Cost–benefit analysis - Knowledge (XXG)

158:. Jules Dupuit pioneered this approach by first calculating "the social profitability of a project like the construction of a road or bridge" In an attempt to answer this, Dupuit began to look at the utility users would gain from the project. He determined that the best method of measuring utility is by learning one's willingness to pay for something. By taking the sum of each user's willingness to pay, Dupuit illustrated that the social benefit of the thing (bridge or road or canal) could be measured. Some users may be willing to pay nearly nothing, others much more, but the sum of these would shed light on the benefit of it. It should be reiterated that Dupuit was not suggesting that the government perfectly price-discriminate and charge each user exactly what they would pay. Rather, their willingness to pay provided a theoretical foundation on the societal worth or benefit of a project. The cost of the project proved much simpler to calculate. Simply taking the sum of the materials and labor, in addition to the maintenance afterward, would give one the cost. Now, the costs and benefits of the project could be accurately analyzed, and an informed decision could be made. 2319:

income people, one monetary unit is worth less relative to low income people, so they are more willing to give up one unit in order to make a change that is favourable for them. This means that there is no symmetry in agents, i.e. some people benefit more from the same absolute monetary benefit. Any welfare change, no matter positive or negative, affects people with a lower income stronger than people with a higher income, even if the exact monetary impacts are identical. This is more than just a challenge to the distribution of benefits in CBA, it is a critique of the ability of CBA to accurately measure benefits as, according to this critique, using unweighted absolute willingness to pay overstates the costs and benefits to the wealthy, and understates those costs and benefits to the poor. Sometimes this is framed in terms of an argument about democracy, that each person's preferences should be given the same weight in an analysis (one person one vote), while under a standard CBA model the preferences of the wealthy are given greater weight.

439:. Road safety can be measured in cost per life saved, without assigning a financial value to the life. However, non-monetary metrics have limited usefulness for evaluating policies with substantially different outcomes. Other benefits may also accrue from a policy, and metrics such as cost per life saved may lead to a substantially different ranking of alternatives than CBA.In some cases, in addition to changing the benefit indicator, the cost-benefit analysis strategy is directly abandoned as a measure. In the 1980s, to ensure workers' safety, the US Supreme Court made an important decision to abandon the consideration of return on investment and instead seek the lowest cost-benefit to meet specific standards. 2271:. The order changed some of Reagan's language, requiring benefits to justify (rather than exceeding) costs and adding "reduction of discrimination or bias" as a benefit to be analyzed. Criticisms of CBA (including uncertainty valuations, discounting future values, and the calculation of risk) were used to argue that it should play no part in the regulatory process. The use of CBA in the regulatory process continued under the Obama administration, along with the debate about its practical and objective value. Some analysts oppose the use of CBA in policy-making, and those in favor of it support improvements in analysis and calculations. 431:) are often used to estimate compensation associated with a policy. Stated preferences are a direct way of assessing willingness to pay for an environmental feature, for example. Survey respondents often misreport their true preferences, however, and market behavior does not provide information about important non-market welfare impacts. Revealed preference is an indirect approach to individual willingness to pay. People make market choices of items with different environmental characteristics, for example, revealing the value placed on environmental factors. 2297:

to make statements about efficiency without addressing issues of income distribution. This has allowed economists to stay silent on issues of equity, while focusing on the more familiar task of measuring costs and benefits". The challenge raised is that it is possible for the benefits of successive policies to consistently accrue to the same group of individuals, and CBA is ambivalent between providing benefits to those that have received them in the past and those that have been consistently excluded. Policy solutions, such as

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weighting, yet cost-benefit analysis suffers from the inability to consider these factors comprehensively, thus lacking the integrity and comprehensiveness of social welfare judgements. Therefore, for projects with a higher standard of evaluation, other evaluation methods need to be used and referred to in order to compensate for these shortcomings and to assess the impact of the project on society in a more comprehensive and integrated manner.

6201: 41:, is a systematic approach to estimating the strengths and weaknesses of alternatives. It is used to determine options which provide the best approach to achieving benefits while preserving savings in, for example, transactions, activities, and functional business requirements. A CBA may be used to compare completed or potential courses of action, and to estimate or evaluate the value against the 6190: 1041: 2310:

future generations. Some scholars argue that the use of discounting makes CBA biased against future generations, and understates the potential harmful impacts of climate change. The growing relevance of climate change has led to a re-examination of the practice of discounting in CBA. These biases can lead to biased resource allocation.

638:: valuing money which they will receive in the near future more than money they will receive in the distant future. Empirical studies suggest that people discount future benefits in a way similar to these calculations. The choice makes a large difference in assessing interventions with long-term effects. An example is the 752: 313:. This is especially true when one type of physical outcome is sought, such as a reduction in energy use by an increase in energy efficiency. Using cost-effectiveness analysis is less laborious and time-consuming, since it does not involve the monetization of outcomes (which can be difficult in some cases). 2296:

criterion which does not take into account distributional issues. This means, that positive net-benefits are decisive, independent of who benefits and who loses when a certain policy or project is put into place. Phaneuf and Requate phrased it as follows "CBA today relies on the Kaldor-Hicks criteria

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Taken together, according to this objection, not using weights is a decision in itself – richer people receive de facto a bigger weight. To compensate for this difference in valuation, it is possible to use different methods. One is to use weights, and there are a number of different approaches for

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The main criticism stems from the diminishing marginal utility of income. According to this critique, without using weights in the CBA, it is not the case that everyone "matters" the same but rather that people with greater ability to pay receive a higher weight. One reason for this is that for high

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As a concept in economics, cost-benefit analysis has provided a valuable reference for many public construction and governmental decisions, but its application has gradually revealed a number of drawbacks and limitations. A number of critical arguments have been put forward in response. That include

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Suppose that we have sources of uncertainty in a CBA that are best treated with the Monte Carlo method, and the distributions describing uncertainty are all continuous. How do we go about choosing the appropriate distribution to represent the sources of uncertainty? One popular method is to make use

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compensation (implying that the public has a right to the benefits of the policy) for the policy's welfare change. The guiding principle of evaluating benefits is to list all parties affected by an intervention and add the positive or negative value (usually monetary) that they ascribe to its effect

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A second, and scarcely less controversial, practice is that of discounting the wellbeing of future generations by means of the social rate of discount....The green critique of social discounting is easily summarized. It is one thing to discount one's own future wellbeing; it is a morally much more

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The final part of this argument is analogous to the "one-person, one vote" voting principle: in a democracy, low-income persons should have as much influence over decisions on whether to undertake public projects as high-income persons. In other words, measures of changes in consumer surplus for

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Economic cost-benefit analysis tends to limit the assessment of benefits to economic values, ignoring the importance of other value factors such as the wishes of minority groups, inclusiveness and respect for the rights of others. These value factors are difficult to rank and measure in terms of

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Others have critiqued the practice of discounting future costs and benefits for a variety of reasons, including the potential undervaluing of the temporally distant cost of climate change and other environmental damage, and the concern that such a practice effectively ignores the preferences of

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of 1969 required CBA for regulatory programs; since then, other governments have enacted similar rules. Government guidebooks for the application of CBA to public policies include the Canadian guide for regulatory analysis, the Australian guide for regulation and finance, and the US guides for

103:. CBA helps predict whether the benefits of a policy outweigh its costs (and by how much), relative to other alternatives. This allows the ranking of alternative policies in terms of a cost–benefit ratio. Generally, accurate cost–benefit analysis identifies choices which increase 2334:

of people. Another method is to use percentage willingness to pay, where willingness to pay is measured as a percentage of total income or wealth to control for income. These methods would also help to address distributional concerns raised by the Kaldor-Hick criterion.

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One may be concerned that Kaldor-Hicks allows for unequally distributed benefits regardless of whether absolute or percentage willingness to pay is used. If policies always benefit one group and never benefit another group, it may not matter how those benefits are

2249:(OIRA) to review agency regulations and requiring federal agencies to produce regulatory impact analyses when the estimated annual impact exceeded $ 100 million. During the 1980s, academic and institutional critiques of CBA emerged. The three main criticisms were: 1682: 642:, which suggests that long-term returns on equities may be higher than they should be after controlling for risk and uncertainty. If so, market rates of return should not be used to determine the discount rate because they would undervalue the distant future. 434:

The value of human life is controversial when assessing road-safety measures or life-saving medicines. Controversy can sometimes be avoided by using the related technique of cost–utility analysis, in which benefits are expressed in non-monetary units such as

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This practice leads to more concerning conclusions such as the lower valuing of future lives due to discounting of future benefit streams. This can have a significant impact, especially when looking at environmental policies that have costs far into the

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promoted CBA for major transport investments with the 1994 publication of its guidebook. US federal and state transport departments commonly apply CBA with a variety of software tools, including HERS, BCA.Net, StatBenCost, Cal-BC, and

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The selection of a discount rate for this calculation is subjective. A smaller rate values the current generation and future generations equally. Larger rates (a market rate of return, for example) reflects human present bias or

631: 119:. Although CBA can offer an informed estimate of the best alternative, a perfect appraisal of all present and future costs and benefits is difficult; perfection, in economic efficiency and social welfare, is not guaranteed. 1036:{\displaystyle r=\underbrace {r_{f}} _{\text{Risk-Free Rate}}+\beta _{M}\underbrace {\left} _{\text{Market Risk}}+\beta _{SMB}\underbrace {\left} _{\text{Size Factor}}+\beta _{HML}\underbrace {\left} _{\text{Value Factor}}} 1531: 415:. Both costs and benefits can be diverse. Costs tend to be most thoroughly represented in cost–benefit analyses due to relatively-abundant market data. The net benefits of a project may incorporate cost savings, public 1248: 96:

Cost–benefit analysis is often used by organizations to appraise the desirability of a given policy. It is an analysis of the expected balance of benefits and costs, including an account of any alternatives and the

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The value of a cost–benefit analysis depends on the accuracy of the individual cost and benefit estimates. Comparative studies indicate that such estimates are often flawed, preventing improvements in

251:, reviewed transport appraisal guidance of EU member states and found significant national differences. HEATCO aimed to develop guidelines to harmonise transport appraisal practice across the EU. 5177: 2216: 49:), commercial transactions, and project investments. For example, the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission must conduct cost-benefit analyses before instituting regulations or deregulations. 3153:

US Department of Health and Human Services, 1993. Feasibility, Alternatives, And Cost/Benefit Analysis Guide, Administration for Children and Families, and Health Care Finance Administration.

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That CBA is inherently anti-regulatory, and therefore a biased tool. The monetization of policy impacts is an inappropriate tool for assessing mortality risks and distributional impacts.

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CBA was expanded to address the intangible and tangible benefits of public policies relating to mental illness, substance abuse, college education, and chemical waste. In the US, the

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Flyvbjerg B, Bester DW. The Cost-Benefit Fallacy: Why Cost-Benefit Analysis Is Broken and How to Fix It. Journal of Benefit-Cost Analysis. 2021;12(3):395-419. doi:10.1017/bca.2021.9

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That CBA could be used for political goals. Debates on the merits of cost and benefit comparisons can be used to sidestep political or philosophical goals, rules and regulations.

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Australian Government, 2006. Introduction to Cost–Benefit Analysis and Alternative Evaluation Methodologies and Handbook of Cost–Benefit Analysis, Finance Circular 2006/01.

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The actual compensation an individual would require to have their welfare unchanged by a policy is inexact at best. Surveys (stated preferences) or market behavior (

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has been cited in retrospective studies as a case in which benefits exceeded costs, but knowledge of the benefits (attributable largely to the benefits of reducing

236:. NATA was first applied to national road schemes in the 1998 Roads Review, and was subsequently rolled out to all transport modes. Maintained and developed by the 1304: 4469: 4000: 3951: 3819: 294:, CBA may be an inadequate measure because willingness-to-pay methods of determining the value of human life can be influenced by income level. Variants, such as 1131: 454:). Monetary values may also be assigned to other intangible effects such as business reputation, market penetration, or long-term enterprise strategy alignment. 5072: 532: 504: 484: 2468: 2280:

concerns about measuring the distribution of costs and benefits, discounting the costs and benefits to future generations, and accounting for the diminishing

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initiated the use of CBA in the US, after the Federal Navigation Act of 1936 mandated cost–benefit analysis for proposed federal-waterway infrastructure. The

5272: 2453: 2246: 4907: 4811:, Chapter 8, “The Positive Biases of Technology Assessments and Cost Benefit Analyses”, New Society Publishers, Gabriola Island, British Columbia, Canada, 4661: 2697:, Chapter 8, “The Positive Biases of Technology Assessments and Cost Benefit Analyses”, New Society Publishers, Gabriola Island, British Columbia, Canada, 2631: 3862:

Exclusively monetary evaluations jeopardize future generations through the use of a discount rate that renders impacts 500 years from now insignificant.

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Hansjurgens, B. (2004). Economic valuation through cost-benefit analysis – possibilities and limitations. Toxicology (Amsterdam), 205(3), 241–252.

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for the company and then assuming that the risk profile of a given project is similar to that the company faces. Commonly used models include the

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Nurmi, Väinö; Ahtiainen, Heini (2018-08-01). "Distributional Weights in Environmental Valuation and Cost–Benefit Analysis: Theory and Practice".

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was instrumental in establishing CBA as federal policy, requiring that "the benefits to whomever they accrue in excess of the estimated costs."

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development in 1958. It was applied in the US to water quality, recreational travel, and land conservation during the 1960s, and the concept of

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To provide a basis for comparing investments (or decisions), comparing the total expected cost of each option with its total expected benefits.

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Buekers, J (2015). "Health impact model for modal shift from car use to cycling or walking in Flanders: application to two bicycle highways".

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More recently, cost-benefit analysis has been applied to decisions regarding investments in cybersecurity-related activities (e.g., see the

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CBA attempts to measure the positive or negative consequences of a project. A similar approach is used in the environmental analysis of

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of income. in addition, relying solely on cost-benefit analysis may lead to neglecting the multifaceted value factors of a project.

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PHILIP SHABECOFF Special to The New York Times. (1981). Safety Agency to Forgo 'Cost-Benefit Analysis' New York Times (1923-), A11.

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Design of Water-resource Systems: New Techniques for Relating Economic Objectives, Engineering Analysis, and Governmental Planning

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Guide to Benefit–Cost Analysis in Transport Canada. Transport Canada. Economic Evaluation Branch, Transport Canada, Ottawa, 1994

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mandated its use in the regulatory process. After campaigning on a deregulation platform, he issued the 1981 EO authorizing the

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It has been argued that if modern cost–benefit analyses had been applied to decisions such as whether to mandate the removal of

5330: 5325: 267: 233: 4932: 4816: 3689: 2973: 2791: 2702: 375: 263: 247:'s Developing Harmonised European Approaches for Transport Costing and Project Assessment (HEATCO) project, part of the EU's 2569: 5461: 5229: 5016: 4688:

Dupuit, Jules (1969). "On the Measurement of the Utility of Public Works". In Arrow, Kenneth J.; Scitovsky, Tibor (eds.).

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To determine if an investment (or decision) is sound, ascertaining if – and by how much – its benefits outweigh its costs.

5762: 5022: 5008: 665: 5563: 5401: 5058: 1677:{\displaystyle J=\max _{f}\;\int _{\mathcal {S}}\left(-f\log f+\lambda _{0}f+\sum _{i=1}^{m}\lambda _{i}r_{i}f\right)dx} 1275: 1125: 1121: 1114: 1101:, which indicates how results respond to parameter changes. A more formal risk analysis may also be undertaken with the 2293: 127: 6241: 6056: 6008: 5696: 5345: 5258: 5198: 659: 310: 90: 66: 4682:"A cost–benefit analysis of document management strategies used at a financial institution in Zimbabwe: A case study" 2501:"A cost–benefit analysis of document management strategies used at a financial institution in Zimbabwe: A case study" 1718: 3236: 2259:

That the length of time necessary to complete CBA can create significant delays, which can impede policy regulation.

6256: 6236: 5718: 5706: 5701: 5691: 5497: 5411: 5239: 5203: 5131: 2478: 2058: 1937: 1124:, which states that the distribution with the best representation of current knowledge is the one with the largest 436: 299: 4745:

Cost–Benefit Analysis of Multi-Level Government: The Case of EU Cohesion Policy and US Federal Investment Policies

4135:"Intergenerational equity, discounting, and the role of cost-benefit analysis in evaluating global climate policy" 3310: 1372: 295: 78: 6136: 5612: 4573:

Samuelson, P. A. (1977). "Reaffirming the Existence of "Reasonable" Bergson-Samuelson Social Welfare Functions".

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Campbell, Harry F.; Brown, Richard (2003). "Valuing Traded and Non-Traded Commodities in Benefit–Cost Analysis".

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Guide to Cost–Benefit Analysis of Major Projects. Evaluation Unit, DG Regional Policy, European Commission, 2008.

3212: 2386: 248: 225: 166: 130:. Interest groups may attempt to include (or exclude) significant costs in an analysis to influence its outcome. 3786:. David H. Greenberg, Aidan R. Vining, David Leo Weimer (5th ed.). Cambridge, United Kingdom. p. 542. 2676:"The Effectiveness of a Costs and Benefits Analysis in Making Federal Government Decisions: A Literature Review" 1090:: preferring a situation with less uncertainty to one with greater uncertainty, even if the latter has a higher 5802: 5671: 5512: 5421: 5360: 5146: 5141: 4996: 4956: 4869: 4764: 2944: 2436: 2392: 1897: 1541: 1071: 237: 86: 45:

of a decision, project, or policy. It is commonly used to evaluate business or policy decisions (particularly

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Weisbrod, Burton A. (1981). "Benefit–Cost Analysis of a Controlled Experiment: Treating the Mentally Ill".

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Tuominen, Pekka; Reda, Francesco; Dawoud, Waled; Elboshy, Bahaa; Elshafei, Ghada; Negm, Abdelazim (2015).

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Heinzerling, L. (2000), "The Rights of Statistical People", Harvard Environmental Law Review 24, 189–208.

2481: – Characterization and reduction of uncertainties in both computational and real world applications 173: 6066: 6051: 5767: 5441: 5355: 3336:

Transportation Research Board, Transportation Economics Committee: Transportation Benefit–Cost Analysis

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For publicly traded companies, it is possible to find a project's discount rate by using an equilibrium

639: 420: 400: 337: 3277: 332:, the measures would not have been implemented (although all are considered highly successful). The US 3842:. Donald M. Borchert (2nd ed.). Detroit: Thomson Gale/Macmillan Reference USA. pp. 285–261. 3307:

Minnesota Department of Transportation: Benefit Cost Analysis. MN DOT Office of Investment Management

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Another metric is valuing the environment, which in the 21st century is typically assessed by valuing

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Plotnick, Robert D. (1994). "Applying Benefit–Cost Analysis to Substance Abuse Prevention Programs".

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Are All Lives Equal? Why Cost-Benefit Analysis Values Rich Lives More and How Philosophy Can Fix It

4440:. David H. Greenberg, Aidan R. Vining, David Leo Weimer (5th ed.). Cambridge, United Kingdom. 4105:

Are All Lives Equal? Why Cost-Benefit Analysis Values Rich Lives More and How Philosophy Can Fix It

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Are All Lives Equal? Why Cost-Benefit Analysis Values Rich Lives More and How Philosophy Can Fix It

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CBA generally attempts to put all relevant costs and benefits on a common temporal footing, using

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California Department of Transportation: Benefit–Cost Analysis Guide for Transportation Planning

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Efficiency in Government through Systems Analysis: With Emphasis on Water Resources Development

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Weisbrod, Burton A. (1964). "Collective-Consumption Services of Individual-Consumption Goods".

77:, regardless of whether they are incurred at different times. Other related techniques include 6174: 6162: 6141: 6111: 5973: 5897: 5853: 5295: 5105: 5100: 4853: 4812: 4748: 4729: 4693: 4681: 4667: 4646: 4590: 4532: 4495: 4451: 4441: 4413: 4372: 4279: 4240: 4156: 4109: 4080: 4070: 4037: 3982: 3972: 3933: 3923: 3896: 3853: 3843: 3797: 3787: 3753: 3685: 3647: 3599: 3578: 3552: 3518: 3493: 3468: 3353: 3192: 3186: 3076: 3041: 2821: 2817: 2762: 2752: 2727: 2698: 2654: 2625: 2407: 382: 123: 116: 104: 74: 73:; all flows of benefits and costs over time are expressed on a common basis in terms of their 4551: 4306: 3276:

US Federal Highway Administration: Cost–Benefit Forecasting Toolbox for Highways, Circa 2001

1836:. Examples of commonly used continuous maximum entropy distributions in simulations include: 6126: 6106: 6013: 5963: 5934: 5792: 5757: 5654: 5632: 5537: 5391: 4965: 4916: 4878: 4773: 4582: 4524: 4403: 4364: 4318: 4271: 4230: 4183: 4146: 4027: 3622: 3614: 3413: 3382: 3068: 3025: 2982: 2939: 2861: 2647: 2512: 2413: 2281: 2267:

administration during the 1990s. Clinton furthered the anti-regulatory environment with his

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There is a direct correspondence between the form of a maximum entropy distribution and the

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different persons should be adjusted to what they would be if everyone had the same income.

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terms correspond to the factor loadings. A generalization of these methods can be found in

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Campbell, Harry F.; Brown, Richard (2003). "Incorporating Risk in Benefit–Cost Analysis".

3402:"Economic Appraisal of Energy Efficiency in Buildings Using Cost-effectiveness Assessment" 3314: 3283: 3254: 3161: 3142: 2902: 2556: 2298: 1280: 1091: 317: 189: 155: 2607: 2533: 2241:'s administration. Although CBA in US policy-making dates back several decades, Reagan's 2237:

The increased use of CBA in the US regulatory process is often associated with President

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US Federal Highway Administration: Economic Analysis Primer: Benefit–Cost Analysis 2003

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Tarsney, Christian (2017). "Does a discount rate measure the cost of climate change?".

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was developed to represent the non-tangible value of resources such as national parks.

17: 4528: 3618: 3418: 3401: 6225: 6091: 5991: 5982: 5953: 5939: 5929: 5873: 5637: 5627: 5617: 5532: 4977: 4951: 4890: 4837: 4795: 4785: 4489: 4330: 4291: 4195: 4151: 4134: 4103: 4049: 4016:"Costa, cancer, and coronavirus: contractualism as a guide to the ethics of lockdown" 3747: 3674: 3002: 2922: 2810: 2450: – Concept that taxpayers should be able to choose what their taxes are used for 2374: 2359: 2354: 2238: 1087: 651: 507: 466:

calculations. This is often done by converting the future expected streams of costs (

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from gasoline, block the construction of two proposed dams just above and below the

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Brekke, Kjell Arne (1997-04-01). "The numéraire matters in cost–benefit analysis".

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Federal Emergency Management Administration, 1022. Guide to Benefit Cost Analysis.

2873: 2430: 2264: 321: 193: 151: 143: 4920: 4141:. Integrated assessments of mitigation, impacts and adaptation to climate change. 4032: 3680:. Wiley-Interscience (2nd ed.). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons. pp. 3600:"Discounting the Distant Future: How Much Do Uncertain Rates Increase Valuations?" 3294:

US Federal Aviation Administration: Airport Benefit–Cost Analysis Guidance, 1999

2576: 1715:. Maximizing this functional leads to the form of a maximum entropy distribution: 626:{\displaystyle {\text{NPV}}=\sum _{t=0}^{\infty }{B_{t}-C_{t} \over {(1+r)^{t}}}} 6086: 5998: 5878: 5730: 5644: 4615:

T.O. McGarity A cost-benefit-state? Administrative Law Rev., 50 (1998), pp. 7-79

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by implementing the alternative with the lowest cost–benefit ratio can improve

5846: 5598: 5370: 5005: 4455: 4275: 4235: 4210: 4187: 3937: 3801: 3704: 3386: 3072: 2447: 1526:{\displaystyle \int _{\mathcal {S}}r_{i}(x)f(x)dx=\alpha _{i},\quad i=1,...,m} 99: 27:

Systematic approach to estimating the strengths and weaknesses of alternatives

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Priceless : on knowing the price of everything and the value of nothing

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Richardson, Henry S. (2000). "The Stupidity of the Cost–Benefit Analysis".

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Frank, Robert H. (2000). "Why is Cost–Benefit Analysis so Controversial?".

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Ch. 8 provides a useful discussion of non-market valuation methods for CBA.

2718:(2013). "The Diffusion of Regulatory Oversight". In Livermore, Michael A.; 1243:{\displaystyle H(X)=\mathbb {E} \left=-\int _{\mathcal {S}}f(x)\log f(x)dx} 6189: 4643:

Benefit–Cost Analysis: Financial and Economic Appraisal Using Spreadsheets

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Benefit–Cost Analysis: Financial and Economic Appraisal using Spreadsheets

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Benefit–Cost Analysis: Financial and Economic Appraisal using Spreadsheets

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Canadian Cost–Benefit Guide: Regulatory Proposals, Treasury Canada, 2007.

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Hazardous wastes: A Risk-Benefit Framework Applied to Cadmium and Asbestos

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In United States regulatory policy, cost-benefit analysis is governed by

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For some environmental effects, cost–benefit analysis can be replaced by

138: 6003: 5902: 5814: 5335: 4602: 3438:"Applying Cost–Benefit to Past Decisions: Was Environmental Protection 3308: 2994: 2957: 2538:

The Harvard Law School Program on Corporate Governance Discussion Paper

1540:

conditions. Maximizing the entropy with these constraints leads to the

5050: 3876:

Cost-benefit analysis: legal, economic, and philosophical perspectives

3627: 3037: 5978: 5431: 5250: 4343: 3216: 3136:

http://www.finance.gov.au/publications/finance-circulars/2006/01.html

259: 4586: 3155:

http://www.acf.hhs.gov/programs/cb/systems/sacwis/cbaguide/index.htm

2986: 2220:

If we have a specified mean and variance on the log scale, then the

368:

Predict outcome of costs and benefits over the relevant time period.

4969: 4882: 4777: 4322: 3029: 2456: – Adage of the impossibility of getting something for nothing 2410: – Application of economic theory to analysis of legal systems 5863: 5745: 5725: 5305: 4684:, SA Journal of Information Management 15(2), Art. #540, 10 pages. 4260:"Ethics and Climate Change Cost-Benefit Analysis: Stern and After" 2724:

The Globalization of Cost–Benefit Analysis in Environmental Policy

2653:(Fourth ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall. 1891:

It is assumed that we have maximum ignorance about the uncertainty

184:

CBA's application to broader public policy began with the work of

137: 5548: 5015:

site maintained by the Transportation Economics Committee of the

3892:

A Course in Environmental Economics: Theory, Policy, and Practice

2377: – Risk of the actual return being below the expected return 306:

to analyze the effects of health policies, may be more suitable.

6020: 3266: 2292:

CBA has been criticized in some disciplines as it relies on the

365:

Select measurement(s) and measure all cost and benefit elements.

42: 5552: 5254: 5054: 5041: 4709:

Water-resource Development: The Economics of Project Evaluation

4392:"Retrospectives: Cost–Benefit Analysis and the Classical Creed" 4211:"Climate change and the re-evaluation of cost-benefit analysis" 2889:

Water Resource Development: The Economics of Project Evaluation

4724:(Fifth ed.). New Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall. pp. 2499:

David, Rodreck; Ngulube, Patrick; Dube, Adock (16 July 2013).

1082:

Risk associated with project outcomes is usually handled with

5178:

List of international healthcare accreditation organizations

2182: 2064: 1943: 1856: 1574: 1436: 1382: 1353: 1259: 1198: 232:. This presented balanced cost–benefit results and detailed 216:

project and was later used for many projects, including the

4069:. Vol. 4. Edward Craig, Routledge. London: Routledge. 4808:

Technofix: Why Technology Won't Save Us or the Environment

4716:

Folland, Sherman; Goodman, Allen C.; Stano, Miron (2007).

2694:

Technofix: Why Technology Won't Save Us or the Environment

240:, it was a cornerstone of UK transport appraisal in 2011. 4307:"Discounting, Climate Change, and the Ecological Fallacy" 4090:

questionable matter to discount other people's wellbeing.

3185:

Hugh Coombs; Ellis Jenkins; David Hobbs (18 April 2005).

2849: 348:

A generic cost–benefit analysis has the following steps:

2816:. Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press. pp. 4660:

Chakravarty, Sukhamoy (1987). "Cost–benefit analysis".

3717:"Executive Order 12866: Regulatory Planning and Review" 3467:(3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. 3096:

Benefits, Costs, and Finance of Public Higher Education

2749:

Economics evolving : a history of economic thought

2458:

Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets

2403:

Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets

2383: – Process of making predictions about the economy 2370:

Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets

4805:

Huesemann, Michael H., and Joyce A. Huesemann (2011).

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Huesemann, Michael H., and Joyce A. Huesemann (2011).

1097:

Uncertainty in CBA parameters can be evaluated with a

371:

Convert all costs and benefits into a common currency.

212:

CBA for transport investment began in the UK with the

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Department for Transport, Environment and the Regions

176:

for decisions concerning cybersecurity investments).

146:, credited with the creation of cost–benefit analysis 4666:. Vol. 1. London: Macmillan. pp. 687–690. 2330:

is used and weights are calculated according to the

2211:{\displaystyle {\mathcal {S}}\in (-\infty ,\infty )} 150:

The concept of CBA dates back to an 1848 article by

111:

perspective. Assuming an accurate CBA, changing the

6150: 6029: 5586: 5485: 5384: 5288: 5217: 5186: 5160: 5114: 5088: 3517:(7th ed.). America: McGraw-Hill. p. 138. 3492:(7th ed.). America: McGraw-Hill. p. 144. 3431: 3429: 2854:

ACM Transactions on Information and System Security

4836: 4794: 4717: 4437:Cost-benefit analysis : concepts and practice 3783:Cost-benefit analysis : concepts and practice 3673: 3662:and risk modelling in cost benefits analysis. CBA. 3352:(4th ed.). New York: Pearson/Addison-Wesley. 3188:Management Accounting: Principles and Applications 2921: 2907:The Economics of Regional Water Quality Management 2850:"The Economics of Information Security Investment" 2809: 2646: 2362: – Document providing reasoning for a project 2210: 2165: 2134: 2089: 2047: 2010: 1968: 1926: 1881: 1824: 1703: 1676: 1525: 1414: 1360: 1336: 1298: 1266: 1242: 1062: 1035: 737: 625: 526: 498: 478: 3607:Journal of Environmental Economics and Management 3889:Phaneuf, Daniel J.; Requate, Till (2016-12-24). 2416: – Benefit lost by a choice between options 1847:No constraints are imposed over the support set 1558: 4900:"Cost–Benefit Modelling for Reliability Growth" 4797:Water Supply: Economics, Technology, and Policy 4063:Ball, T. (1998). "Green Political Philosophy". 2788:Proceedings of the 2006 Cost Benefit Conference 204:health-care and emergency-management programs. 3971:. Lisa Heinzerling. New York. pp. 34–35. 3113:. Menlo Park, CA: Stanford Research Institute. 2570:"Cost-Effectiveness and Cost–Benefit Analysis" 2439: – Reviews infrastructure and development 2099:The exponential distribution is a special case 352:Define the goals and objectives of the action. 5564: 5266: 5066: 4850:Cost–Benefit Analysis: Theory and Application 4680:David, R., Ngulube, P. & Dube, A., 2013, 3215:. Heatco.ier.uni-stuttgart.de. Archived from 3174:http://www.fema.gov/government/grant/bca.shtm 2090:{\displaystyle {\mathcal {S}}\in [0,\infty )} 1969:{\displaystyle {\mathcal {S}}\in [0,\infty )} 8: 3922:. Cambridge, Massachusetts. pp. 61–62. 3465:Cost–benefit Analysis: Concepts and Practice 3094:Weisbrod, Burton A.; Hansen, W. Lee (1969). 2568:Cellini, Stephanie Riegg; Kee, James Edwin. 2323:calculating these weights. Often, a Bergson- 2247:Office of Information and Regulatory Affairs 1415:{\displaystyle \int _{\mathcal {S}}f(x)dx=1} 340:) was not available until many years later. 154:, and was formalized in subsequent works by 4908:Journal of the Operational Research Society 4663:The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics 3895:. Cambridge University Press. p. 648. 3874:Adler, Matthew D.; Posner, Eric A. (2001). 3836:Wenz, P.R. (2006). "Environmental Ethics". 3705:http://regulation.huji.ac.il/papers/jp5.pdf 2808:Guess, George M.; Farnham, Paul G. (2000). 5571: 5557: 5549: 5273: 5259: 5251: 5073: 5059: 5051: 5038: 4468:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 4014:Stephen, John D.; Curran, Emma J. (2022). 3999:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 3950:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 3818:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 1567: 1128:- defined for continuous distributions as: 4952:"The Discipline of Cost–Benefit Analysis" 4626:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tox.2004.06.054 4407: 4234: 4150: 4031: 3672:Cover, Thomas M.; Thomas, Joy A. (2006). 3646:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 3626: 3551:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 3417: 2516: 2454:There ain't no such thing as a free lunch 2181: 2180: 2178: 2149: 2147: 2119: 2118: 2116: 2063: 2062: 2060: 2026: 2025: 2023: 1995: 1994: 1992: 1942: 1941: 1939: 1911: 1910: 1908: 1855: 1854: 1852: 1802: 1792: 1782: 1771: 1752: 1720: 1695: 1689: 1654: 1644: 1634: 1623: 1607: 1573: 1572: 1561: 1549: 1486: 1446: 1435: 1434: 1428: 1381: 1380: 1374: 1352: 1351: 1349: 1314: 1282: 1258: 1257: 1255: 1197: 1196: 1151: 1150: 1133: 1054: 1048: 1027: 1008: 997: 996: 984: 973: 972: 965: 952: 939: 920: 909: 908: 896: 885: 884: 877: 864: 851: 835: 819: 808: 807: 800: 793: 780: 769: 763: 754: 724: 708: 697: 696: 679: 667: 614: 597: 590: 577: 570: 564: 553: 541: 539: 519: 491: 471: 5503:Earth systems engineering and management 5001:Daniel J. Evans School of Public Affairs 4641:Campbell, Harry; Brown, Richard (2003). 3515:Environmental Economics: An Introduction 3513:Field, Barry C; Field, Martha K (2016). 3490:Environmental Economics: An Introduction 3488:Field, Barry C; Field, Martha K (2016). 2469:Triple bottom line cost–benefit analysis 4801:. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 4720:The Economics of Health and Health Care 3878:. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 3575:Public Policy Analysis: An Introduction 3061:International Journal of the Addictions 2491: 1536:where the last equality is a series of 534:) and the net present value defined as: 395:Adopt the recommended course of action. 282:'s Transportation Economics Committee. 276:California Department of Transportation 5173:International healthcare accreditation 4830:. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. 4711:. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. 4461: 3992: 3943: 3811: 3658:Ch. 9 provides a useful discussion of 2891:. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. 2649:Policy Analysis: Concepts and Practice 2630:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title ( 2623: 2339:Limitations in the scope of assessment 272:Minnesota Department of Transportation 4898:Quigley, John; Walls, Lesley (2003). 4552:"Principles of Cost–Benefit Analysis" 4483: 4481: 4479: 4429: 4427: 3831: 3829: 3775: 3773: 3741: 3739: 2942:(1967). "Conservation Reconsidered". 2726:. New York: Oxford University Press. 2263:These criticisms continued under the 7: 5235:Incremental cost-effectiveness ratio 5194:Incremental cost-effectiveness ratio 4066:Routledge encyclopedia of philosophy 3191:. SAGE Publications. pp. 278–. 2920:Clawson, M.; Knetsch, J. L. (1966). 2505:SA Journal of Information Management 2301:can address some of these concerns. 2048:{\displaystyle \mathbb {E} (\log X)} 646:Methods for choosing a discount rate 328:, and regulate workers' exposure to 5152:Routine health outcomes measurement 2226:is the maximum entropy distribution 738:{\displaystyle r=r_{f}+\beta \left} 228:(NATA) was later introduced by the 6127:Microfoundations of macroeconomics 5321:Environmental full-cost accounting 5225:Clinical Quality Management System 4747:. London and New York: Routledge. 2781:"History of Benefit–Cost Analysis" 2305:Discounting and future generations 2202: 2196: 2081: 1960: 1882:{\displaystyle {\mathcal {S}}\in } 565: 25: 5028:Engineering Risk-Benefit Analysis 4108:. Carneades.org. pp. 30–31. 3109:Moll, K. S.; et al. (1975). 2928:. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press. 2909:. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press. 2401: – English idiomatic proverb 201:National Environmental Policy Act 6200: 6199: 6188: 5437:Extended producer responsibility 4396:Journal of Economic Perspectives 4390:Persky, Joseph (November 2001). 2534:"The Case for Investor Ordering" 2368: – United States legal term 262:. Guides are available from the 234:environmental impact assessments 5331:Environmental management system 5326:Environmental impact assessment 4258:Aldred, Jonathan (2009-12-01). 3375:Journal of Transport and Health 2924:Economics of Outdoor Recreation 2812:Cases in Public Policy Analysis 2645:Weimer, D.; Vining, A. (2005). 2166:{\displaystyle {\text{Var}}(X)} 2135:{\displaystyle \mathbb {E} (X)} 2011:{\displaystyle \mathbb {E} (X)} 1927:{\displaystyle \mathbb {E} (X)} 1825:{\displaystyle f(x)=\exp \left} 1495: 385:of actions under consideration. 268:Federal Aviation Administration 54:CBA has two main applications: 5023:Intro to Cost–Benefit Analysis 4645:. Cambridge University Press. 4369:10.1016/j.ecolecon.2018.04.021 4209:Dennig, Francis (2018-11-01). 3752:. Carneades.org. p. 320. 3676:Elements of Information Theory 3436:Ackerman; et al. (2005). 3406:Procedia Economics and Finance 2974:Quarterly Journal of Economics 2751:. Princeton University Press. 2399:Have one's cake and eat it too 2205: 2190: 2160: 2154: 2129: 2123: 2084: 2072: 2042: 2030: 2005: 1999: 1963: 1951: 1921: 1915: 1876: 1864: 1814: 1808: 1731: 1725: 1470: 1464: 1458: 1452: 1397: 1391: 1361:{\displaystyle {\mathcal {S}}} 1325: 1319: 1293: 1287: 1267:{\displaystyle {\mathcal {S}}} 1231: 1225: 1213: 1207: 1178: 1172: 1144: 1138: 1014: 1001: 990: 977: 926: 913: 902: 889: 825: 812: 714: 701: 611: 598: 264:Federal Highway Administration 142:French engineer and economist 89:, fiscal impact analysis, and 1: 6247:Project management techniques 5230:Disability-adjusted life year 5017:Transportation Research Board 4921:10.1057/palgrave.jors.2601633 4690:Readings in Welfare Economics 4529:10.1016/S0047-2727(96)01610-6 4434:Boardman, Anthony E. (2018). 4133:Lind, Robert C (1995-04-01). 4033:10.1136/medethics-2020-107103 3780:Boardman, Anthony E. (2018). 3619:10.1016/S0095-0696(02)00031-1 3419:10.1016/S2212-5671(15)00195-1 280:Transportation Research Board 4993:Benefit–Cost Analysis Center 4152:10.1016/0301-4215(95)90162-Z 2465: – Situational decision 2427: – Concept in economics 2233:CBA under US administrations 1704:{\displaystyle \lambda _{i}} 1276:probability density function 1122:principle of maximum entropy 1115:Principle of maximum entropy 1109:Principle of maximum entropy 6072:Civil engineering economics 6057:Statistical decision theory 5697:Income elasticity of demand 5346:Integrated chain management 5199:Cost-effectiveness analysis 4852:. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. 4692:. London: Allen and Unwin. 4517:Journal of Public Economics 3919:The cost-benefit revolution 2532:Hirst, Scott (2018-07-01). 1344:, with equality outside of 660:capital asset pricing model 654:model to find the required 446:to humans (such as air and 437:quality-adjusted life years 311:cost-effectiveness analysis 91:social return on investment 67:cost-effectiveness analysis 6273: 5707:Price elasticity of supply 5702:Price elasticity of demand 5692:Cross elasticity of demand 5412:Eco-industrial development 5240:Quality-adjusted life year 5204:Cost-minimization analysis 5132:Independent medical review 4835:McKean, Roland N. (1958). 4793:Hirshleifer, Jack (1960). 3916:Sunstein, Cass R. (2018). 3839:Encyclopedia of philosophy 3018:Journal of Human Resources 2479:Uncertainty quantification 1337:{\displaystyle f(x)\geq 0} 1112: 1063:{\displaystyle \beta _{i}} 6183: 5048: 5043:Links to related articles 4305:Rendall, Matthew (2019). 4276:10.1080/13563460903288221 4236:10.1007/s10584-017-2047-4 4188:10.1017/S0266267117000049 4020:Journal of Medical Ethics 3573:Dunn, William N. (2009). 3446:Administrative Law Review 3387:10.1016/j.jth.2015.08.003 3073:10.3109/10826089409047385 2674:Pamela, Misuraca (2014). 2555:October 16, 2008, at the 2433: – Term in economics 2387:Efficient contract theory 355:List alternative actions. 249:Sixth Framework Programme 226:New Approach to Appraisal 208:Transportation investment 167:Flood Control Act of 1939 37:), sometimes also called 5763:Income–consumption curve 5513:Ecological modernization 5422:Ecological modernization 5361:Life-cycle cost analysis 5147:Health services research 5142:Health impact assessment 4997:University of Washington 4957:Journal of Legal Studies 4870:Journal of Legal Studies 4765:Journal of Legal Studies 4176:Economics and Philosophy 3965:Ackerman, Frank (2004). 3463:Boardman, N. E. (2006). 3348:Phelps, Charles (2009). 2945:American Economic Review 2681:. The MITRE Corporation. 2437:Social impact assessment 2393:Guns versus butter model 1898:Exponential distribution 1274:is the support set of a 1072:arbitrage pricing theory 238:Department for Transport 87:economic impact analysis 6097:Industrial organization 5528:Sustainable development 5518:Environmental economics 5457:Precautionary principle 5452:Polluter pays principle 5397:Cradle-to-cradle design 5115:Health care evaluations 5096:Evidence-based medicine 4848:Nas, Tevfik F. (1996). 4707:Eckstein, Otto (1958). 4550:Boadway, Robin (2006). 3721:govinfo.library.unt.edu 2887:Eckstein, Otto (1958). 2518:10.4102/sajim.v15i2.540 2420:Return on time invested 2328:social welfare function 128:Kaldor–Hicks efficiency 18:Costs and cost analysis 5498:Design for environment 5366:Material flow analysis 5168:Hospital accreditation 3598:Newell, R. G. (2003). 2747:Sandmo, Agnar (2011). 2366:Calculus of negligence 2223:lognormal distribution 2212: 2167: 2136: 2091: 2049: 2012: 1970: 1928: 1883: 1826: 1787: 1705: 1678: 1639: 1527: 1416: 1362: 1338: 1300: 1268: 1244: 1064: 1037: 739: 636:hyperbolic discounting 627: 569: 528: 500: 480: 147: 6067:Engineering economics 5662:Cost–benefit analysis 5442:Industrial metabolism 5356:Life-cycle assessment 5301:Cost–benefit analysis 5006:Benefit–Cost Analysis 4950:Sen, Amartya (2000). 4264:New Political Economy 3577:. New York: Longman. 3213:"HEATCO project site" 2866:10.1145/581271.581274 2269:Executive Order 12866 2243:Executive Order 12291 2213: 2173:over the support set 2168: 2137: 2092: 2055:over the support set 2050: 2013: 1971: 1934:over the support set 1929: 1884: 1827: 1767: 1706: 1679: 1619: 1528: 1417: 1363: 1339: 1301: 1269: 1245: 1065: 1038: 740: 640:equity premium puzzle 628: 549: 529: 501: 481: 421:willingness to accept 338:particulate pollution 296:cost–utility analysis 141: 83:risk–benefit analysis 79:cost–utility analysis 39:benefit–cost analysis 31:Cost–benefit analysis 5884:Price discrimination 5778:Intertemporal choice 5508:Ecological economics 5447:Industrial symbiosis 5427:Efficient energy use 5376:Stakeholder analysis 5316:Ecological footprint 5127:Clinical peer review 4743:Ferrara, A. (2010). 4556:Public Policy Review 4409:10.1257/jep.15.4.199 4357:Ecological Economics 3660:sensitivity analysis 2474:True cost accounting 2381:Economic forecasting 2299:progressive taxation 2177: 2146: 2115: 2059: 2022: 1991: 1938: 1907: 1851: 1842:Uniform distribution 1719: 1713:Lagrange multipliers 1688: 1548: 1427: 1373: 1348: 1313: 1299:{\displaystyle f(x)} 1281: 1254: 1132: 1099:sensitivity analysis 1078:Risk and uncertainty 1047: 753: 666: 538: 518: 490: 470: 458:Time and discounting 429:revealed preferences 413:total economic value 390:sensitivity analysis 278:(Caltrans), and the 6195:Business portal 6132:Operations research 5959:Substitution effect 5417:Eco-industrial park 5137:Health care ratings 5089:Concepts of quality 5082:Health care quality 4227:2018ClCh..151...43D 2842:Gordon, Lawrence A. 2716:Wiener, Jonathan B. 2106:Normal distribution 464:time value of money 71:time value of money 6242:Evaluation methods 5773:Indifference curve 5741:Goods and services 5682:Economies of scope 5677:Economies of scale 5493:Cleaner production 5477:Waste valorization 5472:Waste minimisation 5341:Input–output model 5282:Industrial ecology 5209:Cost per procedure 5187:Costs and benefits 5032:MIT OpenCourseWare 5011:2022-01-18 at the 4843:. New York: Wiley. 4488:Carneades (2022). 4102:Carneades (2022). 3746:Carneades (2022). 3313:2009-08-13 at the 3282:2012-01-12 at the 3253:2013-12-21 at the 3160:2012-07-20 at the 3141:2014-02-01 at the 2720:Revesz, Richard L. 2443:Statistical murder 2332:willingness-to-pay 2208: 2163: 2132: 2087: 2045: 2008: 1982:Gamma distribution 1966: 1924: 1879: 1834:exponential family 1822: 1701: 1674: 1566: 1523: 1412: 1358: 1334: 1296: 1264: 1240: 1103:Monte Carlo method 1084:probability theory 1060: 1033: 1032: 1025: 944: 937: 856: 849: 785: 778: 735: 623: 524: 496: 476: 444:ecosystem services 424:on their welfare. 417:willingness to pay 218:London Underground 163:Corps of Engineers 148: 65:CBA is related to 6257:Welfare economics 6237:Decision analysis 6219: 6218: 6213: 6212: 6175:Political economy 5974:Supply and demand 5854:Pareto efficiency 5546: 5545: 5402:Dematerialization 5296:Agent-based model 5248: 5247: 5106:Medical guideline 5101:Medical consensus 4915:(12): 1234–1241. 4859:978-0-8039-7133-2 4754:978-0-415-56821-0 4735:978-0-13-227942-0 4699:978-0-04-338038-3 4673:978-0-333-37235-7 4652:978-0-521-82146-9 4501:979-8-98-612861-0 4494:. Carneades.org. 4447:978-1-108-41599-6 4115:979-8-98-612861-0 3929:978-0-262-03814-0 3793:978-1-108-41599-6 3759:979-8-98-612861-0 3653:978-0-521-52898-6 3584:978-0-13-615554-6 3558:978-0-521-52898-6 3524:978-0-07-802189-3 3499:978-0-07-802189-3 3474:978-0-13-143583-4 3359:978-0-321-59457-0 3198:978-1-84787-711-6 2848:(November 2002). 2827:978-0-87840-768-2 2733:978-0-199-93438-6 2660:978-0-13-183001-1 2408:Law and economics 2152: 1557: 1030: 966: 964: 942: 878: 876: 854: 801: 799: 783: 764: 762: 747:Fama-French model 621: 544: 527:{\displaystyle r} 499:{\displaystyle B} 479:{\displaystyle C} 383:net present value 174:Gordon–Loeb model 117:Pareto efficiency 93:(SROI) analysis. 75:net present value 16:(Redirected from 6264: 6203: 6202: 6193: 6192: 5935:Returns to scale 5793:Market structure 5573: 5566: 5559: 5550: 5538:Urban metabolism 5392:Circular economy 5275: 5268: 5261: 5252: 5075: 5068: 5061: 5052: 5039: 4981: 4946: 4944: 4943: 4937: 4931:. Archived from 4904: 4894: 4877:(S2): 971–1003. 4863: 4844: 4842: 4831: 4802: 4800: 4789: 4758: 4739: 4723: 4712: 4703: 4677: 4656: 4628: 4622: 4616: 4613: 4607: 4606: 4570: 4564: 4563: 4547: 4541: 4540: 4512: 4506: 4505: 4485: 4474: 4473: 4467: 4459: 4431: 4422: 4421: 4411: 4387: 4381: 4380: 4352: 4346: 4341: 4335: 4334: 4302: 4296: 4295: 4255: 4249: 4248: 4238: 4206: 4200: 4199: 4171: 4165: 4164: 4154: 4130: 4124: 4123: 4099: 4093: 4092: 4060: 4054: 4053: 4035: 4011: 4005: 4004: 3998: 3990: 3962: 3956: 3955: 3949: 3941: 3913: 3907: 3906: 3886: 3880: 3879: 3871: 3865: 3864: 3833: 3824: 3823: 3817: 3809: 3777: 3768: 3767: 3743: 3734: 3731: 3725: 3724: 3713: 3707: 3702: 3696: 3695: 3679: 3669: 3663: 3657: 3639: 3633: 3632: 3630: 3604: 3595: 3589: 3588: 3570: 3564: 3562: 3544: 3538: 3535: 3529: 3528: 3510: 3504: 3503: 3485: 3479: 3478: 3460: 3454: 3453: 3433: 3424: 3423: 3421: 3397: 3391: 3390: 3370: 3364: 3363: 3350:Health Economics 3345: 3339: 3334: 3328: 3323: 3317: 3305: 3299: 3292: 3286: 3274: 3268: 3263: 3257: 3245: 3239: 3234: 3228: 3227: 3225: 3224: 3209: 3203: 3202: 3182: 3176: 3170: 3164: 3151: 3145: 3132: 3126: 3121: 3115: 3114: 3106: 3100: 3099: 3091: 3085: 3084: 3056: 3050: 3049: 3013: 3007: 3006: 2968: 2962: 2961: 2936: 2930: 2929: 2927: 2917: 2911: 2910: 2905:, A. V. (1964). 2899: 2893: 2892: 2884: 2878: 2877: 2838: 2832: 2831: 2815: 2805: 2799: 2798: 2796: 2790:. Archived from 2785: 2777: 2771: 2770: 2744: 2738: 2737: 2712: 2706: 2689: 2683: 2682: 2680: 2671: 2665: 2664: 2652: 2642: 2636: 2635: 2629: 2621: 2619: 2618: 2612: 2606:. Archived from 2605: 2597: 2591: 2590: 2588: 2587: 2581: 2575:. Archived from 2574: 2565: 2559: 2548: 2542: 2541: 2529: 2523: 2522: 2520: 2496: 2459: 2414:Opportunity cost 2404: 2371: 2314:Marginal utility 2282:marginal utility 2217: 2215: 2214: 2209: 2186: 2185: 2172: 2170: 2169: 2164: 2153: 2150: 2141: 2139: 2138: 2133: 2122: 2096: 2094: 2093: 2088: 2068: 2067: 2054: 2052: 2051: 2046: 2029: 2017: 2015: 2014: 2009: 1998: 1975: 1973: 1972: 1967: 1947: 1946: 1933: 1931: 1930: 1925: 1914: 1888: 1886: 1885: 1880: 1860: 1859: 1831: 1829: 1828: 1823: 1821: 1817: 1807: 1806: 1797: 1796: 1786: 1781: 1757: 1756: 1710: 1708: 1707: 1702: 1700: 1699: 1683: 1681: 1680: 1675: 1667: 1663: 1659: 1658: 1649: 1648: 1638: 1633: 1612: 1611: 1579: 1578: 1577: 1565: 1532: 1530: 1529: 1524: 1491: 1490: 1451: 1450: 1441: 1440: 1439: 1421: 1419: 1418: 1413: 1387: 1386: 1385: 1367: 1365: 1364: 1359: 1357: 1356: 1343: 1341: 1340: 1335: 1305: 1303: 1302: 1297: 1273: 1271: 1270: 1265: 1263: 1262: 1249: 1247: 1246: 1241: 1203: 1202: 1201: 1185: 1181: 1154: 1069: 1067: 1066: 1061: 1059: 1058: 1042: 1040: 1039: 1034: 1031: 1028: 1026: 1021: 1017: 1013: 1012: 1000: 989: 988: 976: 963: 962: 943: 940: 938: 933: 929: 925: 924: 912: 901: 900: 888: 875: 874: 855: 852: 850: 845: 841: 840: 839: 824: 823: 811: 798: 797: 784: 781: 779: 774: 773: 744: 742: 741: 736: 734: 730: 729: 728: 713: 712: 700: 684: 683: 656:return on equity 632: 630: 629: 624: 622: 620: 619: 618: 596: 595: 594: 582: 581: 571: 568: 563: 545: 542: 533: 531: 530: 525: 505: 503: 502: 497: 486:) and benefits ( 485: 483: 482: 477: 401:OMB Circular A-4 292:health economics 255:Transport Canada 21: 6272: 6271: 6267: 6266: 6265: 6263: 6262: 6261: 6222: 6221: 6220: 6215: 6214: 6209: 6187: 6179: 6146: 6025: 5667:Deadweight loss 5604:Consumer choice 5582: 5577: 5547: 5542: 5523:Green chemistry 5481: 5467:Waste hierarchy 5380: 5284: 5279: 5249: 5244: 5213: 5182: 5156: 5110: 5084: 5079: 5044: 5013:Wayback Machine 4989: 4984: 4964:(S2): 931–952. 4949: 4941: 4939: 4935: 4902: 4897: 4866: 4860: 4847: 4834: 4822: 4792: 4772:(S2): 913–930. 4761: 4755: 4742: 4736: 4715: 4706: 4700: 4687: 4674: 4659: 4653: 4640: 4636: 4634:Further reading 4631: 4623: 4619: 4614: 4610: 4587:10.2307/2553553 4572: 4571: 4567: 4549: 4548: 4544: 4514: 4513: 4509: 4502: 4487: 4486: 4477: 4460: 4448: 4433: 4432: 4425: 4389: 4388: 4384: 4354: 4353: 4349: 4342: 4338: 4304: 4303: 4299: 4257: 4256: 4252: 4215:Climatic Change 4208: 4207: 4203: 4173: 4172: 4168: 4132: 4131: 4127: 4116: 4101: 4100: 4096: 4077: 4062: 4061: 4057: 4013: 4012: 4008: 3991: 3979: 3964: 3963: 3959: 3942: 3930: 3915: 3914: 3910: 3903: 3888: 3887: 3883: 3873: 3872: 3868: 3850: 3835: 3834: 3827: 3810: 3794: 3779: 3778: 3771: 3760: 3745: 3744: 3737: 3732: 3728: 3715: 3714: 3710: 3703: 3699: 3692: 3671: 3670: 3666: 3654: 3641: 3640: 3636: 3602: 3597: 3596: 3592: 3585: 3572: 3571: 3567: 3559: 3546: 3545: 3541: 3536: 3532: 3525: 3512: 3511: 3507: 3500: 3487: 3486: 3482: 3475: 3462: 3461: 3457: 3435: 3434: 3427: 3399: 3398: 3394: 3372: 3371: 3367: 3360: 3347: 3346: 3342: 3335: 3331: 3324: 3320: 3315:Wayback Machine 3306: 3302: 3293: 3289: 3284:Wayback Machine 3275: 3271: 3264: 3260: 3255:Wayback Machine 3246: 3242: 3235: 3231: 3222: 3220: 3211: 3210: 3206: 3199: 3184: 3183: 3179: 3171: 3167: 3162:Wayback Machine 3152: 3148: 3143:Wayback Machine 3133: 3129: 3122: 3118: 3108: 3107: 3103: 3093: 3092: 3088: 3058: 3057: 3053: 3015: 3014: 3010: 2987:10.2307/1879478 2970: 2969: 2965: 2940:Krutilla, J. V. 2938: 2937: 2933: 2919: 2918: 2914: 2901: 2900: 2896: 2886: 2885: 2881: 2846:Loeb, Martin P. 2840: 2839: 2835: 2828: 2807: 2806: 2802: 2794: 2783: 2779: 2778: 2774: 2759: 2746: 2745: 2741: 2734: 2714: 2713: 2709: 2690: 2686: 2678: 2673: 2672: 2668: 2661: 2644: 2643: 2639: 2622: 2616: 2614: 2610: 2603: 2601:"Archived copy" 2599: 2598: 2594: 2585: 2583: 2579: 2572: 2567: 2566: 2562: 2557:Wayback Machine 2549: 2545: 2531: 2530: 2526: 2498: 2497: 2493: 2489: 2484: 2457: 2402: 2369: 2350: 2341: 2316: 2307: 2290: 2277: 2235: 2175: 2174: 2144: 2143: 2113: 2112: 2111:Specified mean 2057: 2056: 2020: 2019: 1989: 1988: 1987:Specified mean 1936: 1935: 1905: 1904: 1903:Specified mean 1849: 1848: 1798: 1788: 1748: 1747: 1743: 1717: 1716: 1691: 1686: 1685: 1650: 1640: 1603: 1584: 1580: 1568: 1546: 1545: 1482: 1442: 1430: 1425: 1424: 1376: 1371: 1370: 1346: 1345: 1311: 1310: 1279: 1278: 1252: 1251: 1192: 1159: 1155: 1130: 1129: 1117: 1111: 1092:expected return 1080: 1050: 1045: 1044: 1004: 980: 971: 967: 948: 916: 892: 883: 879: 860: 831: 815: 806: 802: 789: 765: 751: 750: 720: 704: 695: 691: 675: 664: 663: 648: 610: 586: 573: 572: 536: 535: 516: 515: 488: 487: 468: 467: 460: 409: 346: 288: 210: 182: 156:Alfred Marshall 136: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 6270: 6268: 6260: 6259: 6254: 6252:Public finance 6249: 6244: 6239: 6234: 6224: 6223: 6217: 6216: 6211: 6210: 6208: 6207: 6197: 6184: 6181: 6180: 6178: 6177: 6172: 6170:Macroeconomics 6167: 6166: 6165: 6154: 6152: 6148: 6147: 6145: 6144: 6139: 6134: 6129: 6124: 6119: 6114: 6109: 6104: 6099: 6094: 6089: 6084: 6079: 6074: 6069: 6064: 6059: 6054: 6049: 6044: 6039: 6033: 6031: 6027: 6026: 6024: 6023: 6018: 6017: 6016: 6011: 6001: 5996: 5995: 5994: 5985: 5971: 5966: 5961: 5956: 5947: 5942: 5937: 5932: 5927: 5922: 5917: 5912: 5907: 5906: 5905: 5900: 5891: 5886: 5881: 5876: 5871: 5869:Price controls 5861: 5856: 5851: 5850: 5849: 5844: 5839: 5834: 5833: 5832: 5827: 5817: 5812: 5811: 5810: 5805: 5790: 5788:Market failure 5785: 5780: 5775: 5770: 5765: 5760: 5755: 5754: 5753: 5748: 5738: 5733: 5728: 5723: 5722: 5721: 5711: 5710: 5709: 5704: 5699: 5694: 5684: 5679: 5674: 5669: 5664: 5659: 5658: 5657: 5652: 5647: 5642: 5641: 5640: 5630: 5625: 5615: 5606: 5601: 5596: 5590: 5588: 5584: 5583: 5580:Microeconomics 5578: 5576: 5575: 5568: 5561: 5553: 5544: 5543: 5541: 5540: 5535: 5530: 5525: 5520: 5515: 5510: 5505: 5500: 5495: 5489: 5487: 5486:Related fields 5483: 5482: 5480: 5479: 5474: 5469: 5464: 5462:Rebound effect 5459: 5454: 5449: 5444: 5439: 5434: 5429: 5424: 5419: 5414: 5409: 5407:Eco-efficiency 5404: 5399: 5394: 5388: 5386: 5382: 5381: 5379: 5378: 5373: 5368: 5363: 5358: 5353: 5348: 5343: 5338: 5333: 5328: 5323: 5318: 5313: 5308: 5303: 5298: 5292: 5290: 5286: 5285: 5280: 5278: 5277: 5270: 5263: 5255: 5246: 5245: 5243: 5242: 5237: 5232: 5227: 5221: 5219: 5215: 5214: 5212: 5211: 5206: 5201: 5196: 5190: 5188: 5184: 5183: 5181: 5180: 5175: 5170: 5164: 5162: 5158: 5157: 5155: 5154: 5149: 5144: 5139: 5134: 5129: 5124: 5122:Clinical audit 5118: 5116: 5112: 5111: 5109: 5108: 5103: 5098: 5092: 5090: 5086: 5085: 5080: 5078: 5077: 5070: 5063: 5055: 5049: 5046: 5045: 5042: 5036: 5035: 5025: 5020: 5003: 4988: 4987:External links 4985: 4983: 4982: 4970:10.1086/468100 4947: 4895: 4883:10.1086/468102 4864: 4858: 4845: 4832: 4826:, ed. (1962). 4820: 4803: 4790: 4778:10.1086/468099 4759: 4753: 4740: 4734: 4713: 4704: 4698: 4685: 4678: 4672: 4657: 4651: 4637: 4635: 4632: 4630: 4629: 4617: 4608: 4581:(173): 81–88. 4565: 4542: 4523:(1): 117–123. 4507: 4500: 4475: 4446: 4423: 4402:(4): 199–208. 4382: 4347: 4336: 4323:10.1086/701481 4317:(3): 441–463. 4297: 4270:(4): 469–488. 4250: 4201: 4182:(3): 337–365. 4166: 4145:(4): 379–389. 4125: 4114: 4094: 4075: 4055: 4026:(9): 643–650. 4006: 3977: 3957: 3928: 3908: 3901: 3881: 3866: 3848: 3825: 3792: 3769: 3758: 3735: 3726: 3708: 3697: 3690: 3664: 3652: 3634: 3590: 3583: 3565: 3557: 3539: 3530: 3523: 3505: 3498: 3480: 3473: 3455: 3425: 3392: 3381:(4): 549–562. 3365: 3358: 3340: 3329: 3318: 3300: 3287: 3269: 3258: 3240: 3229: 3204: 3197: 3177: 3165: 3146: 3127: 3116: 3101: 3086: 3067:(3): 339–359. 3051: 3030:10.2307/145235 3024:(4): 523–548. 3008: 2981:(3): 471–477. 2963: 2952:(4): 777–786. 2931: 2912: 2894: 2879: 2860:(4): 438–457. 2833: 2826: 2800: 2797:on 2006-06-16. 2772: 2757: 2739: 2732: 2707: 2684: 2666: 2659: 2637: 2592: 2560: 2543: 2524: 2490: 2488: 2485: 2483: 2482: 2476: 2471: 2466: 2460: 2451: 2445: 2440: 2434: 2428: 2422: 2417: 2411: 2405: 2396: 2390: 2384: 2378: 2372: 2363: 2357: 2351: 2349: 2346: 2340: 2337: 2315: 2312: 2306: 2303: 2289: 2286: 2276: 2273: 2261: 2260: 2257: 2254: 2234: 2231: 2230: 2229: 2228: 2227: 2218: 2207: 2204: 2201: 2198: 2195: 2192: 2189: 2184: 2162: 2159: 2156: 2131: 2128: 2125: 2121: 2102: 2101: 2100: 2097: 2086: 2083: 2080: 2077: 2074: 2071: 2066: 2044: 2041: 2038: 2035: 2032: 2028: 2007: 2004: 2001: 1997: 1978: 1977: 1976: 1965: 1962: 1959: 1956: 1953: 1950: 1945: 1923: 1920: 1917: 1913: 1894: 1893: 1892: 1889: 1878: 1875: 1872: 1869: 1866: 1863: 1858: 1820: 1816: 1813: 1810: 1805: 1801: 1795: 1791: 1785: 1780: 1777: 1774: 1770: 1766: 1763: 1760: 1755: 1751: 1746: 1742: 1739: 1736: 1733: 1730: 1727: 1724: 1698: 1694: 1673: 1670: 1666: 1662: 1657: 1653: 1647: 1643: 1637: 1632: 1629: 1626: 1622: 1618: 1615: 1610: 1606: 1602: 1599: 1596: 1593: 1590: 1587: 1583: 1576: 1571: 1564: 1560: 1556: 1553: 1534: 1533: 1522: 1519: 1516: 1513: 1510: 1507: 1504: 1501: 1498: 1494: 1489: 1485: 1481: 1478: 1475: 1472: 1469: 1466: 1463: 1460: 1457: 1454: 1449: 1445: 1438: 1433: 1422: 1411: 1408: 1405: 1402: 1399: 1396: 1393: 1390: 1384: 1379: 1368: 1355: 1333: 1330: 1327: 1324: 1321: 1318: 1295: 1292: 1289: 1286: 1261: 1239: 1236: 1233: 1230: 1227: 1224: 1221: 1218: 1215: 1212: 1209: 1206: 1200: 1195: 1191: 1188: 1184: 1180: 1177: 1174: 1171: 1168: 1165: 1162: 1158: 1153: 1149: 1146: 1143: 1140: 1137: 1113:Main article: 1110: 1107: 1079: 1076: 1057: 1053: 1024: 1020: 1016: 1011: 1007: 1003: 999: 995: 992: 987: 983: 979: 975: 970: 961: 958: 955: 951: 947: 936: 932: 928: 923: 919: 915: 911: 907: 904: 899: 895: 891: 887: 882: 873: 870: 867: 863: 859: 848: 844: 838: 834: 830: 827: 822: 818: 814: 810: 805: 796: 792: 788: 782:Risk-Free Rate 777: 772: 768: 761: 758: 733: 727: 723: 719: 716: 711: 707: 703: 699: 694: 690: 687: 682: 678: 674: 671: 647: 644: 617: 613: 609: 606: 603: 600: 593: 589: 585: 580: 576: 567: 562: 559: 556: 552: 548: 523: 510:amount with a 495: 475: 459: 456: 408: 405: 397: 396: 393: 386: 381:Calculate the 379: 372: 369: 366: 363: 356: 353: 345: 342: 330:vinyl chloride 326:Colorado River 287: 284: 245:European Union 209: 206: 190:water-resource 181: 178: 135: 132: 63: 62: 59: 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6269: 6258: 6255: 6253: 6250: 6248: 6245: 6243: 6240: 6238: 6235: 6233: 6230: 6229: 6227: 6206: 6198: 6196: 6191: 6186: 6185: 6182: 6176: 6173: 6171: 6168: 6164: 6161: 6160: 6159: 6156: 6155: 6153: 6149: 6143: 6140: 6138: 6135: 6133: 6130: 6128: 6125: 6123: 6120: 6118: 6115: 6113: 6110: 6108: 6105: 6103: 6102:Institutional 6100: 6098: 6095: 6093: 6090: 6088: 6085: 6083: 6080: 6078: 6075: 6073: 6070: 6068: 6065: 6063: 6060: 6058: 6055: 6053: 6050: 6048: 6047:Computational 6045: 6043: 6040: 6038: 6035: 6034: 6032: 6028: 6022: 6019: 6015: 6012: 6010: 6007: 6006: 6005: 6002: 6000: 5997: 5993: 5992:Law of supply 5989: 5986: 5984: 5983:Law of demand 5980: 5977: 5976: 5975: 5972: 5970: 5969:Social choice 5967: 5965: 5962: 5960: 5957: 5955: 5954:Excess supply 5951: 5948: 5946: 5943: 5941: 5940:Risk aversion 5938: 5936: 5933: 5931: 5928: 5926: 5923: 5921: 5918: 5916: 5913: 5911: 5908: 5904: 5901: 5899: 5895: 5892: 5890: 5887: 5885: 5882: 5880: 5877: 5875: 5874:Price ceiling 5872: 5870: 5867: 5866: 5865: 5862: 5860: 5857: 5855: 5852: 5848: 5845: 5843: 5840: 5838: 5835: 5831: 5830:Complementary 5828: 5826: 5823: 5822: 5821: 5818: 5816: 5813: 5809: 5806: 5804: 5801: 5800: 5799: 5796: 5795: 5794: 5791: 5789: 5786: 5784: 5781: 5779: 5776: 5774: 5771: 5769: 5766: 5764: 5761: 5759: 5756: 5752: 5749: 5747: 5744: 5743: 5742: 5739: 5737: 5734: 5732: 5729: 5727: 5724: 5720: 5717: 5716: 5715: 5712: 5708: 5705: 5703: 5700: 5698: 5695: 5693: 5690: 5689: 5688: 5685: 5683: 5680: 5678: 5675: 5673: 5670: 5668: 5665: 5663: 5660: 5656: 5653: 5651: 5648: 5646: 5643: 5639: 5636: 5635: 5634: 5631: 5629: 5626: 5624: 5621: 5620: 5619: 5616: 5614: 5613:non-convexity 5610: 5607: 5605: 5602: 5600: 5597: 5595: 5592: 5591: 5589: 5585: 5581: 5574: 5569: 5567: 5562: 5560: 5555: 5554: 5551: 5539: 5536: 5534: 5533:Urban ecology 5531: 5529: 5526: 5524: 5521: 5519: 5516: 5514: 5511: 5509: 5506: 5504: 5501: 5499: 5496: 5494: 5491: 5490: 5488: 5484: 5478: 5475: 5473: 5470: 5468: 5465: 5463: 5460: 5458: 5455: 5453: 5450: 5448: 5445: 5443: 5440: 5438: 5435: 5433: 5430: 5428: 5425: 5423: 5420: 5418: 5415: 5413: 5410: 5408: 5405: 5403: 5400: 5398: 5395: 5393: 5390: 5389: 5387: 5383: 5377: 5374: 5372: 5369: 5367: 5364: 5362: 5359: 5357: 5354: 5352: 5349: 5347: 5344: 5342: 5339: 5337: 5334: 5332: 5329: 5327: 5324: 5322: 5319: 5317: 5314: 5312: 5309: 5307: 5304: 5302: 5299: 5297: 5294: 5293: 5291: 5287: 5283: 5276: 5271: 5269: 5264: 5262: 5257: 5256: 5253: 5241: 5238: 5236: 5233: 5231: 5228: 5226: 5223: 5222: 5220: 5216: 5210: 5207: 5205: 5202: 5200: 5197: 5195: 5192: 5191: 5189: 5185: 5179: 5176: 5174: 5171: 5169: 5166: 5165: 5163: 5161:Accreditation 5159: 5153: 5150: 5148: 5145: 5143: 5140: 5138: 5135: 5133: 5130: 5128: 5125: 5123: 5120: 5119: 5117: 5113: 5107: 5104: 5102: 5099: 5097: 5094: 5093: 5091: 5087: 5083: 5076: 5071: 5069: 5064: 5062: 5057: 5056: 5053: 5047: 5040: 5033: 5029: 5026: 5024: 5021: 5018: 5014: 5010: 5007: 5004: 5002: 4998: 4994: 4991: 4990: 4986: 4979: 4975: 4971: 4967: 4963: 4959: 4958: 4953: 4948: 4938:on 2020-10-10 4934: 4930: 4926: 4922: 4918: 4914: 4910: 4909: 4901: 4896: 4892: 4888: 4884: 4880: 4876: 4872: 4871: 4865: 4861: 4855: 4851: 4846: 4841: 4840: 4833: 4829: 4825: 4824:Maass, Arthur 4821: 4818: 4814: 4810: 4809: 4804: 4799: 4798: 4791: 4787: 4783: 4779: 4775: 4771: 4767: 4766: 4760: 4756: 4750: 4746: 4741: 4737: 4731: 4727: 4722: 4721: 4714: 4710: 4705: 4701: 4695: 4691: 4686: 4683: 4679: 4675: 4669: 4665: 4664: 4658: 4654: 4648: 4644: 4639: 4638: 4633: 4627: 4621: 4618: 4612: 4609: 4604: 4600: 4596: 4592: 4588: 4584: 4580: 4576: 4569: 4566: 4561: 4557: 4553: 4546: 4543: 4538: 4534: 4530: 4526: 4522: 4518: 4511: 4508: 4503: 4497: 4493: 4492: 4484: 4482: 4480: 4476: 4471: 4465: 4457: 4453: 4449: 4443: 4439: 4438: 4430: 4428: 4424: 4419: 4415: 4410: 4405: 4401: 4397: 4393: 4386: 4383: 4378: 4374: 4370: 4366: 4362: 4358: 4351: 4348: 4345: 4340: 4337: 4332: 4328: 4324: 4320: 4316: 4312: 4308: 4301: 4298: 4293: 4289: 4285: 4281: 4277: 4273: 4269: 4265: 4261: 4254: 4251: 4246: 4242: 4237: 4232: 4228: 4224: 4220: 4216: 4212: 4205: 4202: 4197: 4193: 4189: 4185: 4181: 4177: 4170: 4167: 4162: 4158: 4153: 4148: 4144: 4140: 4139:Energy Policy 4136: 4129: 4126: 4122: 4117: 4111: 4107: 4106: 4098: 4095: 4091: 4086: 4082: 4078: 4076:0-415-07310-3 4072: 4068: 4067: 4059: 4056: 4051: 4047: 4043: 4039: 4034: 4029: 4025: 4021: 4017: 4010: 4007: 4002: 3996: 3988: 3984: 3980: 3978:1-56584-850-0 3974: 3970: 3969: 3961: 3958: 3953: 3947: 3939: 3935: 3931: 3925: 3921: 3920: 3912: 3909: 3904: 3902:9781316867358 3898: 3894: 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