150:APA Dictionary of Psychology 4927:. 2016-06-17. Archived from 4836:. 2016-06-17. Archived from 4115:Academy of Management Review 3897:10.1016/0160-7383(94)90091-4 3774:Bolin, Inge (January 2006). 3411:Dewani, Vijay (2013-01-12). 3378:The American Economic Review 2043:) and in over 30 countries. 1467:is the time to realization. 1360:Academy of Management Review 1124:Motivation and psychotherapy 603:, the need for individuality 585:, the need to raise children 471:Sex, Hedonism, and Evolution 4557:"Lying and Procrastination" 4425:10.1007/978-1-4899-2118-5_2 4354:Annual Review of Psychology 3940:Information Systems Journal 3838:10.1016/j.jenvp.2017.09.005 2946:10.1037/0033-2909.125.6.627 2647:10.1207/s15327965pli1104_01 2559:10.1037/0033-2909.117.3.497 1823:Approach motivation (i.e., 1310:Cognitive dissonance theory 1273:Another basic drive is the 1172:Cognitive Evaluation Theory 349:Maslow's hierarchy of needs 303:Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs 289:self-empowered work teams. 203:the claims made and adding 5219: 4957:psychology.fas.harvard.edu 4925:Encyclopedia of Psychology 4834:Encyclopedia of Psychology 4656:Introduction to Motivation 4509:Jaffe, Eric (2013-03-29). 4337:McClelland, David (1953). 4196:10.1037/0033-2909.133.1.65 3911:"Push and Pull Motivation" 3885:Annals of Tourism Research 3534:Lambert., Deckers (2014). 3518:10.1037/0022-3514.42.5.811 2409:10.1037/0022-3514.81.2.247 2116:Fiore, Douglas J. (2004). 1969:, first introduced by Dr. 1959: 1876: 1843:Conditioned taste aversion 1816: 1793: 1777:Thematic apperception test 1733: 1710: 1577: 1535: 1474: 1356:temporal motivation theory 1350:Temporal motivation theory 1347: 1344:Temporal motivation theory 1331:to reduce dissonance. The 1313: 1262: 1228: 1162: 1127: 1110:establishing operation, EO 1055: 983: 878: 796: 790: 499: 4979:Deckers, Lambert (2018). 4804:Deckers, Lambert (2018). 4389:Psychology and work today 4127:10.5465/amr.2006.22527462 3979:. Lulu.com. p. 101. 3658:Applied Behavior Analysis 3483:10.1080/19388070701749546 3288:10.1108/JFMM-02-2016-0015 3176:10.3200/joer.97.6.299-310 3028:10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.68 2449:10.1016/j.cub.2010.11.053 2374:10.1037/1528-3542.6.2.163 2339:10.1007/s11199-017-0766-7 2273:Deckers, Lambert (2018). 1813:Approach versus avoidance 1730:Models of behavior change 1298:and further developed by 1130:Motivational interviewing 1117:abolishing operation, AO. 551:"16 basic desires" theory 502:Self-determination theory 496:Self-determination theory 285:more than anything else. 269:and other psychologists. 4783:. Renaissance Classics. 4492:"Theories of Motivation" 4273:. Hemisphere Pub. Corp. 4254:. Bobbs-Merrill Company. 3372:Kreps, David M. (1997). 2838:panoramaconsulting.co.ke 2597:Deci, Edward L. (1975). 2479:Deci, Edward L. (1971). 2180:valuebasedmanagement.net 1796:Attribution (psychology) 1278:sexual desire is called 1102:behavior-altering effect 699:Ziegler, Daniel (1992). 5171:Apter, Michael (1992). 4779:Freud, Sigmund (2012). 4727:10.1023/A:1009017532121 4078:. Pinnacle Technology. 3656:Cooper, John O (2007). 2670:Ricerche di Psichologia 2018:meta-motivational state 1949:Learned industriousness 1944:Learned Industriousness 1418:Expectancy × Value 1358:. Introduced in a 2006 918:Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi 615:, the need for exercise 567:, the need for approval 5072:10.1186/1744-9081-7-17 4921:"Mere Exposure Effect" 4606:The Dynamics of Action 4339:The Achievement Motive 4174:Psychological Bulletin 3690:Donahoe, J.W. (2004). 3133:10.1006/ceps.1999.1020 2934:Psychological Bulletin 2900:10.1006/ceps.1999.1020 2547:Psychological Bulletin 1857:Unconscious Motivation 1850: 1681: 1633: 1477:Achievement motivation 1471:Achievement motivation 1432: 1286:Drive-reduction theory 1280:Dehydroepiandrosterone 1241:emotional intelligence 1027:negative reinforcement 1015:positive reinforcement 532:Introjected regulation 358: 5203:Motivational theories 4684:Kassin, Saul (2007). 4165:Steel, Piers (2007). 3351:"Motivating Students" 3197:Root, George N. III. 3006:American Psychologist 2635:Psychological Inquiry 2531:White, R. W. (1963). 1819:Motivational salience 1682: 1634: 1433: 1159:Socio-cultural theory 1098:value-altering effect 1087:Motivating operations 1082:Motivating operations 986:Motivational salience 651:, the need to be safe 633:, the need to collect 544:Integrated regulation 538:Identified regulation 442:/achievement of full 356: 258:motivational theories 3865:Bolin, Inge (2006). 3618:"Flow and Happiness" 3241:10.17705/1jais.00347 2605:. New York: Plenum. 2601:Intrinsic motivation 2122:. Eye On Education. 1905:Conscious Motivation 1879:Priming (psychology) 1645: 1597: 1484:need for achievement 1376: 1316:Cognitive dissonance 1052:Incentive motivation 1003:operant conditioning 951:Behaviorist theories 875:Extrinsic motivation 797:For other uses, see 787:Intrinsic motivation 765:behavioral economics 739:Rational motivations 95:improve this article 5013:Scientific American 4953:"Gordon W. Allport" 4867:Behavioral Sciences 4608:. New York: Wiley. 4537:hub.rockyview.ab.ca 2689:Canadian Psychology 1538:Goal-setting theory 1532:Goal-setting theory 1496:David C. McClelland 1023:positive punishment 1019:negative punishment 857:goal-setting theory 761:bounded rationality 759:in favor of a more 757:perfect rationality 579:, the need for food 573:, the need to learn 526:External regulation 3803:10.1111/etho.12094 2806:Sharing Motivation 2432:"Sexual Selection" 1825:incentive salience 1790:Attribution theory 1677: 1629: 1521:Cognitive theories 1428: 1425: 1420: 1329:motivational drive 1245:intelligence tests 1235:Inhibitory control 845:Art for art's sake 811:self-determination 440:Self actualization 367:hierarchy of needs 359: 318:Frederick Herzberg 188:possibly contains 5182:978-0-02-900765-5 4990:978-1-138-03632-1 4880:10.3390/bs8060054 4815:978-1-138-03633-8 4790:978-1-4841-5680-3 4699:978-0-618-86846-9 4688:Social Psychology 4669:Reeve, J (2009). 4640:978-0-275-92096-8 4615:978-0-471-03624-1 4581:"Procrastination" 4434:978-1-4899-2120-8 4398:978-81-317-3370-7 4280:978-0-470-99336-1 4236:978-0-88275-166-5 4085:978-1-61820-248-2 3986:978-1-105-48288-5 3952:10.1111/isj.12030 3761:Social Motivation 3701:978-0-9762371-0-5 3667:978-0-13-129327-4 3545:978-1-292-02799-9 3327:978-0-8058-1286-2 3068:978-1-4899-2271-7 2844:on 3 January 2015 2612:978-1-4613-4448-3 2515:Human Development 2284:978-1-138-03632-1 2154:978-0-525-49248-1 2129:978-1-930556-63-8 2025:sports psychology 2002:Yerkes–Dodson law 1833:aversive salience 1736:Cognitive control 1675: 1667: 1659: 1651: 1627: 1619: 1611: 1603: 1580:Expectancy theory 1574:Expectancy theory 1426: 1424: 1419: 1338:social psychology 1253:expectancy theory 899:overjustification 613:Physical activity 251: 250: 243: 233: 232: 225: 190:original research 171: 170: 163: 145: 68: 16:(Redirected from 5210: 5187: 5186: 5168: 5162: 5161: 5159: 5157: 5142: 5136: 5133: 5127: 5126: 5124: 5123: 5109: 5103: 5102: 5092: 5074: 5050: 5044: 5043: 5041: 5040: 5029: 5023: 5022: 5020: 5019: 5004: 4995: 4994: 4976: 4967: 4966: 4964: 4963: 4949: 4940: 4939: 4937: 4936: 4917: 4911: 4910: 4900: 4882: 4858: 4849: 4848: 4846: 4845: 4826: 4820: 4819: 4801: 4795: 4794: 4776: 4770: 4769: 4757: 4751: 4748: 4739: 4738: 4710: 4704: 4703: 4691: 4681: 4675: 4674: 4666: 4660: 4659: 4651: 4645: 4644: 4626: 4620: 4619: 4601: 4595: 4594: 4592: 4591: 4585:Psychology Today 4577: 4571: 4570: 4568: 4567: 4561:Psychology Today 4553: 4547: 4546: 4544: 4543: 4529: 4523: 4522: 4506: 4500: 4499: 4496:analytictech.com 4488: 4479: 4478: 4467:10.2307/20159051 4450: 4439: 4438: 4412: 4403: 4402: 4384: 4378: 4377: 4349: 4343: 4342: 4334: 4328: 4327: 4291: 4285: 4284: 4272: 4262: 4256: 4255: 4247: 4241: 4240: 4222: 4216: 4215: 4189: 4171: 4162: 4153: 4152: 4150: 4149: 4143: 4137:. Archived from 4112: 4103: 4097: 4096: 4094: 4092: 4069: 4063: 4062: 4060: 4059: 4050:. Archived from 4044: 4038: 4035: 4020: 4019: 4017: 4015: 4010:. Dictionary.com 4004: 3998: 3997: 3995: 3993: 3970: 3964: 3963: 3935: 3926: 3925: 3923: 3922: 3913:. 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Archived from 2830: 2824: 2823: 2817: 2809: 2801: 2795: 2791: 2776: 2773: 2762: 2759: 2746: 2743: 2734: 2733: 2731: 2730: 2711: 2705: 2704: 2701:10.1037/a0012801 2684: 2678: 2677: 2665: 2659: 2658: 2632: 2623: 2617: 2616: 2604: 2594: 2588: 2585: 2579: 2578: 2542: 2536: 2529: 2523: 2522: 2510: 2504: 2503: 2500:10.1037/H0030644 2485: 2476: 2470: 2469: 2451: 2427: 2421: 2420: 2392: 2386: 2385: 2357: 2351: 2350: 2322: 2316: 2315: 2295: 2289: 2288: 2270: 2249: 2248: 2246: 2245: 2236:. Archived from 2230: 2224: 2220: 2214: 2213: 2211: 2210: 2196: 2190: 2189: 2187: 2186: 2172: 2166: 2165: 2147:, Damron, Will, 2140: 2134: 2133: 2113: 2107: 2106: 2100: 2091: 2074: 2071: 2020:one is in. 1760:John W. Atkinson 1686: 1684: 1683: 1678: 1676: 1673: 1668: 1665: 1660: 1657: 1652: 1649: 1638: 1636: 1635: 1630: 1628: 1625: 1620: 1617: 1612: 1609: 1604: 1601: 1500:John W. Atkinson 1437: 1435: 1434: 1429: 1427: 1422: 1417: 1415: 1410: 1365:George A. Miller 1320:As suggested by 881:Goal orientation 824:locus of control 704: 676:self-fulfillment 663:Natural theories 334:David McClelland 322:job satisfaction 299:Clayton Alderfer 278:Douglas McGregor 263:David McClelland 246: 239: 228: 221: 217: 214: 208: 205:inline citations 181: 180: 173: 166: 159: 155: 152: 146: 144: 110:"Content theory" 103: 79: 71: 60: 38: 37: 30: 21: 18:Content theories 5218: 5217: 5213: 5212: 5211: 5209: 5208: 5207: 5193: 5192: 5191: 5190: 5183: 5170: 5169: 5165: 5155: 5153: 5144: 5143: 5139: 5134: 5130: 5121: 5119: 5117:classweb.uh.edu 5111: 5110: 5106: 5052: 5051: 5047: 5038: 5036: 5031: 5030: 5026: 5017: 5015: 5006: 5005: 4998: 4991: 4978: 4977: 4970: 4961: 4959: 4951: 4950: 4943: 4934: 4932: 4919: 4918: 4914: 4860: 4859: 4852: 4843: 4841: 4828: 4827: 4823: 4816: 4803: 4802: 4798: 4791: 4778: 4777: 4773: 4759: 4758: 4754: 4749: 4742: 4712: 4711: 4707: 4700: 4683: 4682: 4678: 4668: 4667: 4663: 4653: 4652: 4648: 4641: 4628: 4627: 4623: 4616: 4603: 4602: 4598: 4589: 4587: 4579: 4578: 4574: 4565: 4563: 4555: 4554: 4550: 4541: 4539: 4531: 4530: 4526: 4508: 4507: 4503: 4490: 4489: 4482: 4452: 4451: 4442: 4435: 4414: 4413: 4406: 4399: 4386: 4385: 4381: 4351: 4350: 4346: 4336: 4335: 4331: 4293: 4292: 4288: 4281: 4264: 4263: 4259: 4249: 4248: 4244: 4237: 4224: 4223: 4219: 4187:10.1.1.335.2796 4169: 4164: 4163: 4156: 4147: 4145: 4141: 4110: 4105: 4104: 4100: 4090: 4088: 4086: 4071: 4070: 4066: 4057: 4055: 4046: 4045: 4041: 4036: 4023: 4013: 4011: 4006: 4005: 4001: 3991: 3989: 3987: 3972: 3971: 3967: 3937: 3936: 3929: 3920: 3918: 3909: 3908: 3904: 3882: 3881: 3874: 3864: 3863: 3859: 3842: 3823: 3822: 3818: 3788: 3787: 3783: 3773: 3772: 3768: 3758: 3757: 3748: 3738: 3737: 3733: 3724: 3722: 3720:psycnet.apa.org 3714: 3713: 3709: 3702: 3689: 3688: 3675: 3668: 3655: 3654: 3635: 3626: 3624: 3616: 3615: 3611: 3602: 3600: 3592: 3591: 3587: 3578: 3576: 3571: 3570: 3561: 3546: 3533: 3532: 3525: 3503: 3502: 3498: 3468: 3467: 3463: 3433: 3432: 3428: 3418: 3416: 3410: 3409: 3405: 3371: 3370: 3366: 3356: 3354: 3349: 3348: 3344: 3339: 3335: 3328: 3315: 3314: 3305: 3299: 3295: 3269: 3268: 3264: 3235:(11): 617–671. 3222: 3221: 3217: 3207: 3205: 3196: 3195: 3191: 3161: 3160: 3156: 3106: 3105: 3098: 3081: 3069: 3056: 3055: 3051: 3019:10.1.1.529.4370 3003: 3002: 2977: 2931: 2930: 2923: 2875: 2874: 2857: 2847: 2845: 2832: 2831: 2827: 2810: 2803: 2802: 2798: 2792: 2779: 2774: 2765: 2760: 2749: 2744: 2737: 2728: 2726: 2713: 2712: 2708: 2686: 2685: 2681: 2667: 2666: 2662: 2630: 2625: 2624: 2620: 2613: 2596: 2595: 2591: 2586: 2582: 2544: 2543: 2539: 2530: 2526: 2512: 2511: 2507: 2483: 2478: 2477: 2473: 2436:Current Biology 2429: 2428: 2424: 2394: 2393: 2389: 2359: 2358: 2354: 2324: 2323: 2319: 2297: 2296: 2292: 2285: 2272: 2271: 2252: 2243: 2241: 2232: 2231: 2227: 2221: 2217: 2208: 2206: 2198: 2197: 2193: 2184: 2182: 2174: 2173: 2169: 2155: 2143:Coyle, Daniel, 2142: 2141: 2137: 2130: 2115: 2114: 2110: 2098: 2093: 2092: 2088: 2083: 2078: 2077: 2072: 2068: 2063: 2049: 1991:reversal theory 1967:Reversal theory 1964: 1962:Reversal theory 1958: 1956:Reversal Theory 1946: 1930: 1907: 1881: 1875: 1859: 1845: 1821: 1815: 1798: 1792: 1783:Henry A. Murray 1779: 1738: 1732: 1715: 1713:Procrastination 1709: 1707:Procrastination 1666:Instrumentality 1643: 1642: 1595: 1594: 1582: 1576: 1540: 1534: 1523: 1479: 1473: 1374: 1373: 1352: 1346: 1333:cognitive miser 1318: 1312: 1288: 1267: 1261: 1237: 1229:Main articles: 1227: 1218: 1201: 1196: 1167: 1161: 1144:specific phobia 1136:autism-spectrum 1132: 1126: 1091:future behavior 1084: 1060: 1054: 988: 982: 953: 912: 883: 877: 802: 795: 789: 773: 763:. The field of 753:homo economicus 741: 732: 723: 721:Wage incentives 710: 698: 665: 660: 553: 504: 498: 473: 351: 331: 315: 295: 275: 256:is a subset of 247: 236: 235: 234: 229: 218: 212: 209: 194: 182: 178: 167: 156: 150: 147: 104: 102: 92: 80: 39: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 5216: 5214: 5206: 5205: 5195: 5194: 5189: 5188: 5181: 5163: 5137: 5128: 5104: 5045: 5024: 5007:Jabr, Ferris. 4996: 4989: 4968: 4941: 4912: 4850: 4821: 4814: 4796: 4789: 4771: 4752: 4740: 4705: 4698: 4676: 4661: 4646: 4639: 4621: 4614: 4596: 4572: 4548: 4524: 4501: 4480: 4461:(3): 404–422. 4440: 4433: 4404: 4397: 4379: 4360:(1): 171–200. 4344: 4329: 4286: 4279: 4257: 4242: 4235: 4217: 4154: 4098: 4084: 4064: 4039: 4021: 3999: 3985: 3965: 3946:(4): 323–346. 3927: 3902: 3891:(4): 844–846. 3872: 3857: 3816: 3797:(4): 376–401. 3781: 3766: 3746: 3731: 3707: 3700: 3673: 3666: 3633: 3609: 3585: 3559: 3544: 3523: 3512:(5): 811–819. 3496: 3461: 3426: 3403: 3384:(2): 359–364. 3364: 3342: 3333: 3326: 3303: 3293: 3282:(4): 487–506. 3262: 3215: 3189: 3170:(6): 299–309. 3154: 3124:10.1.1.318.808 3096: 3067: 3049: 2975: 2940:(6): 627–668. 2921: 2891:10.1.1.318.808 2855: 2825: 2796: 2777: 2763: 2747: 2735: 2706: 2695:(3): 182–185. 2679: 2660: 2641:(4): 227–268. 2618: 2611: 2589: 2580: 2553:(3): 497–529. 2537: 2524: 2505: 2494:(1): 105–115. 2471: 2442:(2): R62–R65. 2422: 2403:(2): 247–262. 2387: 2368:(2): 163–179. 2352: 2333:(1): 130–141. 2317: 2306:(3): 223–233. 2290: 2283: 2250: 2225: 2215: 2191: 2167: 2153: 2135: 2128: 2108: 2085: 2084: 2082: 2079: 2076: 2075: 2065: 2064: 2062: 2059: 2058: 2057: 2048: 2045: 1960:Main article: 1957: 1954: 1945: 1942: 1933:Mental fatigue 1929: 1928:Mental Fatigue 1926: 1925: 1924: 1921: 1918: 1906: 1903: 1874: 1871: 1858: 1855: 1844: 1841: 1817:Main article: 1814: 1811: 1807:Bernard Weiner 1794:Main article: 1791: 1788: 1778: 1775: 1774: 1773: 1770: 1767: 1731: 1728: 1711:Main article: 1708: 1705: 1704: 1703: 1700: 1697: 1694: 1690: 1689: 1688: 1687: 1671: 1663: 1655: 1640: 1623: 1615: 1607: 1578:Main article: 1575: 1572: 1548:SMART criteria 1536:Main article: 1533: 1530: 1522: 1519: 1518: 1517: 1514: 1511: 1475:Main article: 1472: 1469: 1441: 1440: 1439: 1438: 1413: 1409: 1406: 1403: 1400: 1397: 1394: 1391: 1388: 1385: 1382: 1348:Main article: 1345: 1342: 1322:Leon Festinger 1314:Main article: 1311: 1308: 1300:Kenneth Spence 1287: 1284: 1263:Main article: 1260: 1257: 1226: 1223: 1217: 1214: 1200: 1197: 1195: 1192: 1160: 1157: 1125: 1122: 1083: 1080: 1056:Main section: 1053: 1050: 984:Main article: 981: 978: 952: 949: 911: 908: 876: 873: 840: 839: 836: 833: 826: 788: 785: 772: 769: 745:human behavior 740: 737: 731: 728: 722: 719: 709: 706: 664: 661: 659: 658: 652: 646: 640: 637:Social contact 634: 628: 622: 616: 610: 604: 598: 592: 586: 580: 574: 568: 561: 552: 549: 548: 547: 541: 535: 529: 519: 518: 515: 512: 500:Main article: 497: 494: 472: 469: 468: 467: 464: 461: 458: 447: 446: 437: 427: 414: 397: 363:Abraham Maslow 350: 347: 330: 327: 314: 311: 294: 291: 274: 271: 267:Abraham Maslow 254:Content theory 249: 248: 231: 230: 185: 183: 176: 169: 168: 83: 81: 74: 69: 43: 42: 40: 33: 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5215: 5204: 5201: 5200: 5198: 5184: 5178: 5174: 5167: 5164: 5151: 5147: 5141: 5138: 5132: 5129: 5118: 5114: 5108: 5105: 5100: 5096: 5091: 5086: 5082: 5078: 5073: 5068: 5064: 5060: 5056: 5049: 5046: 5035: 5028: 5025: 5014: 5010: 5003: 5001: 4997: 4992: 4986: 4982: 4975: 4973: 4969: 4958: 4954: 4948: 4946: 4942: 4931:on 2018-10-15 4930: 4926: 4922: 4916: 4913: 4908: 4904: 4899: 4894: 4890: 4886: 4881: 4876: 4872: 4868: 4864: 4857: 4855: 4851: 4840:on 2018-10-15 4839: 4835: 4831: 4825: 4822: 4817: 4811: 4807: 4800: 4797: 4792: 4786: 4782: 4775: 4772: 4767: 4763: 4756: 4753: 4747: 4745: 4741: 4736: 4732: 4728: 4724: 4720: 4716: 4709: 4706: 4701: 4695: 4690: 4689: 4680: 4677: 4672: 4665: 4662: 4657: 4650: 4647: 4642: 4636: 4632: 4625: 4622: 4617: 4611: 4607: 4600: 4597: 4586: 4582: 4576: 4573: 4562: 4558: 4552: 4549: 4538: 4534: 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3782: 3777: 3770: 3767: 3762: 3755: 3753: 3751: 3747: 3742: 3735: 3732: 3721: 3717: 3716:"APA PsycNet" 3711: 3708: 3703: 3697: 3693: 3686: 3684: 3682: 3680: 3678: 3674: 3669: 3663: 3659: 3652: 3650: 3648: 3646: 3644: 3642: 3640: 3638: 3634: 3623: 3619: 3613: 3610: 3599: 3595: 3589: 3586: 3574: 3568: 3566: 3564: 3560: 3555: 3551: 3547: 3541: 3537: 3530: 3528: 3524: 3519: 3515: 3511: 3507: 3500: 3497: 3492: 3488: 3484: 3480: 3476: 3472: 3465: 3462: 3457: 3453: 3449: 3445: 3442:(1): 129–37. 3441: 3437: 3430: 3427: 3414: 3407: 3404: 3399: 3395: 3391: 3387: 3383: 3379: 3375: 3368: 3365: 3352: 3346: 3343: 3337: 3334: 3329: 3323: 3319: 3312: 3310: 3308: 3304: 3297: 3294: 3289: 3285: 3281: 3277: 3273: 3266: 3263: 3258: 3254: 3250: 3246: 3242: 3238: 3234: 3230: 3226: 3219: 3216: 3204: 3200: 3193: 3190: 3185: 3181: 3177: 3173: 3169: 3165: 3158: 3155: 3150: 3146: 3142: 3138: 3134: 3130: 3125: 3120: 3116: 3112: 3111: 3103: 3101: 3097: 3092: 3086: 3078: 3074: 3070: 3064: 3060: 3053: 3050: 3045: 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1719: 1714: 1706: 1701: 1698: 1695: 1692: 1691: 1669: 1661: 1653: 1641: 1621: 1613: 1605: 1593: 1592: 1591: 1590: 1589: 1586: 1581: 1573: 1571: 1568: 1564: 1560: 1555: 1553: 1549: 1545: 1539: 1531: 1529: 1527: 1520: 1515: 1512: 1509: 1508: 1507: 1504: 1501: 1497: 1492: 1488: 1485: 1478: 1470: 1468: 1466: 1462: 1461:Impulsiveness 1458: 1454: 1453:self-efficacy 1450: 1446: 1411: 1372: 1371: 1370: 1369: 1368: 1366: 1361: 1357: 1351: 1343: 1341: 1339: 1334: 1330: 1325: 1323: 1317: 1309: 1307: 1303: 1301: 1297: 1292: 1285: 1283: 1281: 1276: 1271: 1266: 1258: 1256: 1254: 1250: 1246: 1242: 1236: 1232: 1224: 1222: 1215: 1213: 1209: 1205: 1198: 1194:Push and pull 1193: 1191: 1187: 1183: 1179: 1175: 1173: 1166: 1158: 1156: 1154: 1150: 1145: 1141: 1137: 1131: 1123: 1121: 1118: 1113: 1111: 1105: 1103: 1099: 1094: 1092: 1088: 1081: 1079: 1075: 1071: 1068: 1066: 1059: 1051: 1049: 1045: 1043: 1038: 1035: 1030: 1028: 1024: 1020: 1016: 1012: 1008: 1004: 999: 997: 996:unconditioned 993: 987: 979: 977: 975: 971: 967: 962: 959:perspective, 958: 950: 948: 944: 940: 938: 934: 933: 926: 922: 919: 915: 909: 907: 903: 900: 895: 891: 889: 882: 874: 872: 870: 864: 860: 858: 852: 848: 846: 837: 834: 831: 830:self-efficacy 827: 825: 821: 820: 819: 815: 812: 808: 800: 794: 786: 784: 782: 778: 770: 768: 766: 762: 758: 754: 750: 746: 738: 736: 729: 727: 720: 718: 716: 707: 705: 702: 695: 691: 687: 683: 679: 677: 673: 670: 662: 656: 653: 650: 647: 644: 643:Social status 641: 638: 635: 632: 629: 626: 623: 620: 617: 614: 611: 608: 605: 602: 599: 596: 593: 590: 587: 584: 581: 578: 575: 572: 569: 566: 563: 562: 560: 558: 550: 545: 542: 539: 536: 533: 530: 527: 524: 523: 522: 516: 513: 510: 509: 508: 503: 495: 493: 489: 485: 481: 477: 470: 465: 462: 459: 456: 455: 454: 451: 445: 441: 438: 435: 431: 428: 426: 422: 418: 415: 413: 409: 405: 401: 398: 395: 391: 387: 383: 380: 379: 378: 374: 372: 368: 364: 355: 346: 342: 338: 335: 328: 326: 323: 319: 310: 306: 304: 300: 292: 290: 286: 284: 279: 270: 268: 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