Counterfactual conditional - Knowledge (XXG)

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breakfast, he does not feel hungry at 11 am. Although it is controversial, Lewis rejected the limit assumption (and therefore the uniqueness assumption) because it rules out the possibility that there might be worlds that get closer and closer to the actual world without limit. For example, there might be an infinite series of worlds, each with a coffee cup a smaller fraction of an inch to the left of its actual position, but none of which is uniquely the closest. (See Lewis 1973: 20.)

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sentences corresponding to the presupposed facts, e.g., "Mark did not leave home early" and "Mark did not catch the train". In other experiments, participants were asked to read short stories that contained counterfactual conditionals, e.g., "If there had been roses in the flower shop then there would have been lilies". Later in the story, they read sentences corresponding to the presupposed facts, e.g., "there were no roses and there were no lilies". The counterfactual conditional

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in all accessible worlds. If this same model were used to evaluate a subsequent utterance of "If Hannah had drunk coffee and the coffee had gasoline in it...", this second conditional would come out as trivially true, since there are no accessible worlds where its antecedent holds. Warmbrōd's idea was that speakers will switch to a model with a more permissive accessibility relation in order to avoid this triviality.

1434:. This definition has been shown to be compatible with the axioms of possible world semantics and forms the basis for causal inference in the natural and social sciences, since each structural equation in those domains corresponds to a familiar causal mechanism that can be meaningfully reasoned about by investigators. This approach was developed by 1332:

worlds where the fair coin lands heads are no more or less close than the worlds where they land tails. For Lewis, "If the coin had been flipped, it would have landed heads or tails" is true, but this does not entail that "If the coin had been flipped, it would have landed heads, or: If the coin had been flipped it would have landed tails."

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On Lewis's account, A > C is (a) vacuously true if and only if there are no worlds where A is true (for example, if A is logically or metaphysically impossible); (b) non-vacuously true if and only if, among the worlds where A is true, some worlds where C is true are closer to the actual world than

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Sarah Moss (2012) and Karen Lewis (2018) have responded to these arguments, showing that a version of the variably strict analysis can account for these patterns, and arguing that such an account is preferable since it can also account for apparent exceptions. As of 2020, this debate continues in the

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is widely used as an umbrella term for the kinds of sentences shown above. However, not all conditionals of this sort express contrary-to-fact meanings. For instance, the classic example known as the "Anderson Case" has the characteristic grammatical form of a counterfactual conditional, but does not

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are the terms used in the philosophical literature on conditionals and because we will refer to that literature in the course of this paper, I have decided to keep these terms in the present discussion... however, it would be wrong to believe that mood choice is a necessary component of the semantic

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that encompass two possibilities when they understand, and reason from, a counterfactual conditional, e.g., "if Oswald had not shot Kennedy, then someone else would have". They envisage the conjecture "Oswald did not shoot Kennedy and someone else did" and they also think about the presupposed facts

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them to read the sentence corresponding to the presupposed facts very rapidly; no such priming effect occurred for indicative conditionals. They spent different amounts of time 'updating' a story that contains a counterfactual conditional compared to one that contains factual information and focused

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the limit assumption, but the limit assumption does not entail the uniqueness assumption.) On Stalnaker's account, A > C is non-vacuously true if and only if, at the closest world where A is true, C is true. So, the above example is true just in case at the single, closest world where he ate more

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logic, but in fact can rather be explained by speakers switching to more permissive accessibility relations as the sequence proceeds. In his system, a counterfactual like "If Hannah had drunk coffee, she would be happy" would normally be evaluated using a model where Hannah's coffee is gasoline-free

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is not. The strict conditional is also context-dependent, at least when given a relational semantics (or something similar). In the relational framework, accessibility relations are parameters of evaluation which encode the range of possibilities which are treated as "live" in the context. Since the

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analysis, a natural language conditional, a statement of the form "if P then Q", is true whenever its antecedent, P, is false. Since counterfactual conditionals are those whose antecedents are false, this analysis would wrongly predict that all counterfactuals are vacuously true. Goodman illustrates

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On Stalnaker's analysis, there is a closest world where the fair coin mentioned in (1) and (2) is flipped and at that world either it lands heads or it lands tails. So either (1) is true and (2) is false or (1) is false and (2) true. On Lewis's analysis, however, both (1) and (2) are false, for the

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On Lewis's account, the truth of this statement consists in the fact that, among possible worlds where he ate more for breakfast, there is at least one world where he is not hungry at 11 am and which is closer to our world than any world where he ate more for breakfast but is still hungry at 11 am.

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Experiments have compared the inferences people make from counterfactual conditionals and indicative conditionals. Given a counterfactual conditional, e.g., "If there had been a circle on the blackboard then there would have been a triangle", and the subsequent information "in fact there was no

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is true, then all instances of the formula (A > C) ∨ (A > ¬C) are true. The law of excluded middle is the thesis that for all propositions p, p ∨ ¬p is true. If the uniqueness assumption is true, then for every antecedent A, there is a uniquely closest world where A is true. If the law of

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Participants in experiments were asked to read sentences, including counterfactual conditionals, e.g., "If Mark had left home early, he would have caught the train". Afterwards, they were asked to identify which sentences they had been shown. They often mistakenly believed they had been shown

1625:. In the indicative example, the bolded words are present tense forms. In the counterfactual example, both words take their past tense form. This use of the past tense cannot have its ordinary temporal meaning, since it can be used with the adverb "tomorrow" without creating a contradiction. 300:

have sometimes been repurposed for more specific uses. For instance, the term "counterfactual" is sometimes applied to conditionals that express a contrary-to-fact meaning, regardless of their grammatical structure. Along similar lines, the term "subjunctive" is sometimes used to refer to

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There is no standard system of terminology for these grammatical forms in English. Pullum and Huddleston (2002, pp. 85-86) adopt the term "irrealis" for this morphological form, reserving the term "subjunctive" for the English clause type whose distribution more closely parallels that of

2021:, i.e. which component of the sentence's meaning is shifted to an earlier time. When a sentence has "real" past marking, it discusses something that happened at an earlier time; when a sentence has so-called fake past marking, it discusses possibilities that were 288:

that have a subjunctive). Moreover, languages that do use the subjunctive for such conditionals only do so if they have a specific past subjunctive form. Thus, subjunctive marking is neither necessary nor sufficient for membership in this class of conditionals.

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is consistent with the current beliefs, but can be hard otherwise. Every semantics for belief revision can be used for evaluating conditional statements. Conversely, every method for evaluating conditionals can be seen as a way for performing revision.

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These conditionals differ in both form and meaning. The indicative conditional uses the present tense form "owns" and therefore conveys that the speaker is agnostic about whether Sally in fact owns a donkey. The counterfactual example uses the

2082:, since they are identical except that the first uses past imperfective marking where the second uses past perfective marking. As a result of this morphological difference, the first has a counterfactual meaning, while the second does not. 424:

More generally, such examples show that counterfactuals are not truth-functional. In other words, knowing whether the antecedent and consequent are actually true is not sufficient to determine whether the counterfactual itself is true.

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excluded middle is true, any consequent C is either true or false at that world where A is true. So for every counterfactual A > C, either A > C or A > ¬C is true. This is called conditional excluded middle (CEM). Example:

173:"would" in the "then" clause. As a result, it conveys that Sally does not in fact own a donkey. English has several other grammatical forms whose meanings are sometimes included under the umbrella of counterfactuality. One is the 1596:, or a combination thereof. Since the early 2000s, linguists, philosophers of language, and philosophical logicians have intensely studied the nature of this grammatical marking, and it continues to be an active area of study. 1042:

The strict conditional analysis encounters many known problems, notably monotonicity. In the classical relational framework, when using a standard notion of entailment, the strict conditional is monotonic, i.e. it validates

3096:"The terminology is of course linguistically inept ( the morphological marking is one of tense and aspect, not of indicative vs. subjunctive mood), but it is so deeply entrenched that it would be foolish not to use it." 1302:

to the actual world. The limit assumption is the thesis that, for a given antecedent A, if there is a chain of possible worlds where A is true, each closer to the actual world than its predecessor, then the chain has a

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inference "there was no circle" more often than they do from an indicative conditional. Given the counterfactual conditional and the subsequent information "in fact there was a circle", participants make the

107:. Other research has addressed their metaphysical, psychological, and grammatical underpinnings, while applying some of the resultant insights to fields including history, marketing, and epidemiology. 99:

approach, in which a counterfactual's truth hinges on its consequent holding at certain possible worlds where its antecedent holds. More recent formal analyses have treated them using tools such as

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treats the past tense as having an inherently temporal denotation. On this approach, so-called fake tense is not actually fake. It differs from "real" tense only in how it takes

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frequently. Experimental evidence indicates that people's thoughts about counterfactual conditionals differ in important ways from their thoughts about indicative conditionals.

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which discuss what would have been true under different circumstances, e.g. "If Peter believed in ghosts, he would be afraid to be here." Counterfactuals are contrasted with

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truth of a strict conditional can depend on the accessibility relation used to evaluate it, this feature of the strict conditional can be used to capture context-dependence.

1071: 1194:. However, subsequent work has revived the strict conditional analysis by appealing to context sensitivity. This approach was pioneered by Warmbrōd (1981), who argued that 695: 3641: 3823: 3212: 1255:

is given by some function on the relative closeness of worlds where A is true and B is true, on the one hand, and worlds where A is true but B is not, on the other.

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or temporal content. For instance, the particular past as modal proposal of Iatridou (2000), the past tense's core meaning is what is shown schematically below:

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is a world, it will convey that the sentence is talking about a potentially non-actual possibility. The latter is what allows for a counterfactual meaning.

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held that counterfactuals are not strictly logical, and do not make true or false claims about the world. However, in the 1960s and 1970s, work by

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of fake tense along with other morphemes. For this reason, fake tense has often been treated as the locus of the counterfactual meaning itself.

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analysis of conditionals, which treats them all as trivially true. Starting in the 1960s, philosophers and linguists developed the now-classic

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Unlike the material conditional, the strict conditional is not vacuously true when its antecedent is false. To see why, observe that both

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this point using the following pair in a context where it is understood that the piece of butter under discussion had not been heated.

84: 1438:(2000) as a means of encoding fine-grained intuitions about causal relations which are difficult to capture in other proposed systems. 3558: 2938: 2913: 1206:

Subsequent work by Kai von Fintel (2001), Thony Gillies (2007), and Malte Willer (2019) has formalized this idea in the framework of

4161: 4134: 4098: 4071: 3399: 3195: 1294:. The uniqueness assumption is the thesis that, for any antecedent A, among the possible worlds where A is true, there is a single ( 598:

is often taken as the standard within linguistics. However, there are numerous possible worlds approaches on the market, including

60:, which are generally restricted to discussing open possibilities. Counterfactuals are characterized grammatically by their use of 4259:

Thompson, Valerie A.; Byrne, Ruth M. J. (2002). "Reasoning counterfactually: Making inferences about things that didn't happen".

2700: 1307:: a possible world where A is true that is closer to the actual worlds than all worlds in the chain. (The uniqueness assumption 4738: 2457:

In ordinary non-conditional sentences, such adverbials are compatible with perfective aspect but not with imperfective aspect:

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in the sense that their truth values can be changed by adding extra material to their antecedents. This fact is illustrated by

264:, though this term is likewise acknowledged as a misnomer even by those who use it. Many languages do not have a morphological 31: 4392: 1239:

literature, with accounts such as Willer (2019) arguing that a strict conditional account can cover these exceptions as well.

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holds across some set of possible worlds where A is true. They vary mainly in how they identify the set of relevant A-worlds.

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Fake past is extremely prevalent cross-linguistically, either on its own or in combination with other morphemes. Moreover,

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If Hannah had drunk coffee and the coffee had gasoline in it and Hannah were a gasoline-drinking robot, she would be happy.

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X-marked desires or: What wanting and wishing crosslinguistically can tell us about the ingredients of counterfactuality

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If Hannah had drunk coffee with gasoline in it, she would not be happy. But if she had drunk coffee, she would be happy.

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counterfactual, which contrasts with indicatives and simple past counterfactuals in its use of pluperfect morphology:

1941:, fake past is regarded as a puzzle, since it is not obvious why so many unrelated languages would repurpose a tense 4485: 4879: 4541: 4362: 4241: 509: 4884: 4834: 4596: 4295: 3080: 2753: 1922: 1391: 583: 372: 2006:

is a time, the past tense will convey that the sentence is talking about non-current times, i.e. the past. When

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Ginsberg (1986) has proposed a semantics for conditionals which assumes that the current beliefs form a set of

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tra marking that these conditionals bear. Those adopting this terminology refer to indicative conditionals as

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morphology. Since these uses of the past tense do not convey their typical temporal meaning, they are called

728: 5035: 4939: 4480: 2783: 2668: 2642: 1914: 1268: 1210:, and given a number of linguistic arguments in favor. One argument is that conditional antecedents license 443:. For example, either of the following statements can be reasonably held true, though not at the same time: 57: 3577: 1096: 926: 625: 4969: 4636: 4606: 4581: 4521: 4420: 4352: 4200:

Kożuchowski, Adam (2015). "More than true: The rhetorical function of counterfactuals in historiography".

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Languages use different strategies for expressing counterfactuality. Some have a dedicated counterfactual

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to each. The rationale is that each of these maximal sets represents a possible state of belief in which

256:: If Jones had taken arsenic, he would have shown just exactly those symptoms which he does in fact show. 4864: 4758: 4723: 4611: 4586: 4430: 4347: 2758: 2695: 1545: 1227: 3701: 3438:, vol. 30, FIZ Karlsruhe – Leibniz Institute for Information Infrastructure GmbH, pp. 13–14, 3271: 2809: 3432:"Review of the paper: M. L. Ginsberg, "Counterfactuals," Artificial Intelligence 30 (1986), pp. 35–79" 1953:. These approaches differ in whether or not they take the past tense's core meaning to be about time. 4849: 4656: 4435: 2748: 2655: 1621:. English is one language which uses fake past to mark counterfactuality, as shown in the following 1190:

This fact led to widespread abandonment of the strict conditional, in particular in favor of Lewis's

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English fake past is sometimes erroneously referred to as "subjunctive", even though it is not the

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it was unclear what he meant by 'closeness', in later writings, Lewis made it clear that he did

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This imperfective marking has been argued to be fake on the grounds that it is compatible with

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conditionals that bear fake past or irrealis marking, regardless of the meaning they convey.

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Fillenbaum, Samuel (1974). "Information amplified: Memory for counterfactual conditionals".

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hold for any connective > intended as a formalization of natural language conditionals.

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The Real, the Fake, and the Fake Fake in Counterfactual Conditionals, Crosslinguistically

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The Real, the Fake, and the Fake Fake in Counterfactual Conditionals, Crosslinguistically

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iff the corresponding material conditional is true throughout the worlds accessible from

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have argued that other languages' strategies for marking counterfactuality are actually

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One consequence of Stalnaker's acceptance of the uniqueness assumption is that, if the

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is true that is as similar as possible to the original one. The conditional statement

1456: 1355: 4994: 4641: 4616: 4450: 4221: 4192: 4184: 4063: 3808: 3773: 3451: 3443: 2838: 2778: 2733: 2704: 2675: 2453:"If you built this house in a month, you would be able to sell it before the summer." 2044: 1211: 568:. Broadly speaking, these approaches have in common that they treat a counterfactual 448: 273: 3955: 3686: 3532: 3338: 3169: 3134: 2883:. Semantics and Linguistic Theory. Linguistic Society of America. pp. 547–570. 2039:

often accompanies fake tense in languages that mark aspect. In some languages (e.g.

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to mark counterfactuality. Proposed solutions to this puzzle divide into two camps:

4909: 4829: 4696: 4576: 4460: 4440: 3919:"Canceling updating in the comprehension of counterfactuals embedded in narratives" 3250: 2680: 2439:

An eχtizes to spiti (mesa) se ena mina θa prolavenes na to pulisis prin to kalokeri

2079: 2075: 2040: 1622: 1346: 1327:(2) If the fair coin had been flipped, it would have landed tails (i.e. not heads). 128: 100: 4213: 4088: 3787:

Ippolito, Michela (2003). "Presuppositions and implicatures in counterfactuals".

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is another language where counterfactuality is marked with a fake past morpheme:

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Schulz, Katrin (2014). "Fake tense in conditional sentences: A modal approach".

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Anderson, Alan (1951). "A Note on Subjunctive and Counterfactual Conditionals".

3025: 2773: 1435: 1418:) is defined as the assertion: If we replace the equation currently determining 619: 265: 2982: 2829: 1286:

Stalnaker's account differs from Lewis's most notably in his acceptance of the

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If Hannah had drunk coffee and the coffee had gasoline in it, she would be sad.

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Another kind of conditional uses the form "were", generally referred to as the

4974: 4621: 4387: 4342: 4337: 3989: 3800: 3765: 3678: 3161: 2714: 1961: 1610: 1223: 702: 452: 364: 174: 170: 166: 4153: 4005:"Deductive reasoning with factual, possible, and counterfactual conditionals" 3877:"Counterfactual and Semifactual Conditionals Prime Alternative Possibilities" 3066: 4773: 4591: 4516: 4495: 4425: 4377: 4357: 3971:"Anomalies in real and counterfactual worlds: An eye-movement investigation" 3752:

Arregui, Ana (2007). "When aspect matters: the case of would-conditionals".

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framework, counterfactuals are treated using a formal implementation of the

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analysis treats natural language counterfactuals as being equivalent to the

376: 276:) and many that do have it do not use it for this sort of conditional (e.g. 4280: 4040: 3947: 3903: 1259:

any world where C is not true; or (c) false otherwise. Although in Lewis's

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has built on this insight, taking it in a variety of different directions.

3702:"Supplement to "Counterfactuals": Indicative and Subjunctive Conditionals" 1548:, considering the maximal sets of these formulae that are consistent with 1278:

If he had eaten more at breakfast, he would not have been hungry at 11 am.

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is considered the classic analysis within philosophy. The closely related

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If that piece of butter had been heated to 150°, it would not have melted.

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as a consequence. This condition relates counterfactual conditionals to

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The most common logical accounts of counterfactuals are couched in the

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Conditionals that discuss what would have been if things were otherwise

4031: 2699:"Oswald did shoot Kennedy and someone else did not". According to the 1880: 1856: 1727: 417:

If that piece of butter had been heated to 150°, it would have melted.

3861: 2559: 2384: 2313: 2155: 2104: 2071:, counterfactuals can have either perfective or imperfective aspect. 1267:

intend the metric of 'closeness' to be simply our ordinary notion of

458:

If Caesar had been in command in Korea, he would have used catapults.

3737: 3642:"In search of (im)perfection: the illusion of counterfactual aspect" 3368: 3355:

Lewis, David (1973). "Counterfactuals and Comparative Possibility".

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of the past tense is not fundamentally about time. Rather, it is an

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Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition

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Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition

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Lewis, David (1979). "Counterfactual dependence and time's arrow".

2467: 2258: 2207: 1876: 4551: 1817: 1692: 1324:(1) If the fair coin had been flipped, it would have landed heads. 439: 3092:

contrast between indicative and subjunctive conditionals." Also,

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One way of formalizing this fact is to say that the principle of

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showed that these problems are surmountable given an appropriate

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Counterfactuals are infected with vagueness, as everyone agrees.

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In the variably strict approach, the semantics of a conditional

1214:, which are thought to be licensed only by monotonic operators. 4291: 3875:

Santamaría, Carlos; Espino, Orlando; Byrne, Ruth M. J. (2005).

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Another argument in favor of the strict conditional comes from

1093:, the monotonicity of the material conditional guarantees that 2954:

morphological subjunctives in languages that have such a form.

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inference as often as they do from an indicative conditional.

2372: 2242: 2139: 1451: 1350: 64:, which some languages use in combination with other kinds of 2964:

Bhatt, Rajesh; Pancheva, Roumyana (2006). Everaert, Martin;

2254: 2203: 2151: 2100: 1871: 1852: 1808: 1722: 1683: 3721:"Modal interpretation of tense in subjunctive conditionals" 4087:

Johnson-Laird, Philip Nicholas; Byrne, Ruth M. J. (1991).

1781:"If Dani had been home tomorrow, we would've visited him." 1738: 3917:

De Vega, Manuel; Urrutia, Mabel; Riffo, Bernardo (2007).

1584:, while others recruit morphemes which otherwise express 1523:

can be done by first revising the current knowledge with

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Counterfactuals are one of the most studied phenomena in

1909:"If he had been home tomorrow, we would've visited him." 363:. Because of these problems, early work such as that of 1468: 1367: 169:

form "owned" in the "if" clause and the past-inflected

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Past perfect and irrealis counterfactuals can undergo

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Egré, Paul; Cozic, Mikaël (2016). "Conditionals". In

1131: 1099: 1079: 1053: 1024: 1004: 984: 964: 929: 909: 880: 860: 822: 775: 731: 683: 663: 628: 512: 30:"Counterfactual" redirects here. For other uses, see 3148:

Kaufmann, Stefan (2005). "Conditional predictions".

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Fake imperfective aspect is demonstrated by the two

713:, this means that the strict conditional is true at 4927: 4812: 4716: 4709: 4504: 4413: 4406: 4325: 2659:on different parts of counterfactual conditionals. 1218:

If Hannah had drunk any coffee, she would be happy.

4233: 3635: 3633: 3506:"The grammatical ingredients of counterfactuality" 3265: 3263: 3261: 3259: 3108:"The grammatical ingredients of counterfactuality" 2861:(Thesis). Universiteit van Amsterdam. p. 186. 1609:In many languages, counterfactuality is marked by 1179: 1117: 1085: 1065: 1030: 1010: 990: 970: 950: 915: 892: 866: 846: 808: 761: 689: 669: 649: 548: 4144:Morgan, Stephen L.; Winship, Christopher (2007). 3299:, Vol. 44, No. 5, (27 February 1947), pp. 113–28. 327:of a conditional is sometimes referred to as its 260:Such conditionals are also widely referred to as 249:convey that its antecedent is false or unlikely. 124:and counterfactual conditionals is the following 91:. They were first discussed as a problem for the 4784:Segmented discourse representation theory (SDRT) 4171:Ginsberg, Matthew L. (1986). "Counterfactuals". 3001:"The Presupposition of Subjunctive Conditionals" 2881:Proceedings from Semantics and Linguistic Theory 1531:is true in what results. Revising is easy when 1390:analyzes counterfactuals in terms of systems of 1191: 809:{\displaystyle M,w\models \Box (P\rightarrow Q)} 308:has been proposed as a replacement, evoking the 2446:the house {} in one month FUT have-time-enough. 1226:observation that Sobel Sequences are generally 481:If Hannah had drunk coffee, she would be happy. 339:of a conditional is sometimes referred to as a 3572: 3570: 3499: 3497: 3495: 3493: 3491: 3489: 3487: 3019: 3017: 2908:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 85–86. 1426:, and solve the set of equations for variable 701:. This approach was first proposed in 1912 by 4303: 4003:Byrne, Ruth M. J.; Tasso, Alessandra (1999). 3647:. In Keine, Stefan; Sloggett, Shayne (eds.). 3010:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 29–44. 2994: 2992: 2931:The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language 2906:The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language 1902:.3S.M in the-house tomorrow be.PST.1PL visit. 549:{\displaystyle P>Q\models (P\land R)>Q} 8: 3969:Ferguson, Heather; Sanford, Anthony (2008). 3824:"On Indicative And Subjunctive Conditionals" 3287: 3285: 3213:"On Indicative and Subjunctive Conditionals" 2184:'If he took this syrup, he would get better' 756: 738: 451:had been in command in Korea, he would have 232:Had it rained, Sally would have been inside. 4236:Causality: Models, Reasoning, and Inference 3660: 3658: 3640:Bjorkman, Bronwyn; Halpert, Claire (2013). 3612: 3610: 3394:. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. 3190:. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. 3032:. Cambridge University Press. p. 515. 2933:. Cambridge University Press. p. 150. 2632:"She was building this house in one month." 2287:"If he took this syrup, he must be better." 4713: 4410: 4310: 4296: 4288: 3576:von Fintel, Kai; Iatridou, Sabine (2020). 3544: 3542: 3293:The Problem of Counterfactual Conditionals 3181: 3179: 3006:. In Sauerland, Uli; Percus, Oren (eds.). 2929:Huddleston, Rodney; Pullum, Geoff (2002). 2904:Huddleston, Rodney; Pullum, Geoff (2002). 4030: 4020: 3937: 3736: 3651:. NELS. Vol. 42. UMass Amherst GLSA. 3471: 3469: 2888: 2828: 2789:Simplification of disjunctive antecedents 2622:* Eχtize afto to spiti (mesa) se ena mina 2025:at an earlier time but may no longer be. 1130: 1098: 1078: 1052: 1023: 1003: 983: 963: 928: 908: 879: 859: 847:{\displaystyle M,v\models P\rightarrow Q} 821: 774: 730: 682: 662: 627: 511: 2170:An eperne afto to sirpoi θa γinotan kala 2063:. However, in other languages including 606:analysis originally dismissed by Lewis. 351:Counterfactuals were first discussed by 3706:The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy 3276:The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy 2971:The Wiley Blackwell Companion to Syntax 2877:"Fake Perfect in X-Marked Conditionals" 2800: 2530:Eχtise afto to spiti (mesa) se ena mina 2078:sentences below. These examples form a 762:{\displaystyle M=\langle W,R,V\rangle } 235:Were it raining, Sally would be inside. 3030:Cambridge Handbook of Formal Semantics 1448:Belief revision § The Ramsey test 379:logical framework. Work since then in 4739:Discourse representation theory (DRT) 4119:A Philosophical Guide to Conditionals 3626:(Thesis). Universiteit van Amsterdam. 3238:Prolegomena to a theory of X-marking 1507:to the current body of knowledge has 1503:holds if and only if the addition of 1495:. In these systems, a counterfactual 1125:will be too. Thus, we will have that 1118:{\displaystyle P\land R\rightarrow Q} 1073:holds at every world accessible from 951:{\displaystyle \Box (P\rightarrow Q)} 650:{\displaystyle \Box (P\rightarrow Q)} 120:An example of the difference between 7: 4146:Counterfactuals and Causal Inference 3578:Prolegomena to a Theory of X-Marking 2540:"She built this house in one month." 2273:An ipχe afto to sirpoi θa eγine kala 5031:Formal semantics (natural language) 4652:Quantificational variability effect 4319:Formal semantics (natural language) 3249:von Fintel, Kai; Iatridou, Sabine. 3236:von Fintel, Kai; Iatridou, Sabine. 1968:skeleton which can apply either to 1347:Causal model § Counterfactuals 3850:Journal of Experimental Psychology 2707:of the alternative possibilities. 978:if there is some accessible world 25: 2674:triangle", participants make the 1990:Depending on how this denotation 1983:is not the contextually-provided 1230:(i.e. sound strange) in reverse. 2717: 2701:mental model theory of reasoning 1576:The grammar of counterfactuality 1455: 1430:, the solution obtained will be 1354: 429:Context dependence and vagueness 1568:therefore holds if and only if 316:conditionals, reflecting their 61: 32:Counterfactual (disambiguation) 4734:Combinatory categorial grammar 4064:10.7551/mitpress/5756.001.0001 3978:Journal of Memory and Language 3357:Journal of Philosophical Logic 1174: 1168: 1156: 1147: 1141: 1135: 1109: 1066:{\displaystyle P\rightarrow Q} 1057: 1047:. To see why, observe that if 945: 939: 933: 838: 803: 797: 791: 684: 644: 638: 632: 537: 525: 404:The problem of counterfactuals 1: 4512:Antecedent-contained deletion 3704:. In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). 3480:. Cambridge University Press. 3476:Palmer, Frank Robert (1986). 3430:Ginsberg, Matthew L. (1989), 3419:. Cambridge University Press. 3274:. In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). 2694:argues that people construct 2629:this {} house in {} one month 2537:this {} house in {} one month 4214:10.1080/13642529.2014.893663 4185:10.1016/0004-3702(86)90067-6 3444:10.1016/0004-3702(86)90067-6 2810:"Counterfactuality and past" 2450:to it sell before the summer 1998:can be a time interval or a 690:{\displaystyle \rightarrow } 5001:Conditionals in linguistics 4273:10.1037/0278-7393.28.6.1154 4127:10.1093/0199258872.001.0001 3896:10.1037/0278-7393.31.5.1149 3553:. Oxford University Press. 3436:Zentralblatt für Mathematik 3253:Unpublished lecture slides. 3240:Unpublished lecture slides. 2055:. In other languages (e.g. 1640:Counterfactual: If Natalia 1243:Variably strict conditional 588:variably strict conditional 343:-clause or as an apodosis. 182:Past perfect counterfactual 38:Counterfactual conditionals 18:Counterfactual conditionals 5052: 4393:Syntax–semantics interface 4242:Cambridge University Press 4117:Bennett, Jonathan (2003). 4054:Byrne, Ruth M. J. (2005). 3789:Natural Language Semantics 3754:Natural Language Semantics 3667:Natural Language Semantics 3150:Linguistics and Philosophy 2983:10.1002/9780470996591.ch16 2830:10.1007/s10988-019-09259-6 2817:Linguistics and Philosophy 2666: 1774:.3S.M in-home tomorrow be. 1572:is true in all such sets. 1527:and then checking whether 1445: 1344: 709:to modal logic. In modern 246:counterfactual conditional 150:Simple past counterfactual 29: 4885:Question under discussion 4835:Conversational scoreboard 4612:Intersective modification 4597:Homogeneity (linguistics) 3990:10.1016/j.jml.2007.06.007 3766:10.1007/s11050-007-9019-6 3679:10.1007/s11050-013-9102-0 3504:Iatridou, Sabine (2000). 3297:The Journal of Philosophy 3162:10.1007/s10988-005-3731-9 3106:Iatridou, Sabine (2000). 2808:von Prince, Kilu (2019). 2754:David Lewis (philosopher) 2280:this {} syrup FUT become. 2177:this {} syrup FUT become. 4945:Distributional semantics 4154:10.1017/CBO9780511804564 4056:The Rational Imagination 3725:Semantics and Pragmatics 3617:Karawani, Hadil (2014). 2999:von Fintel, Kai (1998). 2852:Karawani, Hadil (2014). 2295:such as "in one month": 1919:philosophers of language 1778:.1PL visit.PTC.PL he.ACC 1192:variably strict analysis 1045:Antecedent Strengthening 677:expresses necessity and 566:possible world semantics 560:Possible worlds accounts 504:Antecedent Strengthening 493:Antecedent Strengthening 262:subjunctive conditionals 4940:Computational semantics 4677:Subsective modification 4481:Propositional attitudes 4173:Artificial Intelligence 3801:10.1023/A:1024411924818 3525:10.1162/002438900554352 3127:10.1162/002438900554352 3028:; Dekker, Paul (eds.). 2890:10.3765/salt.v27i0.4149 2875:Schulz, Katrin (2017). 2784:Similarity (philosophy) 2669:Counterfactual thinking 2643:counterfactual thinking 1862: 1847: 1839: 1831: 1823: 1800: 1792: 1629:Indicative: If Natalia 1515:, as the evaluation of 1388:causal models framework 1212:negative polarity items 477:such as the following: 4970:Philosophy of language 4607:Inalienable possession 4587:Free choice inferences 4582:Faultless disagreement 4353:Generalized quantifier 4009:Memory & Cognition 3926:Memory & Cognition 3649:Proceedings of NELS 42 3549:Portner, Paul (2009). 3067:10.1093/analys/12.2.35 3008:The Interpretive Tract 2764:Indicative conditional 2696:mental representations 2687:Psychological accounts 2614: 2606: 2598: 2590: 2582: 2574: 2566: 2553: 2545: 2522: 2514: 2506: 2498: 2490: 2482: 2474: 2461: 2431: 2423: 2415: 2407: 2399: 2391: 2378: 2368: 2360: 2352: 2344: 2336: 2328: 2320: 2307: 2299: 2265: 2248: 2238: 2230: 2222: 2214: 2197: 2189: 2162: 2145: 2135: 2127: 2119: 2111: 2094: 2086: 2051:) this fake aspect is 1958:past as modal approach 1748: 1733: 1714: 1706: 1698: 1675: 1667: 1659: 1546:propositional formulae 1317:law of excluded middle 1292:uniqueness assumptions 1181: 1119: 1087: 1067: 1032: 1012: 992: 972: 952: 917: 894: 868: 848: 810: 763: 691: 671: 651: 550: 389:philosophy of language 216:right now, then Sally 188:yesterday, then Sally 136:Indicative conditional 89:philosophy of language 4865:Plural quantification 4759:Inquisitive semantics 4724:Alternative semantics 3831:Philosophers' Imprint 3822:Khoo, Justin (2015). 3719:Mackay, John (2019). 3415:Pearl, Judea (2000). 3390:Lewis, David (1973). 3220:Philosophers' Imprint 3211:Khoo, Justin (2015). 3186:Lewis, David (1973). 2293:completive adverbials 2015:past as past approach 1915:theoretical linguists 1891:fi l-bet bukra kunna 1446:Further information: 1345:Further information: 1182: 1120: 1088: 1068: 1033: 1013: 993: 973: 953: 918: 895: 869: 849: 811: 764: 692: 672: 670:{\displaystyle \Box } 652: 551: 355:as a problem for the 226:conditional inversion 202:or subjunctive form. 62:fake tense morphology 54:conditional sentences 4850:Function application 4657:Responsive predicate 4647:Privative adjectives 3700:Starr, Will (2019). 3270:Starr, Will (2019). 2749:Conditional sentence 1392:structural equations 1129: 1097: 1077: 1051: 1022: 1002: 982: 962: 927: 907: 878: 858: 820: 773: 729: 711:relational semantics 699:material implication 681: 661: 626: 510: 467:Counterfactuals are 433:Counterfactuals are 410:material conditional 357:material conditional 286:Indo-Aryan languages 93:material conditional 5026:Linguistic modality 5021:Thought experiments 4935:Cognitive semantics 4900:Strawson entailment 4845:Existential closure 4789:Situation semantics 4692:Temperature paradox 4662:Rising declaratives 4627:Modal subordination 4602:Hurford disjunction 4562:Discourse relations 2977:. Wiley Blackwell. 2966:van Riemsdijk, Henk 1939:philosophical logic 893:{\displaystyle Rwv} 657:. In this formula, 385:philosophical logic 347:Logic and semantics 142:a donkey, then she 81:philosophical logic 4980:Semantics of logic 4905:Strict conditional 4875:Quantifier raising 4840:Downward entailing 4820:Autonomy of syntax 4749:Generative grammar 4729:Categorial grammar 4667:Scalar implicature 4572:Epistemic modality 4547:De dicto and de re 4202:Rethinking History 4022:10.3758/BF03211565 3939:10.3758/BF03193611 3583:2020-07-15 at the 3513:Linguistic Inquiry 3115:Linguistic Inquiry 2057:Palestinian Arabic 1786:Palestinian Arabic 1763:ba-bayit {maχa ɾ} 1467:. You can help by 1366:. You can help by 1269:overall similarity 1177: 1115: 1083: 1063: 1028: 1008: 988: 968: 948: 913: 890: 864: 844: 806: 759: 707:axiomatic approach 687: 667: 647: 616:strict conditional 610:Strict conditional 604:strict conditional 546: 453:used the atom bomb 304:Recently the term 4988: 4987: 4960:Logic translation 4923: 4922: 4915:Universal grinder 4895:Squiggle operator 4855:Meaning postulate 4794:Supervaluationism 4764:Intensional logic 4744:Dynamic semantics 4705: 4704: 4537:Crossover effects 4486:Tense–aspect–mood 4466:Lexical semantics 4251:978-0-521-77362-1 3478:Mood and modality 3272:"Counterfactuals" 3094:von Fintel (2011) 3079:See for instance 3039:978-1-107-02839-5 2725:Philosophy portal 2703:, they construct 2641:People engage in 2382:have-time-enough. 2049:Romance languages 1485: 1484: 1384: 1383: 1208:dynamic semantics 1086:{\displaystyle w} 1031:{\displaystyle Q} 1011:{\displaystyle P} 991:{\displaystyle v} 971:{\displaystyle w} 958:will be false at 916:{\displaystyle P} 867:{\displaystyle v} 721:. More formally: 697:is understood as 592:premise semantics 435:context dependent 408:According to the 393:cognitive science 320:rdinary marking. 105:dynamic semantics 16:(Redirected from 5043: 4965:Linguistics wars 4890:Semantic parsing 4779:Montague grammar 4714: 4557:Deontic modality 4411: 4398:Truth conditions 4333:Compositionality 4326:Central concepts 4312: 4305: 4298: 4289: 4284: 4267:(6): 1154–1170. 4255: 4239: 4225: 4196: 4167: 4140: 4105: 4104: 4084: 4078: 4077: 4051: 4045: 4044: 4034: 4024: 4000: 3994: 3993: 3975: 3966: 3960: 3959: 3941: 3932:(6): 1410–1421. 3923: 3914: 3908: 3907: 3890:(5): 1149–1154. 3881: 3872: 3866: 3865: 3862:10.1037/h0035693 3845: 3839: 3838: 3828: 3819: 3813: 3812: 3784: 3778: 3777: 3749: 3743: 3742: 3740: 3716: 3710: 3709: 3697: 3691: 3690: 3662: 3653: 3652: 3646: 3637: 3628: 3627: 3625: 3614: 3605: 3602:subjunctive mood 3598: 3592: 3574: 3565: 3564: 3546: 3537: 3536: 3510: 3501: 3482: 3481: 3473: 3464: 3462: 3427: 3421: 3420: 3412: 3406: 3405: 3387: 3381: 3380: 3352: 3346: 3345: 3306: 3300: 3289: 3280: 3279: 3267: 3254: 3247: 3241: 3234: 3228: 3227: 3217: 3208: 3202: 3201: 3183: 3174: 3173: 3145: 3139: 3138: 3112: 3103: 3097: 3077: 3071: 3070: 3050: 3044: 3043: 3021: 3012: 3011: 3005: 2996: 2987: 2986: 2976: 2961: 2955: 2951: 2945: 2944: 2926: 2920: 2919: 2901: 2895: 2894: 2892: 2872: 2863: 2862: 2860: 2849: 2843: 2842: 2832: 2814: 2805: 2739:Angelika Kratzer 2727: 2722: 2721: 2720: 2561: 2469: 2386: 2374: 2315: 2260: 2256: 2244: 2209: 2205: 2157: 2153: 2141: 2106: 2102: 1935:formal semantics 1882: 1878: 1873: 1858: 1854: 1819: 1815: 1810: 1755: 1744: 1740: 1729: 1724: 1694: 1690: 1685: 1480: 1477: 1459: 1452: 1422:with a constant 1379: 1376: 1358: 1351: 1198:do not demand a 1186: 1184: 1183: 1178: 1124: 1122: 1121: 1116: 1092: 1090: 1089: 1084: 1072: 1070: 1069: 1064: 1037: 1035: 1034: 1029: 1017: 1015: 1014: 1009: 997: 995: 994: 989: 977: 975: 974: 969: 957: 955: 954: 949: 922: 920: 919: 914: 899: 897: 896: 891: 873: 871: 870: 865: 853: 851: 850: 845: 815: 813: 812: 807: 768: 766: 765: 760: 696: 694: 693: 688: 676: 674: 673: 668: 656: 654: 653: 648: 602:variants of the 596:Angelika Kratzer 555: 553: 552: 547: 463:Non-monotonicity 381:formal semantics 369:Robert Stalnaker 186:had been raining 85:formal semantics 21: 5051: 5050: 5046: 5045: 5044: 5042: 5041: 5040: 5016:Belief revision 4991: 4990: 4989: 4984: 4919: 4808: 4769:Lambda calculus 4701: 4672:Sloppy identity 4632:Opaque contexts 4567:Donkey anaphora 4532:Counterfactuals 4500: 4402: 4321: 4316: 4258: 4252: 4228: 4199: 4170: 4164: 4143: 4137: 4116: 4113: 4108: 4101: 4086: 4085: 4081: 4074: 4053: 4052: 4048: 4002: 4001: 3997: 3973: 3968: 3967: 3963: 3921: 3916: 3915: 3911: 3879: 3874: 3873: 3869: 3847: 3846: 3842: 3826: 3821: 3820: 3816: 3786: 3785: 3781: 3751: 3750: 3746: 3738:10.3765/sp.12.2 3718: 3717: 3713: 3699: 3698: 3694: 3664: 3663: 3656: 3644: 3639: 3638: 3631: 3623: 3616: 3615: 3608: 3599: 3595: 3585:Wayback Machine 3575: 3568: 3561: 3548: 3547: 3540: 3508: 3503: 3502: 3485: 3475: 3474: 3467: 3429: 3428: 3424: 3414: 3413: 3409: 3402: 3392:Counterfactuals 3389: 3388: 3384: 3369:10.2307/2215339 3354: 3353: 3349: 3323:10.2307/2215339 3308: 3307: 3303: 3290: 3283: 3269: 3268: 3257: 3248: 3244: 3235: 3231: 3215: 3210: 3209: 3205: 3198: 3188:Counterfactuals 3185: 3184: 3177: 3147: 3146: 3142: 3110: 3105: 3104: 3100: 3081:Ippolito (2002) 3078: 3074: 3052: 3051: 3047: 3040: 3023: 3022: 3015: 3003: 2998: 2997: 2990: 2974: 2963: 2962: 2958: 2952: 2948: 2941: 2928: 2927: 2923: 2916: 2903: 2902: 2898: 2874: 2873: 2866: 2858: 2851: 2850: 2846: 2812: 2807: 2806: 2802: 2798: 2793: 2769:Sabine Iatridou 2723: 2718: 2716: 2713: 2689: 2671: 2665: 2651: 2639: 2634: 2620: 2612: 2604: 2596: 2588: 2580: 2572: 2564: 2551: 2542: 2528: 2520: 2512: 2504: 2496: 2488: 2480: 2472: 2455: 2437: 2429: 2421: 2413: 2405: 2397: 2389: 2376: 2366: 2358: 2350: 2342: 2334: 2326: 2318: 2305: 2289: 2271: 2263: 2246: 2236: 2228: 2220: 2212: 2195: 2186: 2168: 2160: 2143: 2133: 2125: 2117: 2109: 2092: 2031: 1931: 1929:Formal analyses 1911: 1885: 1860: 1845: 1837: 1829: 1821: 1798: 1783: 1757: 1746: 1731: 1712: 1704: 1696: 1673: 1665: 1648:arrive on time. 1637:arrive on time. 1607: 1602: 1578: 1542: 1513:belief revision 1489:belief revision 1481: 1475: 1472: 1465:needs expansion 1450: 1444: 1442:Belief revision 1380: 1374: 1371: 1364:needs expansion 1349: 1343: 1338: 1261:Counterfactuals 1245: 1196:Sobel sequences 1127: 1126: 1095: 1094: 1075: 1074: 1049: 1048: 1020: 1019: 1000: 999: 980: 979: 960: 959: 925: 924: 905: 904: 876: 875: 856: 855: 818: 817: 771: 770: 769:, we have that 727: 726: 705:as part of his 679: 678: 659: 658: 624: 623: 612: 562: 508: 507: 474:Sobel sequences 465: 431: 406: 401: 399:Classic puzzles 361:classical logic 349: 242: 190:would have been 118: 113: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 5049: 5047: 5039: 5038: 5036:Possible world 5033: 5028: 5023: 5018: 5013: 5008: 5003: 4993: 4992: 4986: 4985: 4983: 4982: 4977: 4972: 4967: 4962: 4957: 4955:Inferentialism 4952: 4950:Formal grammar 4947: 4942: 4937: 4931: 4929: 4925: 4924: 4921: 4920: 4918: 4917: 4912: 4907: 4902: 4897: 4892: 4887: 4882: 4877: 4872: 4870:Possible world 4867: 4862: 4857: 4852: 4847: 4842: 4837: 4832: 4827: 4822: 4816: 4814: 4810: 4809: 4807: 4806: 4801: 4796: 4791: 4786: 4781: 4776: 4771: 4766: 4761: 4756: 4754:Glue semantics 4751: 4746: 4741: 4736: 4731: 4726: 4720: 4718: 4717:Formal systems 4711: 4707: 4706: 4703: 4702: 4700: 4699: 4694: 4689: 4684: 4679: 4674: 4669: 4664: 4659: 4654: 4649: 4644: 4642:Polarity items 4639: 4634: 4629: 4624: 4619: 4614: 4609: 4604: 4599: 4594: 4589: 4584: 4579: 4574: 4569: 4564: 4559: 4554: 4549: 4544: 4539: 4534: 4529: 4527:Conservativity 4524: 4519: 4514: 4508: 4506: 4502: 4501: 4499: 4498: 4493: 4491:Quantification 4488: 4483: 4478: 4473: 4468: 4463: 4458: 4453: 4448: 4443: 4438: 4433: 4428: 4423: 4417: 4415: 4408: 4404: 4403: 4401: 4400: 4395: 4390: 4385: 4380: 4375: 4370: 4368:Presupposition 4365: 4360: 4355: 4350: 4345: 4340: 4335: 4329: 4327: 4323: 4322: 4317: 4315: 4314: 4307: 4300: 4292: 4286: 4285: 4256: 4250: 4226: 4208:(3): 337–356. 4197: 4168: 4162: 4141: 4135: 4112: 4109: 4107: 4106: 4099: 4079: 4072: 4046: 4015:(4): 726–740. 3995: 3984:(3): 609–626. 3961: 3909: 3867: 3840: 3814: 3795:(2): 145–186. 3779: 3760:(3): 221–264. 3744: 3711: 3692: 3673:(2): 117–144. 3654: 3629: 3606: 3593: 3566: 3560:978-0199292424 3559: 3538: 3519:(2): 231–270. 3483: 3465: 3422: 3407: 3400: 3382: 3347: 3317:(4): 455–476. 3301: 3291:Goodman, N., " 3281: 3255: 3242: 3229: 3203: 3196: 3175: 3156:(2). 183-184. 3140: 3121:(2): 231–270. 3098: 3072: 3045: 3038: 3013: 2988: 2956: 2946: 2940:978-0521431460 2939: 2921: 2915:978-0521431460 2914: 2896: 2864: 2844: 2823:(6): 577–615. 2799: 2797: 2794: 2792: 2791: 2786: 2781: 2776: 2771: 2766: 2761: 2756: 2751: 2746: 2741: 2736: 2730: 2729: 2728: 2712: 2709: 2688: 2685: 2667:Main article: 2664: 2661: 2650: 2647: 2638: 2635: 2613: 2605: 2597: 2589: 2581: 2573: 2565: 2552: 2544: 2543: 2521: 2513: 2505: 2497: 2489: 2481: 2473: 2460: 2459: 2430: 2422: 2414: 2406: 2398: 2390: 2377: 2367: 2359: 2351: 2343: 2335: 2327: 2319: 2306: 2298: 2297: 2264: 2247: 2237: 2229: 2221: 2213: 2196: 2188: 2187: 2161: 2144: 2134: 2126: 2118: 2110: 2093: 2085: 2084: 2030: 2027: 2000:possible world 1988: 1987: 1966:underspecified 1930: 1927: 1861: 1846: 1838: 1830: 1822: 1799: 1791: 1790: 1747: 1732: 1713: 1705: 1697: 1674: 1666: 1658: 1657: 1650: 1649: 1644:tomorrow, she 1638: 1633:tomorrow, she 1606: 1603: 1601: 1598: 1577: 1574: 1541: 1538: 1483: 1482: 1476:September 2020 1462: 1460: 1443: 1440: 1382: 1381: 1375:September 2020 1361: 1359: 1342: 1339: 1337: 1336:Other accounts 1334: 1329: 1328: 1325: 1298:) one that is 1280: 1279: 1244: 1241: 1236: 1235: 1220: 1219: 1176: 1173: 1170: 1167: 1164: 1161: 1158: 1155: 1152: 1149: 1146: 1143: 1140: 1137: 1134: 1114: 1111: 1108: 1105: 1102: 1082: 1062: 1059: 1056: 1027: 1007: 987: 967: 947: 944: 941: 938: 935: 932: 912: 901: 900: 889: 886: 883: 863: 843: 840: 837: 834: 831: 828: 825: 805: 802: 799: 796: 793: 790: 787: 784: 781: 778: 758: 755: 752: 749: 746: 743: 740: 737: 734: 725:Given a model 686: 666: 646: 643: 640: 637: 634: 631: 611: 608: 561: 558: 557: 556: 545: 542: 539: 536: 533: 530: 527: 524: 521: 518: 515: 489: 488: 485: 482: 464: 461: 460: 459: 456: 430: 427: 422: 421: 418: 405: 402: 400: 397: 353:Nelson Goodman 348: 345: 294:counterfactual 258: 257: 241: 238: 237: 236: 233: 222: 221: 210:counterfactual 194: 193: 162: 161: 156:a donkey, she 147: 117: 114: 112: 109: 97:possible world 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5048: 5037: 5034: 5032: 5029: 5027: 5024: 5022: 5019: 5017: 5014: 5012: 5009: 5007: 5004: 5002: 4999: 4998: 4996: 4981: 4978: 4976: 4973: 4971: 4968: 4966: 4963: 4961: 4958: 4956: 4953: 4951: 4948: 4946: 4943: 4941: 4938: 4936: 4933: 4932: 4930: 4926: 4916: 4913: 4911: 4908: 4906: 4903: 4901: 4898: 4896: 4893: 4891: 4888: 4886: 4883: 4881: 4878: 4876: 4873: 4871: 4868: 4866: 4863: 4861: 4858: 4856: 4853: 4851: 4848: 4846: 4843: 4841: 4838: 4836: 4833: 4831: 4828: 4826: 4823: 4821: 4818: 4817: 4815: 4811: 4805: 4802: 4800: 4797: 4795: 4792: 4790: 4787: 4785: 4782: 4780: 4777: 4775: 4772: 4770: 4767: 4765: 4762: 4760: 4757: 4755: 4752: 4750: 4747: 4745: 4742: 4740: 4737: 4735: 4732: 4730: 4727: 4725: 4722: 4721: 4719: 4715: 4712: 4708: 4698: 4695: 4693: 4690: 4688: 4685: 4683: 4680: 4678: 4675: 4673: 4670: 4668: 4665: 4663: 4660: 4658: 4655: 4653: 4650: 4648: 4645: 4643: 4640: 4638: 4637:Performatives 4635: 4633: 4630: 4628: 4625: 4623: 4620: 4618: 4617:Logophoricity 4615: 4613: 4610: 4608: 4605: 4603: 4600: 4598: 4595: 4593: 4590: 4588: 4585: 4583: 4580: 4578: 4575: 4573: 4570: 4568: 4565: 4563: 4560: 4558: 4555: 4553: 4550: 4548: 4545: 4543: 4540: 4538: 4535: 4533: 4530: 4528: 4525: 4523: 4520: 4518: 4515: 4513: 4510: 4509: 4507: 4503: 4497: 4494: 4492: 4489: 4487: 4484: 4482: 4479: 4477: 4474: 4472: 4469: 4467: 4464: 4462: 4459: 4457: 4454: 4452: 4451:Evidentiality 4449: 4447: 4444: 4442: 4439: 4437: 4434: 4432: 4429: 4427: 4424: 4422: 4419: 4418: 4416: 4412: 4409: 4405: 4399: 4396: 4394: 4391: 4389: 4386: 4384: 4381: 4379: 4376: 4374: 4371: 4369: 4366: 4364: 4361: 4359: 4356: 4354: 4351: 4349: 4346: 4344: 4341: 4339: 4336: 4334: 4331: 4330: 4328: 4324: 4320: 4313: 4308: 4306: 4301: 4299: 4294: 4293: 4290: 4282: 4278: 4274: 4270: 4266: 4262: 4257: 4253: 4247: 4243: 4238: 4237: 4231: 4227: 4223: 4219: 4215: 4211: 4207: 4203: 4198: 4194: 4190: 4186: 4182: 4178: 4174: 4169: 4165: 4163:9780511804564 4159: 4155: 4151: 4147: 4142: 4138: 4136:9780199258871 4132: 4128: 4124: 4120: 4115: 4114: 4110: 4102: 4100:9780863771491 4096: 4092: 4091: 4083: 4080: 4075: 4073:9780262269629 4069: 4065: 4061: 4057: 4050: 4047: 4042: 4038: 4033: 4028: 4023: 4018: 4014: 4010: 4006: 3999: 3996: 3991: 3987: 3983: 3979: 3972: 3965: 3962: 3957: 3953: 3949: 3945: 3940: 3935: 3931: 3927: 3920: 3913: 3910: 3905: 3901: 3897: 3893: 3889: 3885: 3878: 3871: 3868: 3863: 3859: 3855: 3851: 3844: 3841: 3836: 3832: 3825: 3818: 3815: 3810: 3806: 3802: 3798: 3794: 3790: 3783: 3780: 3775: 3771: 3767: 3763: 3759: 3755: 3748: 3745: 3739: 3734: 3730: 3726: 3722: 3715: 3712: 3707: 3703: 3696: 3693: 3688: 3684: 3680: 3676: 3672: 3668: 3661: 3659: 3655: 3650: 3643: 3636: 3634: 3630: 3622: 3621: 3613: 3611: 3607: 3603: 3597: 3594: 3590: 3586: 3582: 3579: 3573: 3571: 3567: 3562: 3556: 3552: 3545: 3543: 3539: 3534: 3530: 3526: 3522: 3518: 3514: 3507: 3500: 3498: 3496: 3494: 3492: 3490: 3488: 3484: 3479: 3472: 3470: 3466: 3461: 3457: 3453: 3449: 3445: 3441: 3437: 3433: 3426: 3423: 3418: 3411: 3408: 3403: 3401:9780631224952 3397: 3393: 3386: 3383: 3378: 3374: 3370: 3366: 3362: 3358: 3351: 3348: 3344: 3340: 3336: 3332: 3328: 3324: 3320: 3316: 3312: 3305: 3302: 3298: 3294: 3288: 3286: 3282: 3277: 3273: 3266: 3264: 3262: 3260: 3256: 3252: 3246: 3243: 3239: 3233: 3230: 3225: 3221: 3214: 3207: 3204: 3199: 3197:9780631224952 3193: 3189: 3182: 3180: 3176: 3171: 3167: 3163: 3159: 3155: 3151: 3144: 3141: 3136: 3132: 3128: 3124: 3120: 3116: 3109: 3102: 3099: 3095: 3090: 3086: 3082: 3076: 3073: 3068: 3064: 3060: 3056: 3049: 3046: 3041: 3035: 3031: 3027: 3020: 3018: 3014: 3009: 3002: 2995: 2993: 2989: 2984: 2980: 2973: 2972: 2967: 2960: 2957: 2950: 2947: 2942: 2936: 2932: 2925: 2922: 2917: 2911: 2907: 2900: 2897: 2891: 2886: 2882: 2878: 2871: 2869: 2865: 2857: 2856: 2848: 2845: 2840: 2836: 2831: 2826: 2822: 2818: 2811: 2804: 2801: 2795: 2790: 2787: 2785: 2782: 2780: 2779:Robert Nozick 2777: 2775: 2772: 2770: 2767: 2765: 2762: 2760: 2759:Import-Export 2757: 2755: 2752: 2750: 2747: 2745: 2742: 2740: 2737: 2735: 2734:Alvin Goldman 2732: 2731: 2726: 2715: 2710: 2708: 2706: 2705:mental models 2702: 2697: 2693: 2686: 2684: 2682: 2677: 2676:modus tollens 2670: 2662: 2660: 2657: 2649:Comprehension 2648: 2646: 2644: 2636: 2633: 2630: 2628: 2623: 2619: 2616: 2611: 2608: 2603: 2600: 2595: 2592: 2587: 2584: 2579: 2576: 2571: 2568: 2563: 2562: 2555: 2550: 2547: 2541: 2538: 2536: 2531: 2527: 2524: 2519: 2516: 2511: 2508: 2503: 2500: 2495: 2492: 2487: 2484: 2479: 2476: 2471: 2470: 2463: 2458: 2454: 2451: 2449: 2445: 2440: 2436: 2433: 2428: 2425: 2420: 2417: 2412: 2409: 2404: 2401: 2396: 2393: 2388: 2387: 2380: 2375: 2370: 2365: 2362: 2357: 2354: 2349: 2346: 2341: 2338: 2333: 2330: 2325: 2322: 2317: 2316: 2309: 2304: 2301: 2296: 2294: 2288: 2285: 2283: 2279: 2274: 2270: 2267: 2262: 2261: 2250: 2245: 2240: 2235: 2232: 2227: 2224: 2219: 2216: 2211: 2210: 2199: 2194: 2191: 2185: 2182: 2180: 2176: 2171: 2167: 2164: 2159: 2158: 2147: 2142: 2137: 2132: 2129: 2124: 2121: 2116: 2113: 2108: 2107: 2096: 2091: 2088: 2083: 2081: 2077: 2072: 2070: 2066: 2062: 2058: 2054: 2050: 2046: 2042: 2038: 2037: 2028: 2026: 2024: 2020: 2016: 2011: 2009: 2005: 2001: 1997: 1993: 1986: 1982: 1979: 1975: 1974: 1973: 1971: 1967: 1963: 1959: 1954: 1952: 1948: 1947:past as modal 1944: 1940: 1936: 1928: 1926: 1924: 1920: 1916: 1910: 1907: 1905: 1901: 1896: 1894: 1890: 1884: 1874: 1867: 1865: 1859: 1849: 1844: 1841: 1836: 1833: 1828: 1825: 1820: 1811: 1804: 1803: 1797: 1794: 1789: 1787: 1782: 1779: 1777: 1773: 1768: 1766: 1762: 1756: 1750: 1745: 1735: 1730: 1725: 1718: 1717: 1711: 1708: 1703: 1700: 1695: 1686: 1679: 1678: 1672: 1669: 1664: 1661: 1656: 1654: 1653:Modern Hebrew 1647: 1643: 1639: 1636: 1632: 1628: 1627: 1626: 1624: 1620: 1616: 1612: 1604: 1599: 1597: 1595: 1591: 1587: 1583: 1575: 1573: 1571: 1567: 1563: 1559: 1555: 1552:, and adding 1551: 1547: 1539: 1537: 1534: 1530: 1526: 1522: 1518: 1514: 1510: 1506: 1502: 1498: 1494: 1490: 1479: 1470: 1466: 1463:This section 1461: 1458: 1454: 1453: 1449: 1441: 1439: 1437: 1433: 1429: 1425: 1421: 1417: 1413: 1410:" (formally, 1409: 1405: 1401: 1397: 1393: 1389: 1378: 1369: 1365: 1362:This section 1360: 1357: 1353: 1352: 1348: 1341:Causal models 1340: 1335: 1333: 1326: 1323: 1322: 1321: 1318: 1313: 1310: 1306: 1301: 1297: 1293: 1289: 1284: 1277: 1276: 1275: 1272: 1270: 1266: 1262: 1256: 1254: 1250: 1242: 1240: 1233: 1232: 1231: 1229: 1225: 1217: 1216: 1215: 1213: 1209: 1204: 1201: 1200:non-monotonic 1197: 1193: 1188: 1171: 1165: 1162: 1159: 1153: 1150: 1144: 1138: 1132: 1112: 1106: 1103: 1100: 1080: 1060: 1054: 1046: 1040: 1025: 1005: 985: 965: 942: 936: 930: 910: 887: 884: 881: 861: 841: 835: 832: 829: 826: 823: 800: 794: 788: 785: 782: 779: 776: 753: 750: 747: 744: 741: 735: 732: 724: 723: 722: 720: 716: 712: 708: 704: 700: 664: 641: 635: 629: 621: 617: 609: 607: 605: 601: 597: 593: 589: 585: 581: 579: 575: 571: 567: 559: 543: 540: 534: 531: 528: 522: 519: 516: 513: 505: 502: 501: 500: 498: 494: 486: 483: 480: 479: 478: 476: 475: 470: 469:non-monotonic 462: 457: 454: 450: 446: 445: 444: 442: 441: 436: 428: 426: 419: 416: 415: 414: 411: 403: 398: 396: 394: 390: 386: 382: 378: 374: 370: 366: 362: 358: 354: 346: 344: 342: 338: 334: 330: 326: 321: 319: 315: 311: 307: 302: 299: 295: 290: 287: 283: 279: 275: 271: 267: 263: 255: 254:Anderson Case 252: 251: 250: 247: 239: 234: 231: 230: 229: 227: 219: 215: 211: 209: 205: 204: 203: 201: 200: 191: 187: 183: 180: 179: 178: 176: 172: 168: 159: 155: 151: 148: 145: 141: 137: 134: 133: 132: 130: 127: 123: 115: 110: 108: 106: 102: 101:causal models 98: 94: 90: 86: 82: 77: 75: 71: 67: 63: 59: 55: 51: 47: 43: 42:contrafactual 39: 33: 19: 4910:Type shifter 4880:Quantization 4830:Continuation 4697:Veridicality 4577:Exhaustivity 4542:Cumulativity 4461:Indexicality 4441:Definiteness 4436:Conditionals 4363:Logical form 4264: 4260: 4235: 4205: 4201: 4176: 4172: 4145: 4118: 4089: 4082: 4055: 4049: 4012: 4008: 3998: 3981: 3977: 3964: 3929: 3925: 3912: 3887: 3883: 3870: 3856:(1): 44–49. 3853: 3849: 3843: 3834: 3830: 3817: 3792: 3788: 3782: 3757: 3753: 3747: 3728: 3724: 3714: 3705: 3695: 3670: 3666: 3648: 3619: 3596: 3588: 3550: 3516: 3512: 3477: 3435: 3425: 3416: 3410: 3391: 3385: 3360: 3356: 3350: 3342: 3314: 3310: 3304: 3296: 3275: 3245: 3232: 3223: 3219: 3206: 3187: 3153: 3149: 3143: 3118: 3114: 3101: 3088: 3084: 3075: 3061:(2): 35–38. 3058: 3054: 3048: 3029: 3026:Aloni, Maria 3007: 2970: 2959: 2949: 2930: 2924: 2905: 2899: 2880: 2854: 2847: 2820: 2816: 2803: 2690: 2681:modus ponens 2672: 2652: 2640: 2631: 2626: 2624: 2621: 2617: 2609: 2601: 2593: 2585: 2577: 2569: 2558: 2556: 2548: 2539: 2534: 2532: 2529: 2525: 2517: 2509: 2501: 2493: 2485: 2477: 2466: 2464: 2456: 2452: 2447: 2443: 2441: 2438: 2434: 2426: 2418: 2410: 2402: 2394: 2383: 2381: 2371: 2363: 2355: 2347: 2339: 2331: 2323: 2312: 2310: 2302: 2292: 2290: 2286: 2281: 2277: 2275: 2272: 2268: 2253: 2251: 2241: 2233: 2225: 2217: 2202: 2200: 2192: 2183: 2178: 2174: 2172: 2169: 2165: 2150: 2148: 2138: 2130: 2122: 2114: 2099: 2097: 2089: 2080:minimal pair 2076:Modern Greek 2073: 2053:imperfective 2041:Modern Greek 2033: 2032: 2014: 2012: 2007: 2003: 1995: 1989: 1984: 1980: 1957: 1955: 1951:past as past 1950: 1946: 1932: 1923:realizations 1912: 1908: 1906:.PFV.1PL-him 1903: 1899: 1897: 1892: 1888: 1886: 1870: 1868: 1863: 1850: 1842: 1834: 1826: 1807: 1805: 1801: 1795: 1788:is another: 1784: 1780: 1775: 1771: 1769: 1767:mevakRim oto 1764: 1760: 1758: 1751: 1736: 1721: 1719: 1715: 1709: 1701: 1682: 1680: 1676: 1670: 1662: 1651: 1645: 1641: 1634: 1630: 1623:minimal pair 1618: 1614: 1608: 1579: 1569: 1565: 1561: 1557: 1553: 1549: 1543: 1532: 1528: 1524: 1520: 1516: 1508: 1504: 1500: 1496: 1492: 1486: 1473: 1469:adding to it 1464: 1431: 1427: 1423: 1419: 1415: 1411: 1407: 1403: 1399: 1395: 1387: 1385: 1372: 1368:adding to it 1363: 1330: 1314: 1304: 1299: 1295: 1291: 1287: 1285: 1281: 1273: 1264: 1260: 1257: 1252: 1248: 1246: 1237: 1228:infelicitous 1224:Irene Heim's 1221: 1205: 1199: 1195: 1189: 1044: 1041: 1018:is true and 902: 718: 714: 613: 603: 594:proposed by 591: 587: 582: 577: 573: 569: 563: 503: 496: 492: 490: 472: 468: 466: 438: 434: 432: 423: 407: 350: 340: 336: 332: 328: 324: 322: 317: 313: 309: 305: 303: 297: 293: 291: 261: 259: 253: 245: 243: 225: 223: 217: 214:were raining 213: 207: 206: 197: 195: 189: 185: 181: 175:past perfect 163: 157: 153: 149: 143: 139: 135: 129:minimal pair 119: 78: 49: 45: 41: 37: 36: 4825:Context set 4799:Type theory 4682:Subtrigging 4446:Disjunction 4373:Proposition 4230:Judea Pearl 4093:. Erlbaum. 3731:(2): 1–29. 3085:subjunctive 3083:: "Because 2774:Modal logic 2029:Fake aspect 1770:if Dani be. 1605:Description 1493:Ramsey test 1436:Judea Pearl 620:modal logic 584:David Lewis 576:as true if 377:intensional 373:David Lewis 329:"if"-clause 298:subjunctive 266:subjunctive 240:Terminology 152:: If Sally 138:: If Sally 58:indicatives 46:subjunctive 4995:Categories 4975:Pragmatics 4622:Mirativity 4388:Speech act 4343:Entailment 4338:Denotation 4111:References 4032:2262/39510 3589:Manuscript 3460:0655.03011 3089:indicative 2637:Psychology 2379:prolavenes 2061:perfective 2047:, and the 2023:accessible 1962:denotation 1619:fake tense 1611:past tense 1600:Fake tense 874:such that 703:C.I. Lewis 365:W.V. Quine 337:consequent 325:antecedent 292:The terms 167:fake tense 158:would ride 122:indicative 68:including 66:morphology 5011:Semantics 4774:Mereology 4710:Formalism 4592:Givenness 4517:Cataphora 4505:Phenomena 4496:Vagueness 4426:Ambiguity 4378:Reference 4358:Intension 4348:Extension 4222:143617647 4193:241535532 4179:: 35–79. 4090:Deduction 3809:118149259 3774:121835633 3452:241535532 3417:Causality 2839:181778834 2796:Footnotes 2744:Causality 2663:Reasoning 2625:{} build. 2442:if build. 1835:the-house 1615:fake past 1582:morphemes 1398:would be 1274:Example: 1169:→ 1163:∧ 1154:◻ 1151:⊨ 1142:→ 1133:◻ 1110:→ 1104:∧ 1058:→ 940:→ 931:◻ 839:→ 833:⊨ 798:→ 789:◻ 786:⊨ 757:⟩ 739:⟨ 685:→ 665:◻ 639:→ 630:◻ 532:∧ 523:⊨ 244:The term 4928:See also 4813:Concepts 4687:Telicity 4522:Coercion 4476:Negation 4471:Modality 4421:Anaphora 4281:12450339 4232:(2000). 4041:10479830 3956:26161334 3948:18035637 3904:16248757 3687:32680902 3581:Archived 3551:Modality 3533:57570935 3339:53585654 3170:60598513 3135:57570935 3055:Analysis 2968:(eds.). 2711:See also 2432:kalokeri 2276:if take. 2179:PST.IPFV 2175:PST.IPFV 2173:if take. 2059:) it is 1992:composes 1943:morpheme 1843:tomorrow 1759:im Dani 1734:mevakRim 1710:tomorrow 1699:ba-bayit 1540:Ginsberg 854:for all 622:formula 359:used in 333:protasis 314:O-Marked 306:X-Marked 218:would be 212:: If it 208:Irrealis 199:irrealis 184:: If it 116:Examples 111:Overview 50:X-marked 5006:Grammar 4431:Binding 3377:2215339 3331:2215339 2408:pulisis 2308:eχtizes 2282:PST.PFV 2278:PST.PFV 2252:become. 2149:become. 2146:γinotan 2065:Russian 2002:. 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