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other hand, saw themselves as connected with the land spiritually and that the land, instead owned them. Land to
Aboriginal people is a major part of their identity and spirituality. They saw the land as being sacred and needing to be protected. Indigenous peoples believe it is their responsibility to take care of the land. As Marion Kickett states in her research, “Land is very important to Aboriginal people with the common belief of 'we don’t own the land, the land owns us'. Aboriginal people have always had a spiritual connection to their land..." These differing perspectives on land caused many disputes during the era of Manifest Destiny and as white settler populations began to increase and move into Indigenous peoples’ territory. The Indigenous people believed they were to serve the land while white colonists believed the land should serve them. As a result, when the two sides came in contact, they disputed over how to "claim" land. The height of this conflict began to occur during
709:'s ongoing effort to gain control of gas and oil resources from Australia, which it perceives at its own, is a form of counter-mapping. This dispute involves a cartographic contestation of Australia's mapping of the seabed resources between the two countries. As Nevins contends: whilst Australia's map is based on the status quo – a legacy of a 1989 agreement between Australia and the Indonesian occupier of East Timor at that time, East Timor's map represents an enlarged notion of what its sea boundaries should be, thereby entailing a redrawing of the map. This form of counter-mapping thus represents a claim by a relatively weak state, East Timor, to territory and resources that are controlled by a stronger state, Australia. However, Nevins notes that there is limited potential of realising a claim through East Timor's counter-map: counter-mapping is an effective strategy only when combined with broader legal and political strategies.
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economic) functions and traditions. The difference between boundaries and territories made by the White colonists and
Indigenous people were vastly different, and expressed their views on the land and nature. Indigenous peoples' territory often ended at rivers, mountains, and hills or were defined by relationships between different tribes, resources, and trade networks. The relationships between tribes would determine the access to the land and its resources. Instead of the borders being hard edges like the United States’, border on Indigenous peoples’ lands were more fluid and would change based on marriages between chiefs and their family members, hunting clans, and heredity. In Indigenous maps the landmarks would be drawn on paper and in some cases described. Detailed knowledge of the thickness of ice, places of shelter and predators were placed in maps to inform the user for what to look for when in the territory.
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peoples from
Australia, and Amazonian people from Brazil. The people of the lands have begun creating their own maps of the land in terms of the borders of the territory and pathways around the territory. When Native peoples first began this process it was done by hand, but presently GPS systems and other technological mapping devices are used. Indigenous maps are reconceptualizing the "average" map and creatively representing space as well as the culture of those who live in the space. Indigenous people are creating maps that are for their power and social benefit instead of the ones forced on them through different titling, and description. Indigenous peoples are also creating maps to adjust to the contamination and pollution that is present In their land. Specifically in Peru, Indigenous peoples are using mapping to identify problem areas and innovating and creating strategies to combat these risks for the future.
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belonged to
Indigenous peoples’. That is often how land would be stolen from Indigenous peoples. The land that would be "claimed" by the United States Government would stretch across Indigenous lands without consideration of their borders. Indigenous peoples' lands were absorbed by the borders of America's newly mapped states and were forced out as a result. Their livelihoods and mythology tied to the land was also destroyed. White colonists claimed the land for their own and Indigenous peoples were no longer allowed to occupy the space. Another way was the differences in the way each group mapped the land. The United States Government would not recognize a Tribes territory without a map and most tribes did not have maps that were in the style of European maps, therefore they were ignored.
359:, predominantly since the late 1970s, have reconfigured the state's role in the cartographic project. Neoliberalism denotes an emphasis on markets and minimal states, whereby individual choice is perceived to have replaced the mass-production of commodities. The fact that citizens are now performing cartographic functions that were once exclusively state-controlled can be partially explained through a shift from "roll-back neoliberalism", in which the state dismantled some of its functions, to "roll-out neoliberalism", in which new modes of operating have been constructed. In brief, the state can be seen to have "hollowed out" and delegated some of its mapping power to citizens.
378:'s notion of "subjugated knowledges" - ones that did not rise to the top, or were disqualified. However, through neoliberalising processes, the state has retracted from performing some of its cartographic functions. Consequently, rather than being passive recipients of top-down map distribution, people now have the opportunity to claim sovereignty over the mapping process. In this new regime of neoliberal cartographic governmentality the "insurrection of subjugated knowledges" occurs, as counter-mapping initiatives incorporate previously marginalised voices.
395:. to assert that counter-mapping involves "stealing the master's tools". Nevertheless, numerous early counter-mapping projects successfully utilised manual techniques, and many still use them. For instance, in recent years, the use of simple sketch mapping approaches has been revitalised, whereby maps are made on the ground, using natural materials. Similarly, the use of scale model constructions and felt boards, as means of representing cartographic claims of different groups, have become increasingly popular. Consequently,
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is about creating a community expression of values, and about beginning to assert ideas for involvement. It is about taking the place in your own hands". The final map product is typically an artistic artefact, usually painted, and often displayed in village halls or schools. By questioning the biases of cartographic conventions and challenging predominant power effects of mapping, The Parish Maps
Project is an early example of what Peluso went on to term 'counter-mapping'
414:(PPGIS) have attempted to take the power of the map out of the hands of the cartographic elite, putting it into the hands of the people. For instance, Kyem designed a PPGIS method termed Exploratory Strategy for Collaboration, Management, Allocation, and Planning (ESCMAP). The method sought to integrate the concerns and experiences of three rural communities in the Ashanti Region of Ghana into official
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464:'s notion of "governance without government". Another characteristic of governance is its "purposeful effort to steer, control or manage sectors or facets of society" towards a common goal. Likewise, as maps exude power and authority, they are a trusted medium with the ability to 'steer' society in a particular direction. In brief,
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initiative encouraging local people to map elements of the environment valued by their parish. Since then, more than 2,500 English parishes have made such maps. Parish mapping projects aim to put every local person in an 'expert' role. Clifford exemplifies this notion, affirming: "making a parish map
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tracks are the most important, collected by volunteers with GPS receivers. As of 10 January 2011 there were 340,522 registered OSM users, who had uploaded 2.121 billion GPS points onto the website. The process of map creation explicitly relies upon sharing and participation; consequently,
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White colonists saw land as property and a commodity to be possessed. As a result, as settlers grew in numbers and journeyed west, land was claimed and sold for profit. White colonists would “develop” the land and take ownership of it, believing the land was theirs to own. Indigenous peoples, on the
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Indigenous peoples have begun remapping areas of the world that were once occupied by their ancestors as an act of reclamation of land stolen from them by country governments. Indigenous peoples have begun this process all over the world from the
Indigenous peoples from the United States, Aboriginal
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mapping, appropriating both the state's techniques and manner of representation. Counter-mapping is a tool for indigenous identity-building, and for bolstering the legitimacy of customary resource claims. The success of counter-mapping in realising indigenous claims can be seen through
Nietschmann's
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is creating maps that challenge "dominant power structures, to further seemingly progressive goals". Counter-mapping is used in multiple disciplines to reclaim colonized territory. Counter-maps are prolific in indigenous cultures, "counter-mapping may reify, reinforce, and extend settler boundaries
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Investment in specialised computers and software often results in prohibitive mapping costs for a large majority of local people, particularly in poor areas. As some groups prove more capable of adopting the technologies than others, counter-mapping projects can deepen divisions within communities
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Maps made by White colonists in
America were first based on populations, created territories based on the edges of civilization. After the creation of the United States government, state land was designated by Congress and intended to be given equally by latitude and longitudinal coordinates. The
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Maps represent and reflect how an individual or society names and projects themselves onto nature, literally and symbolically. Mapping, while seemingly objective, is political and a method of control on territory. Mapmaking has thus both socio-cultural (myth-making) and technical (utilitarian and
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in who creates and shares geographic information - from the state, to society. However, rather than countering the state-dominated cartographic project, some commentators have affirmed that OSM merely replicates the 'old' socio-economic order. For instance, Haklay affirmed that OSM users in the
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was birthed as a result and a boundary line was created at the longitude and latitude lines of 36’30”. The states were documented by their coordinates and borders were made at the numbered locations. These numbered locations would stretch for miles and encompass all in that territory even if it
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Despite its emancipatory potential, counter-mapping has not gone without criticism. There is a tendency for counter-mapping efforts to overlook the knowledge of women, minorities, and other vulnerable, disenfranchised groups. From this perspective, counter-mapping is only empowering for a small
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These maps played a fundamental role in the negotiations that enabled the Inuit to assert an aboriginal title to the 2 million km in Canada, today known as
Nunavut. Counter-mapping is a tool by which indigenous groups can re-present the world in ways which destabilise dominant representations.
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Community mapping can be defined as "local mapping, produced collaboratively, by local people and often incorporating alternative local knowledge". OpenStreetMap is an example of a community mapping initiative, with the potential to counter the hegemony of state-dominated map distribution.
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political-economic restructuring of the state. Prior to the 1960s, equipping a map-making enterprise was chiefly the duty of a single agency, funded by the national government. In this sense, maps have conventionally been the products of privileged knowledges. However, processes of
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To summarise, whilst counter-mapping has the potential to transform map-making from "a science of princes", the investment required to create a map with the ability to challenge state-produced cartography means that counter-mapping is unlikely to become a "science of the masses".
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tools, consequently making the
Indonesian state vulnerable to counter-maps. As such, counter-mapping strategies in Kalimantan have led to successful community action to block, and protest against, oil palm plantations and logging concessions imposed by the central government.
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Counter-mapping fails to recognise that community is a constantly shifting, fluid process, too often relying on a notion of community as bounded and fixed. As such, the process of mapping communicates and naturalises who does, and who does not, belong within particular
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United Kingdom tend not to map council estates; consequently, middle-class areas are disproportionately mapped. Thus, in opposition to notions that OSM is a radical cartographic counter-culture, are contentions that OSM "simply recreates a mirror copy of existing
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used the results of counter-mapping to advocate for the reclassification of several strictly protected areas into Indonesian national parks, including Kayan Mentarang and Gunung Lorentz. The success of such counter-mapping efforts led Alcorn to affirm that
521:. In order to emphasise the wide scope of what has come to be known as counter-mapping, three contrasting counter-mapping examples are elucidated in this section: indigenous counter-mapping, community mapping, and state counter-mapping, respectively.
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interests. The resultant counter-hegemonic maps strengthen forest users' resource claims. There are numerous expressions closely related to counter-mapping: ethnocartography, alternative cartography, mapping-back, counter-hegemonic mapping,
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even as it seeks to challenge dominant mapping practices; and still, counter-mapping may simultaneously create conditions of possibility for decolonial ways of representing space and place." The term came into use in the United States when
488:. For instance, counter-maps depicting traditional use of areas now protected for biodiversity have been used to allow resource use, or to promote public debate about the issue, rather than forcing relocation. For example, the
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claims and those of the state, the language and tools of the dominant society must be used by those under its control. The process of using another's tools can change the ideas represented, resulting in a map of unpredictable
296:, who often contract international experts to assist with mapping village territories. The goal of the second set of maps was to co-opt the cartographic conventions of the Indonesian state, to legitimise the claims by the
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In response to technological change, predominantly since the 1980s, cartography has increasingly been democratised. The wide availability of high-quality location information has enabled mass-market cartography based on
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Whilst counter-mapping still refers to indigenous mapping, it is increasingly being applied to non-indigenous mapping in economically developed countries. Such counter-mapping has been facilitated by processes of
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We were no longer mapping the 'territories' of Aboriginal people based on the cumulative observations of others of where they were…but instead, mapping the Aboriginal peoples’ own recollections of their own
292:. This strategy recognised mapping as a means of protecting local claims to territory and resources to a government that had previously ignored them. The other set of maps had been created by Indonesian
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practices. Kyem concluded that, notwithstanding the potential of PPGIS, it is possible that the majority of the rich and powerful people in the area would object to some of the participatory uses of
422:. For example, loggers in Ghana affirmed that the PPGIS procedures were too open and democratic. Thus, despite its democratising potential, there are barriers to its implementation. More recently,
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Bauer, K (2009). "On the Politics and Possibilities of Participatory Mapping and GIS: Using Spatial Technologies to Study Common Property and Land Use Change Among Pastoralists in Central Tibet".
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has been a fundamental governmentality strategy, a technology of power, used for surveillance and control. Competing claimants and boundaries made no appearance on state-led maps. This links to
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It must, however, be recognised that counter-mapping projects existed long before coinage of the term. Counter-maps are rooted in map art practices that date to the early 20th century; in the
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Counter-mapping's claim to incorporate counter-knowledges, and thereby empower traditionally disempowered people, has not gone uncontested. A sample of criticisms leveled at counter-mapping:
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every registered OSM user can edit any part of the map. Moreover, 'map parties' – social events which aim to fill gaps in coverage – help foster a community ethos. In short, the
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ending of railroad tracks and crossings also designated the ending of one state to another, creating a fence-like boundary. In a special case, after the acquisition of the
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In contrast to expert knowledges, lay knowledges are increasingly valuable to decision-makers, in part due to the scientific uncertainty surrounding environmental issues.
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is not enfranchised and cannot be scaled up, for instance, to settle legal battles over land tenure and resource rights through the regulatory offices of the state.
1834:"Promoting Local Community Participation in Forest Management Through the Application of a Geographical Information System: A PPGIS Experience from Southern Ghana"
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Nevins, J (2004). "Contesting the Boundaries of International Justice: State Countermapping and Offshore Resource Struggles Between East-Timor and Australia".
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Colchester, M (2005). "Maps, Power, and the Defense of Territory: The Upper Mazarini Land Claim in Guyana". In Brosius, P.J.; Tsing, A.L.; Zerner, C (eds.).
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Nancy Peluso, professor of forest policy, coined the term 'counter-mapping' in 1995, having examined the implementation of two forest mapping strategies in
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587:. Diverse interests, such as those of hunters, trappers, fishermen and berry-pickers mapped out the land they had used during their lives. As Usher noted:
260:, and mapping by a relatively weak state to counter the resource claims of a stronger state. The power of counter-maps to advocate policy change in a
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Perkins, C; Dodge, M (2008). "The Potential of User-Generated Cartography: A Case Study of the OpenStreetMap Project and Mapchester Mapping Party".
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Wainwright, J; Bryan, J (2009). "Cartography, Territory, Property: Postcolonial Reflections on Indigenous Counter-Mapping in Nicaragua and Belize".
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Indigenous Peoples: Mapping and Biodiversity Conservation: An Analysis of Current Activities and Opportunities for Applying Geomatics Technologies
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More indigenous territory has been claimed by maps than by guns. And more Indigenous territory can be reclaimed and defended by maps than by guns.
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refers to a particular form of state power that is exercised when citizens self-discipline by acquiescing to state knowledge. Historically,
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Milla, K.A; Lorenzo, A.; Brown,C (2005). "GIS, GPS, and Remote Sensing Technologies in Extension Services: Where to Start, What to Know".
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Haklay, M (2008). "How Good is Volunteered Geographical Information? A Comparative Study of OpenStreetMap and Ordnance Survey Datasets".
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actors within a particular nation-state; relatively weak states also engage in counter-mapping in an attempt to challenge other states.
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Citizen Cartographies and the Shifting Politics of Expertise. Paper Presented at the 24th Annual International Cartography Conference
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makes problematic state-centric notions of regulation, recognising that there has been a shift to power operating across several
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receivers, home computers, and the internet. The fact that civilians are using technologies which were once elitist led Brosius
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found that there was, in fact, an aboriginal title. The Canadian government attempted to extinguish such titles by negotiating
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460:). Counter-mapping initiatives, often without state assistance, attempt to exert power. As such, counter-mapping conforms to
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Cooke, M.F. (2003). "Maps and Counter-Maps: Globalised Imaginings and Local Realities of Sarawak's Plantation Agriculture".
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Bridge, G; Perreault, T (2009). "Environmental Governance". In Castree, N.M; Demeritt, D.; Liverman, D.; Rhoads, B (eds.).
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Elwood, S; Goodchild, M.F; Sui, D.Z (2011). "Researching VGI: Spatial Data, Geographic Research and New Social Practice".
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Rocheleau, D.B; Edmunds, D (1997). "Women, Men and Trees: Gender, Power and Property in Forest and Agrarian Landscapes".
468:, once the tool of kings and governments, is now being used as a tool of governance - to advocate policy change from the
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Brown, M; Knopp, L (2006). "Places and Polygons? Governmentality, Scale, and the Census in the Gay and Lesbian Atlas".
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as the white colonist population began to grow and move westward into more parts of Indigenous lands and communities.
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There is a geography to the success of counter-mapping. In Tibet, counter-mapping is of limited political utility as
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Kent, A.J (2008). "Cartographic Blandscapes and the New Noise: Finding the Good View in a Topographical Mashup".
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Usher, P.J (2003). "Environment, Race and Nation Reconsidered: Reflections on Aboriginal Land Claims in Canada".
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Numerous counter-mapping types exist, for instance: protest maps, map art, counter-mapping for conservation, and
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Neitschmann, B (1995). "Defending the Misiko Reefs with Maps and GIS: Mapping with Sail, Scuba and Satellite".
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https://www.theguardian.com/science/blog/2018/mar/06/counter-mapping-cartography-that-lets-the-powerless-speak
509:. In short, it can be seen that "maps are powerful political tools in ecological and governance discussions".
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people, indigenous to Kalimantan, to the rights to forest use. Counter-mappers in Kalimantan have acquired
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Dodge, M; Perkins, P (2008). "Reclaiming the Map: British Geography and Ambivalent cartographic Practice".
472:. The environmental sphere is one context in which counter-mapping has been utilised as a governance tool.
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Kwan, M (2002). "Feminist Visualisation: Re-Envisioning GIS as a Method in Feminist Geographic Research".
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Peluso, N.L (1995). "Whose Woods are These? Counter-Mapping Forest Territories in Kalimantan, Indonesia".
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Rood, J; Ormeling, F.; van Elzakker, C (2001). "An Agenda for Democratising Cartographic Visualisation".
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counter-mapping projects are an effective means of incorporating lay knowledges into issues surrounding
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that states a Knowledge (XXG) editor's personal feelings or presents an original argument about a topic.
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Quiquivix, L (2014). "Art of War, Art of Resistance: Palestinian Counter-Cartography on Google Earth".
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Jessop, H (2004). "Hollowing out the 'Nation-State' and Multi-Level Governance". In Kennett, P (ed.).
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Hodgson, D.L; Schroeder, R.A. (2002). "Dilemmas of Counter-Mapping: Community Resources in Tanzania".
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Harley, J.B (1988). "Silences and Secrecy: The Hidden Agenda of Cartography in Early Modern Europe".
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Communities and Conservation: Histories and Politics of Community-Based Natural Resource Management
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Communities and Conservation: Histories and Politics of Community-Based Natural Resource Management
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Counter-mapping is in danger of becoming the 'thing to do'; a "magic bullet applied uncritically".
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Bryan, J (2011). "Walking the Line: Participatory Mapping Indigenous Rights, and Neoliberalism".
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Review OSM: Using and Enhancing the Free Map of the World by Ramm, F., Topf, J and Chilton, S
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https://www.creativespirits.info/aboriginalculture/land/meaning-of-land-to-aboriginal-people
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Narayan, P (2003). "Empowerment through Participation: How Effective is this Approach?".
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Clifford, S (1996). "Places, People, and Parish Maps". In Clifford, S.; King, A. (eds.).
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Quarterly Publication of the International Association for the Study of Common Property
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2225:"Indigenous Rights, Insurgent Cartographies, and the Promise of Participatory Mapping"
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Taylor, J.J (2008). "Naming the Land: San Countermapping in Namibia's West Caprivi".
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Harris, L.M; Hazen, H.D (2006). "Power of Maps: (Counter) Mapping for Conservation".
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manner led commentators to affirm that counter-mapping should be viewed as a tool of
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Counter-mapping has been undertaken predominantly in under-represented communities.
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Borders, Rules and Governance: Mapping to Catalyse Changes in Policy and Management
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The power of indigenous counter-mapping can be exemplified through the creation of
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movement of the 1960s; in indigenous and bioregional mapping; and parish mapping.
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What has come to be known as counter-mapping is not limited to the activities of
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King, B.H (2004). "Community Participation and Geographic Information Systems".
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Classics in Cartography: Reflections on Influential Articles from Cartographica
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832:"Putting Indian Country on the Map: Indigenous Practices of Spatial Justice"
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assert that counter-mappers can "make gateau out of technological crumbs".
2201:"Why Amazonian forest peoples are 'counter-mapping' their ancestral lands"
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in 2004. Data are collected from diverse public domain sources; of which
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title to specified land had not been lawfully extinguished. In 1973, the
429:. disputed the notion of PPGIS entirely, affirming that it is "scarcely
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used it in 1995 to describe the commissioning of maps by forest users in
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McCarthy, J (2006). "Theorizing the State in Environmental Governance".
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433:, intensely hegemonic, hardly public, and anything but participatory".
2018:
664:(OSM), a citizen-led spatial data collection website, was founded by
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and the Nisaga'a Nation Tribal Council brought an action against the
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Leszcynski, A (2011). "Situating the Geoweb in Political Economy".
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land occupancy in the Arctic, resulting in the publication of the
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Power/Knowledge: Selected Interviews and Other Writings:1972-1977
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448:. Similarly, counter-mapping complicates state distribution of
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with the people who had not signed them. As a first step, the
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The development of counter-mapping can be situated within the
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subset of society, whilst others become further marginalised.
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1375:"Virtual Geographic Environments as Collective Constructions"
284:. One set of maps belonged to state forest managers, and the
213:, to contest government maps of forest areas that undermined
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Playing Doctor: Television, Storytelling, and Medical Power
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personal reflection, personal essay, or argumentative essay
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Holding Your Ground: An Action Guide to Local Conservation
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Mapping: A Critical Introduction to Cartography and GIS
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Modern Governance. New Government-Society Interactions
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and public participatory mapping. Moreover, the terms
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Rethinking Maps: New Frontiers in Cartographic Theory
933:"Deep mapping for environmental communication design"
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Public Participation Geographical Information Systems
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Public Participation Geographical Information Systems
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technologies, satellite technology, and computerised
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public participation geographic information systems
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2741:Annals of the Association of American Geographers
2705:Annals of the Association of American Geographers
2361:Annals of the Association of American Geographers
2153:Annals of the Association of American Geographers
1258:Boundaries of Home: Mapping for Local Empowerment
505:map distribution), offers the best hope for good
2799:http://www.aughty.org/pdf/community_mapping.pdf
2699:. Washington, DC: Biodiversity Support Program.
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2504:. Michigan: The University of Michigan Press.
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985:International Encyclopedia of Human Geography
931:Butts, Shannon; Jones, Madison (2021-05-20).
363:Counter-mapping as neoliberal governmentality
8:
2534:Fox, J; Suryanata, K.; Hershock, P. (2005).
2434:The Bulletin of the Society of Cartographers
1885:. London: Rowman Altamira. pp. 271–304.
1405:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
16:Mapping by communities to contest state maps
1750:"OpenStreetMap: User-Generated Street Maps"
1656:
1654:
1618:
1616:
1600:
1598:
1564:. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar. pp. 11–27.
1138:
1136:
978:
976:
974:
972:
970:
968:
966:
501:mapping projects), rather than government (
476:Counter-mapping as environmental governance
53:Learn how and when to remove these messages
2812:Articles on native GIS and counter-mapping
2451:Dodge, M; Perkins, C.; Kitchin, R (2009).
2310:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
2101:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
1288:
1286:
1284:
1282:
89:. Please do not remove this message until
2468:
2466:
2464:
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2392:
2390:
2194:
2192:
2164:
2017:
1625:Review of International Political Economy
1555:
1553:
1273:From Place to Place: Maps and Parish Maps
814:
185:Learn how and when to remove this message
167:Learn how and when to remove this message
109:Learn how and when to remove this message
1293:Perkins, C (2007). "Community Mapping".
1120:
1118:
1116:
1114:
1112:
1110:
1108:
983:Rundstrom, R (2009). "Counter-Mapping".
891:
889:
887:
885:
883:
881:
879:
877:
875:
873:
605:Perspectives on the land (United States)
240:are sometimes used interchangeably with
85:Relevant discussion may be found on the
1827:
1825:
1823:
1821:
1562:A Handbook of Comparative Social Policy
1260:. Philadelphia: New Society Publishers.
1221:
1219:
1217:
1215:
1213:
1211:
1209:
1064:
1062:
1034:
1032:
785:
677:OSM project can be seen to represent a
244:, but in practice encompass much more.
2603:
2593:
2303:
2199:Fraser, James A. (26 September 2017).
2094:
1853:A Companion to Environmental Geography
1497:
1487:
1398:
1275:. London: Common Ground. pp. 3–7.
1226:Wood, D; Fels, J.; Krygier, J (2010).
1018:
1008:
702:Competing cartographic representations
618:The process of mapping (United States)
2842:Environmental social science concepts
2515:Kosek, J (1998). "Mapping Politics".
1192:10.1111/j.0033-0124.2004.05602013_7.x
7:
2784:Counter Mapping - Emergence Magazine
1904:. San Francisco: North Point Press.
585:Inuit Land Use and Occupancy Project
456:participatory mapping projects (see
286:international financial institutions
1462:Larner, W (2009). "Neoliberalism".
743:Counter-mapping projects utilising
725:Due to the power imbalance between
2653:Journal of Southeast Asian Studies
2487:10.1111/j.1944-8287.2004.tb00226.x
918:10.1111/j.1467-8330.1995.tb00286.x
747:require significant knowledge and
14:
2683:. London: John Wiley & Sons.
830:Iralu, Elspeth (September 2021).
288:that supported them, such as the
34:This article has multiple issues.
2578:10.1016/B978-008044910-4.00056-0
2138:10.1111/j.0008-3658.2003.00029.x
1472:10.1016/B978-008044910-4.00792-6
993:10.1016/B978-008044910-4.00017-1
770:GIS and environmental governance
755:along gender and economic lines.
458:GIS and environmental governance
125:
64:
23:
42:or discuss these issues on the
2055:10.1016/j.geoforum.2008.04.001
1722:Norwegian Journal of Geography
1609:. London: John Wiley and Sons.
1053:10.1016/j.geoforum.2010.09.001
937:Communication Design Quarterly
751:above that of lay individuals.
382:Technological democratisation?
1:
1971:Economic and Political Weekly
1241:King, A; Clifford, S (1985).
1157:10.1016/s0305-750x(97)00036-3
437:Counter-mapping as governance
2795:, accessed September 7, 2019
2717:10.1080/00045608.2014.892328
2373:10.1080/00045608.2011.595657
1933:. New York: Guilford Press.
1870:. London: Sage Publications.
1748:Haklay, M; Weber, P (2008).
1228:Rethinking the Power of Maps
1129:. London: Gatekeeper Series.
561:Province of British Columbia
533:are increasingly turning to
2538:. Hawaii: East-West Center.
2070:Cultural Survival Quarterly
1807:Cultural Survival Quarterly
1577:Population, Space and Place
1515:Peck, L; Tickell,A (2002).
1441:10.3138/e635-7827-1757-9t53
1360:Progress in Human Geography
1172:The Professional Geographer
507:natural resource management
91:conditions to do so are met
2868:
1794:. London: Rowman Altamira.
1735:10.1080/002919501300061427
1678:Environment and Planning A
525:Indigenous counter-mapping
490:World Wide Fund for Nature
2793:The Canadian Encyclopedia
2665:10.1017/S0022463403000250
2635:10.1080/03085698808592639
1958:. London: Taylor Francis.
1637:10.1080/09692290601081244
1230:. London: Guilford Press.
577:Inuit Tapirisat of Canada
389:Global Positioning System
2242:"The Importance of Land"
2010:10.1177/1474474008101515
1956:Environmental Governance
1422:"Deconstructing the Map"
1315:10.1179/000870407x213440
1295:The Cartographic Journal
1091:10.1177/1474474008101518
657:OpenStreetMap home page.
513:Types of counter-mapping
486:environmental governance
2753:10.1111/0004-5608.00109
2175:10.1111/1467-8306.00309
2087:Freeman, M.M.R (1976).
1665:. Canada: Random House.
1544:10.1111/1467-8330.00247
1517:"Neoliberalizing Space"
1373:Goodchild, M,F (2008).
949:10.1145/3437000.3437001
807:10.1111/1467-7660.00241
563:for a declaration that
2817:Parish maps in England
795:Development and Change
658:
594:
569:Canadian Supreme Court
544:
230:subversive cartography
147:by rewriting it in an
690:State counter-mapping
656:
324:In 1985, the charity
2789:Indigenous territory
2572:. pp. 377–382.
2455:. London: Routledge.
2342:North West Geography
1990:Cultural Geographies
1769:10.1109/mprv.2008.80
1661:Foucault, M (1988).
1605:Crampton, J (2011).
1466:. pp. 374–378.
1420:Harley, J.B (1989).
1125:Alcorn, J.B (2000).
1071:Cultural Geographies
987:. pp. 314–318.
252:, and technological
234:bio-regional mapping
225:critical cartography
2810:Grossman, Z (2004)
2325:Perkins, C (2011).
2266:"Community Mapping"
2130:2003CGeog..47..365U
2118:Canadian Geographer
2002:2009CuGeo..16..153W
1900:West with the Night
1896:Markham, B (1983).
1866:Kooiman, J (1993).
1855:. pp. 475–497.
1757:Pervasive Computing
1690:2008EnPlA..40.1271D
1536:2002Antip..34..380P
1307:2007CartJ..44..127P
1256:Aberley, D (1993).
1184:2004ProfG..56..315K
1083:2009CuGeo..16..229B
910:1995Antip..27..383P
848:2021Antip..53.1485I
684:topographic mapping
633:Missouri Compromise
557:Frank Arthur Calder
547:Creation of Nunavut
330:Parish Maps Project
320:Parish Maps Project
306:resource management
78:of this article is
2804:2018-07-13 at the
2732:Sparke, M (1998).
2693:Poole, P. (1995).
2679:Dodge, M. (2011).
2570:Indigenous Mapping
2475:Economic Geography
2300:. Santiago, Chile.
2296:Elwood, S (2009).
1245:. London: Penguin.
856:10.1111/anti.12734
659:
629:Louisiana Purchase
531:Indigenous peoples
149:encyclopedic style
136:is written like a
2689:978-0-470-68174-9
2551:Extension Journal
2500:Turow, J (2010).
1954:Evans, J (2012).
1929:The Power of Maps
1145:World Development
749:computer literacy
640:Community mapping
416:forest management
410:In recent years,
195:
194:
187:
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119:
118:
111:
57:
2859:
2763:
2761:
2755:. Archived from
2738:
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2639:
2638:
2618:
2612:
2611:
2605:
2601:
2599:
2591:
2565:
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2287:
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2271:. Archived from
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2256:
2255:
2253:
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2238:
2232:
2231:
2229:
2221:
2215:
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2205:The Conversation
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2166:10.1.1.1027.5622
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2092:
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2038:
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1985:
1979:
1978:
1966:
1960:
1959:
1951:
1945:
1944:
1932:
1925:Wood, D (1992).
1922:
1916:
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1893:
1887:
1886:
1878:
1872:
1871:
1863:
1857:
1856:
1848:
1842:
1841:
1836:. Archived from
1832:Kyem, K (1998).
1829:
1816:
1814:
1802:
1796:
1795:
1787:
1781:
1780:
1754:
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1684:(6): 1271–1276.
1673:
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1380:. Archived from
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1333:
1327:
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1151:(8): 1351–1371.
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868:
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842:(5): 1485–1502.
827:
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612:Manifest Destiny
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2806:Wayback Machine
2770:
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2647:
2645:Further reading
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2246:Sharing Culture
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1387:on 3 March 2016
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368:Governmentality
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254:democratisation
242:counter-mapping
198:Counter-mapping
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145:help improve it
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2768:External links
2766:
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2762:on 2014-06-29.
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282:Kalimantan
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