1868:
throughout the country, though the basic isoglosses are almost identical to those revealed by Labov's 1996 telephone survey. Both surveys indicate that, as of the 1990s, approximately 60% of
American English speakers preserved the contrast, while approximately 40% merged the phonemes. Further complicating matters are speakers who merge the phonemes in some contexts but not others, or merge them when the words are spoken unstressed or casually but not when they are stressed.
36:
2207:
3103:
409:
934:
914:
885:
843:
807:
778:
749:
713:
671:
635:
606:
577:
541:
519:
483:
454:
425:
1801:
967:
2177:, though the merger is in evidence as early as the 1830s in both regions of Canada: Ontario and the Maritimes. Fifty years later, the merger "was already more established in Canada" than in its two U.S. places of origin. In Canadian English, further westward spread was completed more quickly than in English of the United States.
1850:
Even without taking into account the mobility of the
American population, the distribution of the merger is still complex; there are pockets of speakers with the merger in areas that lack it, and vice versa. There are areas where the merger has only partially occurred, or is in a state of transition.
1822:
Nowhere is the shift more complex than in North
American English. The presence of the merger and its absence are both found in many different regions of the North American continent, where it has been studied in greatest depth, and in both urban and rural environments. The symbols traditionally used
1867:
exhibited the merger while speakers older than 40 typically did not. The 2003 Harvard
Dialect Survey, in which subjects did not necessarily grow up in the place they identified as the source of their dialect features, indicates that there are speakers of both merging and contrast-preserving accents
2185:
or
Scottish immigrants to North America. In fact, both theories may be true but for different regions. The merger's appearance in western Pennsylvania is better explained as an effect of Scots-Irish settlement, but in eastern New England, and perhaps the American West, as an internal structural
2087:. None of these three phonetic shifts, however, is certain to preserve the contrast for all speakers in these regions. Some speakers in all three regions, particularly younger ones, are beginning to exhibit the merger despite the fact that each region's phonetics should theoretically block it.
1818:. The dark blue dots represent speakers who have completely resisted the merger. The medium blue dots represent speakers with a partial merger (either production or perception but not both), and the yellow dots represent speakers with the merger in transition.
60:
1171:
1108:
1133:
1298:
1155:
1328:
1227:
2660:
1257:
2180:
Two traditional theories of the merger's origins have been longstanding in linguistics: one group of scholars argues for an independent North
American development, while others argue for contact-induced language change via
300:
merger, which spread through North
America in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, has resulted today in a three-way merger in which most Canadian and many U.S. accents have no vowel difference in words like
2190:
considers the issue unresolved. A third theory has been used to explain the merger's appearance specifically in northeastern
Pennsylvania: an influx of Polish- and other Slavic-language speakers whose
2871:
Grama, James; Kennedy, Robert (2019). "2. Dimensions of
Variance and Contrast in the Low Back Merger and the Low-Back-Merger Shift". The Publication of the American Dialect Society. 104, p. 47.
59:
2067:
found in the New York City, Philadelphia and
Baltimore accents, in which the vowel is raised and diphthongized to , or, less commonly, , thus keeping that vowel notably distinct from the
2895:
Herold, Ruth. (1990). "Mechanisms of merger: The implementation and distribution of the low back merger in eastern Pennsylvania". Doctoral dissertation, University of Pennsylvania.
2733:
Thomas, Erik R. (September 2007). "Phonological and Phonetic Characteristics of African American Vernacular English: Phonological and Phonetic Characteristics of AAVE".
3205:
2312:
2165:
In North America, the first evidence of the merger (or its initial conditions) comes from western Pennsylvania as far back as the data shows. From there, it entered
2035:
In the three American regions above, sociolinguists have studied three phonetic shifts that can explain their resistance to the merger. The first is the fronting of
2698:
Fox, Michael J. (2016). "The Structural Antagonism and Apparent-time Change of the Northern Cities Shift and the Low Back Vowel Merger in Northwestern Wisconsin".
50:
2237:
Outside North America, another dialect featuring the merger is Scottish English, where the merged vowel has a quality around . Like in New England English, the
58:
3154:
2296:. However, there are also speakers who maintain a distinction in length and/or quality. Like in Scottish English, this vowel is not usually merged with
2113:
traditionally pronounced , though now often . Early 2000s research has shown that this resistance may continue to be reinforced by the fronting of
2810:
Johnson, Daniel Ezra (2010). "Low Vowels of New England: History and Development". Publication of the American Dialect Society 95 (1): 13–41.
976:
510:
87:
2090:
526:
3096:
548:
3138:
3070:
2363:
597:
88:
2798:
Johnson, D. E., Durian, D., & Hickey, R. (2017). New England. Listening to the Past: Audio Records of Accents of English, 234.
2141:
vowels. This chain shift is called the "African American Shift". However, there is still evidence of AAVE speakers picking up the
3100:
769:
2505:
Dubois, Sylvia; Horvath, Barbara (2004). "Cajun Vernacular English: phonology". In Kortmann, Bernd; Schneider, Edgar W. (eds.).
1806:
834:
613:
568:
368:
239:
145:
127:
2423:
1268:
785:
740:
626:
1871:
Speakers with the merger in northeastern New England still maintain a phonemic distinction between a fronted and unrounded
798:
584:
445:
3200:
1878:
1290:
1147:
905:
756:
642:
2059:
to lower into the phonetic environment of without any merger taking place. The second situation is the raising of the
3020:
1373:
1276:
1163:
1100:
814:
461:
416:
3130:
2154:
2048:
1125:
971:
966:
876:
474:
2173:). In the mid-19th century, the merger also independently began in eastern New England, possibly influencing the
1344:
1314:
1249:
1115:
925:
662:
432:
2246:
259:
2191:
2150:
2024:
1235:
892:
704:
490:
1993:
According to Labov, Ash, and Boberg, the merger in North America is most strongly resisted in three regions:
1890:
1381:
1320:
1219:
941:
854:
678:
331:
3175:
3171:
2991:
Eberhardt, Maeve (2008), "The Low-Back Merger in the Steel City: African American English in Pittsburgh",
2300:
2293:
2265:
2257:
2084:
2080:
2072:
2064:
2056:
2044:
2036:
1998:
1939:
1935:
1931:
1927:
1884:
1872:
1840:
1836:
1787:
1774:
1761:
1748:
1735:
1722:
1709:
1696:
1683:
1670:
1657:
1644:
1631:
1618:
1605:
1592:
1579:
1566:
1553:
1540:
1527:
1514:
1501:
1488:
1475:
1462:
1449:
1436:
1422:
1413:
1405:
1401:
1181:
720:
354:
350:
338:
323:
319:
312:
305:
255:
251:
247:
243:
141:
137:
123:
3181:
3062:
The Atlas of North American English: Phonetics, Phonology, and Sound Change: a Multimedia Reference Tool
3044:
2182:
1847:
values may vary, as does the phonetic value of the merged vowel in the regions where the merger occurs.
79:
2971:
Baranowski, Maciej (2013), "Ethnicity and Sound Change: African American English in Charleston, SC",
1888:
1876:
1379:
1371:
1348:
1318:
1288:
1247:
1217:
1161:
1145:
1123:
1098:
2933:
2414:
Hickey, Raymond (2004). "Irish English: Phonology". In Kortmann, Bernd; Schneider, Edgar W. (eds.).
1389:
1209:
981:
180:
2980:
2857:
The permeability of dialect boundaries: A case study of the region surrounding Erie, Pennsylvania
2349:
2174:
2005:
1194:
3012:
3035:
3134:
3066:
2680:
2419:
2359:
691:
1895:), because in northeastern New England (unlike in Canada and the Western United States), the
3088:
3000:
2833:"Written sources of Canadian English: phonetic reconstruction and the low-back vowel merger"
2811:
2742:
2672:
1832:
1308:
1188:
1094:
501:
286:
278:
274:
2544:
1272:
1031:
825:
559:
282:
3159:
3087:, Vol. 2: The British Isles (pp. i–xx, 279–466), Cambridge University Press,
2856:
3169:
3164:
3037:
Variation in African American English: The Great Migration and Regional Differentiation
2716:
2594:
2492:
Language attitudes in Pittsburgh: 'Pittsburghese' vs. standard English. Master's thesis
2384:
2281:
2187:
2076:
1367:
1141:
731:
270:
2206:
3194:
3080:
3056:
2746:
2353:
2020:
1852:
1264:
1213:
1119:
390:
2984:
2166:
2016:
330:
participates in a separate phenomenon in most North American English dialects: the
220:
176:
3120:
3060:
3048:
1232:), and Northern New England generally, but traditionally not Southern New England
86:
57:
17:
2120:
1800:
989:
402:
385:
2661:"On the status of low back vowels in Kentucky English: More evidence of merger"
3004:
2676:
867:
395:
235:
232:
111:
3092:
2684:
1810:, the green dots represent speakers who have completely merged the vowels of
3126:
2012:
1063:
653:
223:
that is lost as a result of this sound change. The phonemes involved in the
2440:
1804:
On this map of English-speaking North America, based on data from the 2006
2715:
Haddican, Bill; Johnson, Daniel Ezra; Newman, Michael; Kim, Faith (2016).
3187:, which discusses the "short-o" configuration of various American accents
1860:
1844:
960:
184:
133:
2379:
1926:
Labov et al. also reveal that, for about 15% of respondents, a specific
2905:
Jane Stuart-Smith (2004). Bernd Kortmann and Edgar W. Schneider (ed.).
2170:
1958:
are not. In this case, a distinct vowel shift (which overlaps with the
1864:
1035:
342:
2815:
2028:
1856:
2951:
2859:". University of Pennsylvania; dissertations available from ProQuest
2699:
2284:, possibly due to contact with Scottish English. In particular, the
2832:
2157:, South Carolina, Florida and Georgia, and in parts of California.
1911:
merger. Thus, although northeastern New Englanders pronounce both
1799:
1075:
1003:
372:
3155:
Map of the cot–caught merger from the 2003 Harvard Dialect Survey
2011:
The "Northeast Corridor" along the Atlantic coast, ranging from
45:
Examples of a merged and an unmerged speaker of American English
3160:
Map of the cot–caught merger from Labov's 1996 telephone survey
2507:
A Handbook of Varieties of English: A Multimedia Reference Tool
3165:
Description of the cot–caught merger in the Phonological Atlas
2934:"The Vowels of Delhi English: Three studies in sociophonetics"
2201:
364:
1855:(using telephone surveys) in the 1990s, younger speakers in
34:
2256:. Therefore, speakers still retain the distinction between
2083:
being pronounced as upgliding , keeping it distinct from
2004:
The "Inland North", encompassing the eastern and central
2973:
University of Pennsylvania Working Papers in Linguistics
2782:
2780:
2717:"The Diffusion of the Low Back Merger in New York City"
2218:
1090:
Some English of the British Isles, outside of England:
2907:
A Handbook of Varieties of English Volume 1: Phonology
1966:
merger for all speakers who have indeed completed the
1144:
including in conservative mid Ulster English towards
2075:. The third situation occurs in the South, in which
132:. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see
2473:
2471:
2469:
2397:
2395:
824:
652:
500:
2313:Phonological history of English open back vowels
2039:found in the Inland North; speakers advance the
146:IPA § Brackets and transcription delimiters
2509:. New York: Mouton de Gruyter. pp. 409–10.
1843:⟩, respectively, although their precise
1086:merger is completed in the following dialects:
2646:
2629:
2617:
2570:
2519:
2477:
349:vowel, transcribed together variously thus as
3065:. Berlin ; New York: Walter de Gruyter.
2642:
2640:
2638:
8:
2826:
2824:
2355:A Pronouncing Dictionary of American English
1942:(or other consonants) is in effect, so that
183:where speakers do not distinguish the vowel
2953:The Phonology of Indian English I: Overview
2358:. Springfield, Mass.: G. & C. Merriam.
1974:merger) is taking place, identified as the
1851:For example, based on research directed by
2806:
2804:
2771:
2441:"Accents of English from Around the World"
2439:Heggarty, Paul; et al., eds. (2013).
2288:vowel may be lengthened to merge with the
1394:
379:
2759:
2093:accents have traditionally resisted the
2001:", somewhat excluding Texas and Florida.
258:(except in regions that do not have the
3206:Splits and mergers in English phonology
3059:; Ash, Sharon; Boberg, Charles (2006).
2494:. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh.
2329:
367:
2885:. Cambridge: Cambridge. pp. 199?.
2582:
2280:The merger is also quite prevalent in
1823:to transcribe the vowels in the words
1395:
109:
2919:
2786:
2531:
2460:
2418:. Walter de Gruyter. pp. 90–94.
2401:
2336:
27:Sound change in some English dialects
7:
3170:Map of the cot–caught merger before
2659:Irons, Terry Lynn (April 25, 2007).
2194:failed to maintain the distinction.
1160:and in Ulster Scots English towards
136:. For the distinction between ,
2091:African American Vernacular English
2027:. However, the merger is common in
238:, are typically represented in the
2416:A Handbook of Varieties of English
1018:and the vowel sound in words like
110:Problems playing these files? See
25:
3119:Barber, Charles Laurence (1997).
2123:of vowels to the raising of the
2031:and further northern New England.
1883:) and a back and usually rounded
940:
924:
904:
891:
875:
853:
833:
813:
797:
784:
768:
755:
739:
719:
703:
690:
677:
661:
641:
625:
612:
596:
583:
567:
547:
525:
509:
489:
473:
460:
444:
431:
415:
269:). The merger is typical of most
3034:Jones, Taylor (1 January 2020).
2747:10.1111/j.1749-818X.2007.00029.x
2735:Language and Linguistics Compass
2205:
2008:(on the U.S. side of the border)
965:
932:
912:
883:
841:
805:
776:
747:
711:
669:
633:
604:
575:
539:
517:
481:
452:
423:
407:
292:An additional vowel merger, the
84:
55:
3184:Atlas of North American English
2701:New Ways of Analyzing Variation
2186:development. Canadian linguist
1807:Atlas of North American English
1425:⟩ for the merged vowel)
240:International Phonetic Alphabet
128:International Phonetic Alphabet
2883:The English language in Canada
2647:Labov, Ash & Boberg (2006)
2630:Labov, Ash & Boberg (2006)
2618:Labov, Ash & Boberg (2006)
2571:Labov, Ash & Boberg (2006)
2520:Labov, Ash & Boberg (2006)
2478:Labov, Ash & Boberg (2006)
1396:Examples of homophonous pairs
1074:, for example, become perfect
1:
2909:. De Gruyter. pp. 53–54.
2665:Language Variation and Change
2047:as far as the cardinal (the
337:, in which this vowel before
2245:merger occurred without the
1903:merger occurred without the
3011:Gordon, Matthew J. (2005),
2352:; Thomas A. Knott (1949) .
2303:in General Indian English.
1277:Western New England English
219:, etc.) is an example of a
3222:
3131:Edinburgh University Press
2861:. AAI3405374. pp. 254-255.
2831:Dollinger, Stefan (2010).
2049:open front unrounded vowel
1417:(written au, aw, al, ough)
3005:10.1215/00031283-2008-021
2932:Domange, Raphaël (2023).
2855:Evanini, Keelan (2009). "
2677:10.1017/S0954394507070056
2443:. University of Edinburgh
2385:Dictionary.com Unabridged
1315:Standard Canadian English
866:
730:
558:
401:
394:
389:
384:
281:dialects as well as some
250:or, in North America, as
3093:10.1017/CBO9780511611759
2956:. University of Münster.
2881:Boberg, Charles (2010).
1269:Upper Midwestern English
1236:Western American English
1182:English of North America
1216:, particularly towards
124:phonetic transcriptions
2950:Fuchs, Robert (2015).
2490:Gagnon, C. L. (1999).
1819:
1796:North American English
1038:; therefore the pairs
121:This article contains
39:
2051:), thus allowing the
1950:are homophonous, but
1839:⟩ and ⟨
1803:
1351:, towards (with the
1197:, towards (with the
1187:Certain varieties of
1002:The shift causes the
38:
3122:Early modern English
3013:"The Midwest Accent"
1919:as , they pronounce
1349:Newfoundland English
1006:sound in words like
164:, also known as the
3201:Dialects of English
2552:Videoweb.nie.edu.sg
2545:"Singapore English"
2153:, Pennsylvania, in
2119:, linked through a
1421:IPA (using ⟨
1397:
1390:Singaporean English
1210:New England English
181:dialects of English
3182:Chapter 13 of the
3085:Accents of English
3017:American Varieties
2217:. You can help by
2175:Canadian Maritimes
2006:Great Lakes region
1820:
1409:(written a, o, ol)
1195:Pittsburgh English
51:Non-merged speaker
40:
2772:Baranowski (2013)
2235:
2234:
1793:
1792:
1000:
999:
951:
950:
89:
61:
18:Cot-caught merger
16:(Redirected from
3213:
3177:
3173:
3144:
3125:(2nd ed.).
3108:
3107:
3106:
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3052:
3042:
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2987:
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2872:
2869:
2863:
2853:
2847:
2846:
2844:
2843:
2828:
2819:
2816:10.1215/-95-1-13
2808:
2799:
2796:
2790:
2784:
2775:
2769:
2763:
2760:Eberhardt (2008)
2757:
2751:
2750:
2730:
2724:
2723:
2721:
2712:
2706:
2705:
2695:
2689:
2688:
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2633:
2632:, pp. 56–65
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2209:
2202:
2140:
2139:
2134:
2133:
2128:
2127:
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2117:
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2111:
2107:pronounced and
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2105:
2086:
2082:
2074:
2070:
2066:
2062:
2058:
2054:
2046:
2042:
2038:
1941:
1937:
1933:
1929:
1894:
1886:
1882:
1874:
1842:
1838:
1833:American English
1789:
1776:
1763:
1750:
1737:
1724:
1711:
1698:
1685:
1672:
1659:
1646:
1633:
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1424:
1415:
1407:
1403:
1398:
1385:
1377:
1332:
1331:
1330:
1324:
1309:Canadian English
1302:
1301:
1300:
1294:
1287:merger) towards
1261:
1260:
1259:
1253:
1246:merger) towards
1231:
1230:
1229:
1223:
1189:American English
1175:
1174:
1173:
1167:
1159:
1158:
1157:
1151:
1137:
1136:
1135:
1129:
1118:and traditional
1112:
1111:
1110:
1104:
1095:Scottish English
993:
969:
945:
944:
936:
935:
929:
928:
916:
915:
909:
908:
896:
895:
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879:
858:
857:
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837:
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788:
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419:
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365:
356:
352:
348:
340:
334:
329:
325:
321:
318:
314:
311:
307:
304:
279:Scottish English
257:
253:
249:
245:
179:present in some
168:
143:
139:
91:
90:
63:
62:
37:
21:
3221:
3220:
3216:
3215:
3214:
3212:
3211:
3210:
3191:
3190:
3151:
3141:
3118:
3115:
3113:Further reading
3104:
3079:
3073:
3055:
3040:
3033:
3025:
3023:
3010:
2993:American Speech
2990:
2970:
2967:
2962:
2961:
2949:
2948:
2944:
2936:
2931:
2930:
2926:
2918:
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2879:
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2839:
2830:
2829:
2822:
2809:
2802:
2797:
2793:
2785:
2778:
2770:
2766:
2758:
2754:
2732:
2731:
2727:
2719:
2714:
2713:
2709:
2697:
2696:
2692:
2658:
2657:
2653:
2645:
2636:
2628:
2624:
2616:
2612:
2603:
2601:
2593:
2592:
2588:
2581:
2577:
2569:
2565:
2556:
2554:
2547:
2543:
2542:
2538:
2530:
2526:
2518:
2514:
2504:
2503:
2499:
2489:
2488:
2484:
2480:, pp. 60–1
2476:
2467:
2459:
2455:
2446:
2444:
2438:
2437:
2433:
2426:
2413:
2412:
2408:
2400:
2393:
2388:(Online). 2023.
2378:
2377:
2373:
2366:
2350:Kenyon, John S.
2348:
2347:
2343:
2335:
2331:
2326:
2321:
2309:
2297:
2289:
2285:
2278:
2269:
2261:
2231:
2225:
2222:
2215:needs expansion
2200:
2192:learner English
2163:
2137:
2136:
2131:
2130:
2125:
2124:
2115:
2114:
2109:
2108:
2103:
2102:
2068:
2060:
2052:
2040:
1991:
1938:but not before
1798:
1327:
1326:
1325:
1297:
1296:
1295:
1273:Chicano English
1256:
1255:
1254:
1226:
1225:
1224:
1170:
1169:
1168:
1154:
1153:
1152:
1132:
1131:
1130:
1107:
1106:
1105:
1062:become perfect
991:
990:unrounded
986:
956:
947:
946:
939:
937:
933:
930:
923:
918:
917:
913:
910:
903:
898:
897:
890:
888:
884:
881:
874:
860:
859:
852:
847:
846:
842:
839:
832:
820:
819:
812:
810:
806:
803:
796:
791:
790:
783:
781:
777:
774:
767:
762:
761:
754:
752:
748:
745:
738:
726:
725:
718:
716:
712:
709:
702:
697:
696:
689:
684:
683:
676:
674:
670:
667:
660:
648:
647:
640:
638:
634:
631:
624:
619:
618:
611:
609:
605:
602:
595:
590:
589:
582:
580:
576:
573:
566:
554:
553:
546:
544:
540:
532:
531:
524:
522:
518:
515:
508:
496:
495:
488:
486:
482:
479:
472:
467:
466:
459:
457:
453:
450:
443:
438:
437:
430:
428:
424:
421:
414:
408:
363:
346:
332:
327:
316:
309:
302:
173:low back merger
166:
151:
150:
149:
117:
116:
108:
106:
105:
104:
103:
92:
85:
82:
76:
75:
74:
64:
56:
53:
47:
41:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3219:
3217:
3209:
3208:
3203:
3193:
3192:
3189:
3188:
3179:
3167:
3162:
3157:
3150:
3149:External links
3147:
3146:
3145:
3139:
3114:
3111:
3110:
3109:
3081:Wells, John C.
3077:
3071:
3057:Labov, William
3053:
3031:
3008:
2999:(3): 284–311,
2988:
2966:
2963:
2960:
2959:
2942:
2924:
2922:, p. 399.
2912:
2897:
2888:
2873:
2864:
2848:
2820:
2800:
2791:
2789:, p. 165.
2776:
2764:
2752:
2741:(5): 450–475.
2725:
2707:
2690:
2671:(2): 137–180.
2651:
2634:
2622:
2610:
2599:Ling.upenn.edu
2586:
2575:
2563:
2536:
2524:
2512:
2497:
2482:
2465:
2453:
2431:
2424:
2406:
2391:
2371:
2364:
2341:
2339:, p. 479.
2328:
2327:
2325:
2322:
2320:
2317:
2316:
2315:
2308:
2305:
2282:Indian English
2277:
2274:
2233:
2232:
2212:
2210:
2199:
2196:
2188:Charles Boberg
2162:
2159:
2135:, and perhaps
2077:vowel breaking
2033:
2032:
2009:
2002:
1990:
1987:
1934:merger before
1887:(phonetically
1875:(phonetically
1797:
1794:
1791:
1790:
1785:
1782:
1778:
1777:
1772:
1769:
1765:
1764:
1759:
1756:
1752:
1751:
1746:
1743:
1739:
1738:
1733:
1730:
1726:
1725:
1720:
1717:
1713:
1712:
1707:
1704:
1700:
1699:
1694:
1691:
1687:
1686:
1681:
1678:
1674:
1673:
1668:
1665:
1661:
1660:
1655:
1652:
1648:
1647:
1642:
1639:
1635:
1634:
1629:
1626:
1622:
1621:
1616:
1613:
1609:
1608:
1603:
1600:
1596:
1595:
1590:
1587:
1583:
1582:
1577:
1574:
1570:
1569:
1564:
1561:
1557:
1556:
1551:
1548:
1544:
1543:
1538:
1535:
1531:
1530:
1525:
1522:
1518:
1517:
1512:
1509:
1505:
1504:
1499:
1496:
1492:
1491:
1486:
1483:
1479:
1478:
1473:
1470:
1466:
1465:
1460:
1457:
1453:
1452:
1447:
1444:
1440:
1439:
1434:
1431:
1427:
1426:
1419:
1411:
1393:
1392:
1386:
1368:Indian English
1364:
1363:
1362:
1361:
1360:
1342:
1305:
1304:
1303:
1262:
1233:
1206:
1178:
1177:
1176:
1142:Ulster English
1140:Some northern
1138:
1113:
1034:into a single
998:
997:
985:
984:
979:
974:
963:
957:
953:
952:
949:
948:
938:
931:
922:
921:
919:
911:
902:
901:
899:
889:
882:
873:
872:
870:
864:
863:
861:
851:
850:
848:
840:
831:
830:
828:
822:
821:
811:
804:
795:
794:
792:
782:
775:
766:
765:
763:
753:
746:
737:
736:
734:
728:
727:
717:
710:
701:
700:
698:
688:
687:
685:
675:
668:
659:
658:
656:
650:
649:
639:
632:
623:
622:
620:
610:
603:
594:
593:
591:
581:
574:
565:
564:
562:
556:
555:
545:
538:
537:
535:
533:
523:
516:
507:
506:
504:
498:
497:
487:
480:
471:
470:
468:
458:
451:
442:
441:
439:
429:
422:
413:
412:
405:
399:
398:
393:
388:
383:
376:
375:
362:
359:
187:in words like
144:⟩, see
120:
119:
118:
107:
93:
83:
80:Merged speaker
78:
77:
65:
54:
49:
48:
43:
42:
33:
32:
31:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3218:
3207:
3204:
3202:
3199:
3198:
3196:
3186:
3185:
3180:
3178:
3168:
3166:
3163:
3161:
3158:
3156:
3153:
3152:
3148:
3142:
3140:0-7486-0835-4
3136:
3132:
3128:
3124:
3123:
3117:
3116:
3112:
3102:
3098:
3094:
3090:
3086:
3082:
3078:
3074:
3072:3-11-016746-8
3068:
3064:
3063:
3058:
3054:
3050:
3046:
3039:
3038:
3032:
3022:
3018:
3014:
3009:
3006:
3002:
2998:
2994:
2989:
2986:
2982:
2978:
2974:
2969:
2968:
2964:
2955:
2954:
2946:
2943:
2935:
2928:
2925:
2921:
2916:
2913:
2908:
2901:
2898:
2892:
2889:
2884:
2877:
2874:
2868:
2865:
2862:
2858:
2852:
2849:
2838:
2834:
2827:
2825:
2821:
2817:
2813:
2807:
2805:
2801:
2795:
2792:
2788:
2783:
2781:
2777:
2773:
2768:
2765:
2761:
2756:
2753:
2748:
2744:
2740:
2736:
2729:
2726:
2718:
2711:
2708:
2703:
2702:
2694:
2691:
2686:
2682:
2678:
2674:
2670:
2666:
2662:
2655:
2652:
2648:
2643:
2641:
2639:
2635:
2631:
2626:
2623:
2620:, p. 217
2619:
2614:
2611:
2600:
2596:
2590:
2587:
2584:
2583:Gordon (2005)
2579:
2576:
2573:, p. 122
2572:
2567:
2564:
2553:
2546:
2540:
2537:
2534:, p. 626
2533:
2528:
2525:
2522:, p. 218
2521:
2516:
2513:
2508:
2501:
2498:
2493:
2486:
2483:
2479:
2474:
2472:
2470:
2466:
2463:, p. 438
2462:
2457:
2454:
2442:
2435:
2432:
2427:
2421:
2417:
2410:
2407:
2403:
2398:
2396:
2392:
2387:
2386:
2381:
2375:
2372:
2367:
2365:0-87779-047-7
2361:
2357:
2356:
2351:
2345:
2342:
2338:
2333:
2330:
2323:
2318:
2314:
2311:
2310:
2306:
2304:
2283:
2275:
2273:
2255:
2253:
2249:
2244:
2240:
2229:
2226:December 2016
2220:
2216:
2213:This section
2211:
2208:
2204:
2203:
2197:
2195:
2193:
2189:
2184:
2178:
2176:
2172:
2169:(what is now
2168:
2160:
2158:
2156:
2152:
2148:
2144:
2122:
2101:merger, with
2100:
2096:
2092:
2088:
2078:
2050:
2030:
2026:
2022:
2021:New York City
2018:
2014:
2010:
2007:
2003:
2000:
1996:
1995:
1994:
1988:
1986:
1984:
1982:
1978:
1973:
1969:
1965:
1961:
1957:
1953:
1949:
1945:
1924:
1922:
1918:
1914:
1910:
1906:
1902:
1898:
1892:
1880:
1869:
1866:
1862:
1858:
1854:
1853:William Labov
1848:
1846:
1834:
1831:as spoken in
1830:
1826:
1817:
1813:
1809:
1808:
1802:
1795:
1786:
1783:
1780:
1779:
1773:
1770:
1767:
1766:
1760:
1757:
1754:
1753:
1747:
1744:
1741:
1740:
1734:
1731:
1728:
1727:
1721:
1718:
1715:
1714:
1708:
1705:
1702:
1701:
1695:
1692:
1689:
1688:
1682:
1679:
1676:
1675:
1669:
1666:
1663:
1662:
1656:
1653:
1650:
1649:
1643:
1640:
1637:
1636:
1630:
1627:
1624:
1623:
1617:
1614:
1611:
1610:
1604:
1601:
1598:
1597:
1591:
1588:
1585:
1584:
1578:
1575:
1572:
1571:
1565:
1562:
1559:
1558:
1552:
1549:
1546:
1545:
1539:
1536:
1533:
1532:
1526:
1523:
1520:
1519:
1513:
1510:
1507:
1506:
1500:
1497:
1494:
1493:
1487:
1484:
1481:
1480:
1474:
1471:
1468:
1467:
1461:
1458:
1455:
1454:
1448:
1445:
1442:
1441:
1435:
1432:
1429:
1428:
1420:
1418:
1412:
1410:
1400:
1399:
1391:
1387:
1383:
1375:
1369:
1365:
1358:
1354:
1350:
1346:
1343:
1340:
1336:
1329:
1322:
1316:
1313:
1312:
1311:, including:
1310:
1306:
1299:
1292:
1286:
1282:
1278:
1274:
1270:
1266:
1265:Cajun English
1263:
1258:
1251:
1245:
1241:
1237:
1234:
1228:
1221:
1215:
1212:towards (in
1211:
1207:
1204:
1200:
1196:
1193:
1192:
1191:, including:
1190:
1186:
1185:
1183:
1179:
1172:
1165:
1156:
1149:
1143:
1139:
1134:
1127:
1121:
1120:Irish English
1117:
1114:
1109:
1102:
1096:
1092:
1091:
1089:
1088:
1087:
1085:
1081:
1077:
1073:
1069:
1065:
1061:
1057:
1053:
1049:
1045:
1041:
1037:
1033:
1029:
1025:
1021:
1017:
1013:
1009:
1005:
996:
995:
994: rounded
983:
980:
978:
975:
973:
968:
964:
962:
959:
958:
955:
954:
943:
927:
920:
907:
900:
894:
878:
871:
869:
865:
862:
856:
849:
836:
829:
827:
823:
816:
800:
793:
787:
771:
764:
758:
742:
735:
733:
729:
722:
706:
699:
693:
686:
680:
664:
657:
655:
651:
644:
628:
621:
615:
599:
592:
586:
570:
563:
561:
557:
550:
536:
534:
528:
512:
505:
503:
499:
492:
476:
469:
463:
447:
440:
434:
418:
406:
404:
400:
397:
392:
387:
382:
381:
378:
377:
374:
370:
366:
360:
358:
344:
336:
299:
295:
290:
288:
284:
280:
276:
272:
268:
266:
262:
241:
237:
234:
230:
226:
222:
218:
214:
210:
206:
202:
198:
194:
190:
186:
182:
178:
174:
170:
163:
161:
157:
147:
135:
131:
129:
125:
115:
113:
101:
97:
81:
73:
69:
52:
46:
30:
19:
3183:
3121:
3101:0-52128540-2
3084:
3061:
3036:
3024:, retrieved
3016:
2996:
2992:
2976:
2972:
2965:Bibliography
2952:
2945:
2927:
2920:Wells (1982)
2915:
2906:
2900:
2891:
2882:
2876:
2867:
2860:
2851:
2840:. Retrieved
2837:Academia.edu
2836:
2794:
2787:Jones (2020)
2767:
2755:
2738:
2734:
2728:
2710:
2700:
2693:
2668:
2664:
2654:
2625:
2613:
2602:. Retrieved
2598:
2589:
2578:
2566:
2555:. Retrieved
2551:
2539:
2527:
2515:
2506:
2500:
2491:
2485:
2456:
2445:. Retrieved
2434:
2415:
2409:
2383:
2374:
2354:
2344:
2337:Wells (1982)
2332:
2279:
2251:
2247:
2242:
2238:
2236:
2223:
2219:adding to it
2214:
2179:
2167:Upper Canada
2164:
2146:
2142:
2098:
2094:
2089:
2034:
2017:Philadelphia
1992:
1980:
1976:
1975:
1971:
1967:
1963:
1959:
1955:
1951:
1947:
1943:
1925:
1920:
1916:
1912:
1908:
1904:
1900:
1896:
1870:
1849:
1835:are ⟨
1828:
1824:
1821:
1815:
1811:
1805:
1416:
1408:
1356:
1352:
1338:
1334:
1284:
1280:
1243:
1239:
1202:
1198:
1180:Much of the
1083:
1079:
1071:
1067:
1059:
1055:
1051:
1047:
1043:
1039:
1027:
1023:
1019:
1015:
1011:
1007:
1001:
987:
343:phonemicized
297:
293:
291:
287:U.S. English
264:
260:
231:merger, the
228:
224:
221:minimal pair
216:
212:
208:
204:
203:(along with
200:
196:
192:
188:
177:sound change
172:
165:
159:
155:
154:
152:
140:and ⟨
122:
99:
95:
71:
67:
44:
29:
2979:(2): 1–10,
2404:, p. ?
2270:LOT–THOUGHT
2183:Scots-Irish
2121:chain shift
2079:results in
1307:Nearly all
1275:, and some
333:NORTH–FORCE
322:. However,
236:back vowels
167:LOT–THOUGHT
3195:Categories
3049:2423437304
3043:(Thesis).
3026:August 29,
2842:2016-03-19
2649:, chpt. 11
2604:2016-12-12
2557:2016-12-12
2532:Wells 1982
2461:Wells 1982
2447:2016-12-12
2425:3110175320
2402:Wells 1982
2324:References
2155:Charleston
2151:Pittsburgh
2149:merger in
2025:Providence
1989:Resistance
1863:, and the
1333:(with the
1279:(with the
1238:(with the
1122:, towards
1097:, towards
1064:homophones
977:full chart
502:Near-close
289:dialects.
112:media help
3127:Edinburgh
2685:1469-8021
2013:Baltimore
1345:Maritimer
826:Near-open
560:Close-mid
70:and for
3083:(1982),
3045:ProQuest
2818:. p. 40.
2307:See also
2198:Scotland
1861:Nebraska
1845:phonetic
1606:ˈhɒlə(r)
1541:ˈkɒlə(r)
1370:towards
1317:towards
1208:Much of
988:Legend:
982:template
961:IPA help
732:Open-mid
361:Overview
275:Canadian
185:phonemes
138:/ /
134:Help:IPA
2985:2034660
2595:"Map 1"
2290:THOUGHT
2171:Ontario
2110:THOUGHT
2061:THOUGHT
2053:THOUGHT
1865:Dakotas
1719:wrought
1641:naughty
1615:haughty
1359:merger)
1341:merger)
1205:merger)
1036:phoneme
992:•
391:Central
345:as the
341:can be
317:THOUGHT
191:versus
175:, is a
126:in the
3137:
3105:
3099:
3069:
3047:
2983:
2683:
2422:
2362:
2292:vowel
2254:merger
2252:bother
2248:father
2243:caught
2161:Origin
2147:caught
2099:caught
2071:vowel
2063:vowel
2055:vowel
2043:vowel
2029:Boston
1983:merger
1972:caught
1964:caught
1956:caught
1917:caught
1909:bother
1905:father
1901:caught
1857:Kansas
1829:caught
1816:caught
1771:taught
1745:sought
1706:pawned
1667:nought
1654:gnawed
1638:knotty
1628:nought
1612:hottie
1602:hauler
1599:holler
1576:fawned
1550:caught
1537:caller
1534:collar
1498:clawed
1459:bought
1437:ˈbɒbəl
1433:bauble
1430:bobble
1357:bother
1353:father
1339:bother
1335:father
1285:bother
1281:father
1244:bother
1240:father
1214:Boston
1203:bother
1199:father
1084:caught
1078:. The
1076:rhymes
1066:, and
1060:gnawed
1044:caught
1024:gnawed
1020:caught
970:
373:Vowels
335:merger
326:as in
315:, and
298:bother
294:father
277:, and
271:Indian
267:merger
265:bother
261:father
229:caught
217:pawned
209:bought
201:caught
193:caught
169:merger
162:merger
160:caught
142:
100:caught
72:caught
3041:(PDF)
2981:S2CID
2937:(PDF)
2720:(PDF)
2548:(PDF)
2380:"ore"
2319:Notes
2276:India
2132:DRESS
1999:South
1997:The "
1923:as .
1893:]
1889:[
1881:]
1877:[
1762:ˈstɒk
1758:stalk
1755:stock
1732:sawed
1710:ˈpɒnd
1693:pawed
1645:ˈnɒti
1619:ˈhɒti
1580:ˈfɒnd
1524:cawed
1511:caulk
1502:ˈklɒd
1489:ˈtʃɒk
1485:chalk
1482:chock
1476:ˈbɒks
1472:balks
1450:ˈbɒdi
1446:bawdy
1388:Some
1384:]
1380:[
1376:]
1372:[
1366:Much
1323:]
1319:[
1293:]
1289:[
1252:]
1248:[
1222:]
1218:[
1166:]
1162:[
1150:]
1146:[
1128:]
1124:[
1116:Broad
1103:]
1099:[
1093:Most
1068:shock
1052:stalk
1048:stock
1032:merge
1028:stalk
1016:stock
1004:vowel
972:audio
403:Close
386:Front
355:/oʊr/
328:NORTH
283:Irish
130:(IPA)
102:alike
3174:and
3135:ISBN
3097:ISBN
3067:ISBN
3028:2010
2681:ISSN
2420:ISBN
2360:ISBN
2301:/ɑː/
2298:PALM
2294:/ɒː/
2264:and
2262:PALM
2126:TRAP
1981:dawn
1954:and
1948:dawn
1946:and
1921:cart
1915:and
1827:and
1814:and
1788:ˈwɒk
1784:walk
1775:ˈtɒt
1749:ˈsɒt
1736:ˈsɒd
1723:ˈrɒt
1703:pond
1697:ˈpɒd
1680:awed
1671:ˈnɒt
1658:ˈnɒd
1632:ˈnɒt
1625:knot
1593:ˈhɒk
1589:hawk
1586:hock
1573:fond
1567:ˈdɒn
1563:dawn
1554:ˈkɒt
1528:ˈkɒd
1515:ˈkɒk
1508:cock
1495:clod
1463:ˈbɒt
1443:body
1347:and
1072:talk
1070:and
1058:and
1050:and
1042:and
1026:and
1014:and
868:Open
396:Back
351:/or/
347:GOAT
324:/ɔr/
303:PALM
285:and
254:and
246:and
215:and
213:pond
207:and
199:and
153:The
98:and
94:for
66:for
3176:/t/
3172:/n/
3089:doi
3021:PBS
3001:doi
2812:doi
2743:doi
2673:doi
2286:LOT
2268:in
2266:/ɔ/
2260:in
2258:/a/
2239:cot
2221:.
2143:cot
2138:KIT
2116:LOT
2104:LOT
2095:cot
2085:/ɑ/
2081:/ɔ/
2073:/ɑ/
2069:LOT
2065:/ɔ/
2057:/ɔ/
2045:/ɑ/
2041:LOT
2037:/ɑ/
2023:to
2019:to
2015:to
1977:Don
1968:cot
1960:cot
1952:cot
1944:Don
1940:/t/
1936:/n/
1932:/ɔ/
1928:/ɑ/
1913:cot
1897:cot
1885:/ɔ/
1873:/ɑ/
1825:cot
1812:cot
1781:wok
1768:tot
1742:sot
1729:sod
1716:rot
1690:pod
1684:ˈɒd
1677:odd
1664:not
1651:nod
1560:don
1547:cot
1521:cod
1469:box
1456:bot
1414:/ɔ/
1406:/ɒ/
1404:or
1402:/ɑ/
1378:or
1080:cot
1056:nod
1040:cot
1030:to
1012:nod
1008:cot
654:Mid
369:IPA
353:or
339:/r/
320:/ɔ/
313:/ɒ/
310:LOT
306:/ɑ/
256:/ɔ/
252:/ɑ/
248:/ɔ/
244:/ɒ/
242:as
233:low
225:cot
205:bot
197:Cot
189:cot
171:or
156:cot
96:cot
68:cot
3197::
3133:.
3129::
3095:,
3019:,
3015:,
2997:83
2995:,
2977:19
2975:,
2835:.
2823:^
2803:^
2779:^
2737:.
2679:.
2669:19
2667:.
2663:.
2637:^
2597:.
2550:.
2468:^
2394:^
2382:.
2272:.
2129:,
1985:.
1859:,
1271:,
1267:,
1184::
1054:,
1046:,
1022:,
1010:,
721:o̞
705:ɤ̞
679:ø̞
663:e̞
371::
357:.
308:,
273:,
211:,
195:.
3143:.
3091::
3075:.
3051:.
3003::
2939:.
2845:.
2814::
2774:.
2762:.
2749:.
2745::
2739:1
2722:.
2704:.
2687:.
2675::
2607:.
2560:.
2450:.
2428:.
2368:.
2250:–
2241:–
2228:)
2224:(
2145:–
2097:–
1979:–
1970:–
1962:–
1930:–
1907:–
1899:–
1891:ɒ
1879:ä
1841:ɔ
1837:ɑ
1423:ɒ
1382:ɒ
1374:ɔ
1355:–
1337:–
1321:ɒ
1291:ä
1283:–
1250:ɑ
1242:–
1220:ɒ
1201:–
1164:ɔ
1148:ä
1126:a
1101:ɔ
1082:–
942:ɒ
926:ɑ
906:ä
893:ɶ
877:a
855:ɐ
835:æ
815:ɔ
799:ʌ
786:ɞ
770:ɜ
757:œ
741:ɛ
692:ə
643:o
627:ɤ
614:ɵ
598:ɘ
585:ø
569:e
549:ʊ
527:ʏ
511:ɪ
491:u
475:ɯ
462:ʉ
446:ɨ
433:y
417:i
296:–
263:–
227:–
158:–
148:.
114:.
20:)
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