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less, but lumber for CLT needs to have a MC of approximately 12% during manufacturing to avoid internal stress due to shrinkage. This test is also done so that adjacent pieces of lumber do not have an MC difference greater than 5%. In order to conduct an MC check, various hand-held or on the line devices can be used. Some are more accurate than others, as they check moisture content within the wood not just at surface level. Further research and development is ongoing to improve the accuracy of such devices. Temperature in the manufacturing facility is also checked and maintained throughout this process to ensure the quality of the lumber. Visual grading is performed so that any warping in the lumber is prevented from affecting the pressure the bond line can withstand. It also ensures that waning, defects in the wood due to bark or missing wood due to the curvature of the log, does not significantly reduce the available bonding surface. For a product to be considered an E-class CLT, visual grading must be considered for perpendicular layers while parallel layers must be determined by the E-rating (the average stiffness of a piece of lumber). Products are classified as V-class if visual grading is used for both perpendicular and parallel layers.
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his PhD thesis research on CLT in 1994. Utilizing the theories he developed during his research, Schickhofer began working with three small sawmills and the
Sawmillers Association, to start production of CLT. With help from some government funding, they were able to hand build a test CLT press and create the first few panels. At the same time, the first press system, utilizing water-based pressure, came on the market enabling Schickhofer and his team to think beyond the capabilities originally thought possible for CLT. After years of extensive research, Schickofer submitted the results to the Austrian and EU government bodies that dealt with the approval of materials for commercial products and in December 1998 it was approved. A period of substantial growth in production and projects soon followed in Germany and other European countries as a push for green buildings became more prominent. CLT was slow to take off in North America, but it has begun to gain momentum in more recent years.
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number of layers in a CLT panel has a direct impact on its compressive strength, with more layers generally resulting in higher strength. However, in the case of keeping the certain thickness of a CLT panel, more layers will result in a lower buckling capacity. Additionally, the geometry of openings in a CLT panel can also affect its compressive strength, with larger openings leading to lower strength. Also, rectangular openings oriented perpendicular to the loading direction exhibit lower sensitivity to capacity reduction when subjected to critical loading changes compared to those with an orientation parallel to the loading direction. To achieve optimal mechanical properties, it is important to carefully consider both the number of layers and the geometry of openings when designing and constructing CLT panels.
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this, lumber shrinkage reliefs can be cut in the longitudinal direction. These reliefs release the stress in the lumber and decrease the risk of cracking due to drying. They must however, have a maximum width and depth so that the bonding area and panel strength are not impacted significantly. Using a vacuum press may be more beneficial in some circumstances, because they can press more than one CLT panel at once and can be used for curved elements. A hydraulic press on the other hand, generates a greater pressure, ranging from 40 to 80 pounds per square inch (280–550 kPa), and applies it to specific faces of the panel. For this reason, panels may need to undergo both vertical and side clamping pressing.
297:– CLT is a new venture for many in North America which can limit the number of engineers and contractors willing to take on a CLT project due to their lack of knowledge and experience with the material. The building codes for mass timber projects are also not as developed as those for concrete and steel which can again make developers hesitant to employ CLT. A considerable amount of technical research has been done on CLT, but it takes time to integrate new practices and results into the building industry because of its path-dependent culture which resists deviating from established practices, especially when the research conducted on CLT has not necessarily reached those who have the opportunity to implement it.
258:– CLT is significantly lighter than traditional building materials so foundations can be designed to support a smaller load and therefore use less material. The machinery required on-site to move and place the CLT panels are also smaller than those needed to lift heavier building materials. These aspects enable contractors to erect CLT buildings on sites that might otherwise be incapable of supporting heavier projects. This can help ease infilling projects where construction is especially tight or difficult to access due to other preexisting structures around the site.
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the same engineering properties so that panel limitations can be determined. Likewise, all lumber for the minor direction must have a single set of properties. Higher quality lumber can also be grouped so that it is reserved for areas in which fasteners are installed to maximize fastener effectiveness. For aesthetic purposes, some lumber will be set aside so that the outermost layer of a panel is visually appealing. Timber that does not fit into either category may be used for different products, such as plywood or glued laminated timber.
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varying the thickness of individual layers while maintaining the total thickness. ANSYS is used to apply critical buckling loads to a set thickness wall and alter the thickness of each layer. The research demonstrates that the buckling resistance strength of CLT walls is influenced by two physical properties: the total thickness of the wall and the number of layers. Additionally, the study investigates the effect of wall openings on the wall's strength by analyzing the opening geometry, loading orientation, and opening position.
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313:– Current standardized methods for testing the vibration performance of floors are not applicable to CLT floors due to their lightweight nature and natural frequency. Looking at deflection under a uniformly distributed load, we can get some idea of the vibration performance of a CLT floor, but it is heavily reliant on a designer's judgement and neglects the influence of mass characteristics. In order to fully test the vibration performance of a CLT floor, a new testing method will need to be developed.
187:(PRF) or polyurethane-reactive (PUR) adhesives. For PUR adhesives, the layers of lumber may be misted to help with curing. The side-by-side nozzle option is commonly reserved for CLT layers that are formed in advance and works by installing the nozzles along a beam that will travel along the length of the lumber and apply the adhesive. To avoid additional manufacturing costs, adhesive is typically only applied to the top and bottom faces of the lumber, but edge-gluing can be done if necessary.
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designations, and a top stamp if it is a custom panel. These markings must be stamped at intervals of 8 feet (2.4 m) or less so that when longer pieces are delivered to site and cut, they still display the necessary information. Further markings may be added to demonstrate the main direction of loading and the zones designed to receive connections. During shipping and construction, the CLT panels must be protected from the weather to maintain their structural integrity.
475:, Denmark. The garage not only employs the use of CLT for the structure but surrounds the garage with planters and other greenery to promote the use of the space as more than just a place to leave a car. There are six stories with 700 spots, some designed specifically to promote green transportation, including charging stations and carpool only spots. The facility was designed to help the country achieve its goal of reaching
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291:– As CLT is a newer material for North America, it is only produced in a few regions, generally the Pacific Northwest. Transporting CLT panels across potentially vast distances will incur additional upfront costs. Some sources also indicate that the production costs of CLT are greater than other commonly used building materials due to the newness of the system and lack of current demand.
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154:(NFPA) began to research and develop codes regarding the fire safety of CLT and other engineered woods. The 2021 revision of the IBC included three new construction types for mass timber buildings, Type IV-A, Type IV-B and Type IV-C. These new types enabled buildings using mass timber to be built taller and over greater areas than before.
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not glued because they have an acceptable width tolerance, only the top and bottom faces are planed. It is possible that planing may increase the overall moisture content of the timber due to the drying variations throughout the wood. When this occurs, bonding suitability should be assessed and reconditioning may be necessary.
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Using the results from lumber selection, the grouping step ensures the timber of various categories are grouped together. Lumber used for the major and minor strength directions are grouped primarily relying on MC and visual grading. Within the major strength direction, all lumber is required to have
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While linear elastic behavior is often assumed for Cross-Laminated Timber (CLT), in reality, its performance is not always linear and needs to be studied in a non-linear context. Additionally, the connection between different layers cannot always be fully bonded, and the moisture content of the wood
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For the seismic resistance strength research, shaking table tests were conducted for target structure, which was composed of narrow shear walls and high ductile tensile bolts. The structure was shown to behave well during severe strong motion as specified in the
Japanese building standard law and to
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Cross-laminated timber (CLT) is considered sustainable because it's made from renewable wood that can be harvested responsibly. CLT production is also eco-friendly, generating fewer greenhouse gas emissions and using less energy than traditional materials like concrete and steel. CLT can help reduce
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As a novel and renewable construction material, the demand of applying cross-laminated timber (CLT) has increased significantly. However, the mechanical properties of CLT have not been fully explored. This section primarily discusses research on the compressive strength and seismic behavior of CLT.
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Panel lay-up is performed next and involves laying the individual pieces of lumber together in preparation for assembly pressing. In accordance with ANSI/APA PRG 320, at least 80% of the surface area between layers must be bound together so that the bond is effective. In order to meet this standard,
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The first patent resembling CLT was first developed in the 1920s by Frank J. Walsh and Robert L. Watts in Tacoma, Washington. Many sources however, date the first patent back to 1985 when it was patented in France. Significant developments were then made in
Austria when Gerhard Schickhofer presented
1423:
Brandon, Daniel; Dagenais, Christian (March 2018). "Fire Safety
Challenges of Tall Wood Buildings Phase 2: Task 5 – Experimental Study of Delamination of Cross Laminated Timber (CLT) in Fire" (PDF). National Fire Protection Association (NFPA). Fire Protection Research Foundation. Retrieved November
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will change over time. Furthermore, the impact of different opening shapes on CLT strength requires further investigation, and boundary conditions are not always simply supported. It is important to consider these factors when studying the behavior and performance of CLT in real-world applications.
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product that is gaining popularity in the construction industry due to its numerous advantages, such as sustainability, cost-effectiveness, and ease of construction. Mechanical properties, particularly compressive strength, are key factors to consider when designing and constructing CLT panels. The
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Once assembly pressing is complete, the CLT panels undergo quality control machining. Sanders are used to sand each panel down to the desired thickness with a tolerance of 1 mm, or less if specified by a project. The CLT panels are then moved to a multi-axis numerically controlled machine that
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Assembly pressing completes the adhering process with either a vacuum press or a hydraulic press. Vacuum pressing generates a pressure of approximately 14.5 pounds per square inch (0.100 MPa), which is not always enough to address the warping potential or surface irregularities. To accommodate
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During primary lumber selection, lumber will undergo a moisture content (MC) check and visual grading. Depending on the application, structural testing (E-rating) may also be completed. The moisture content check is conducted because the lumber that is typically used, can arrive with a MC of 19% or
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The planing step improves the surfaces of the timber to reduce oxidation which increases the effectiveness of the adhesives. Approximately 2.5 mm is trimmed off the top and bottom faces and 3.8 mm is trimmed off the sides to ensure a flat surface. In some cases, when the lumber edges are
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and completed in 2014, the
Mistissini Bridge employs the use of locally sourced CLT panels and glue-laminated timber girders to serve as the main structural members of the bridge. The bridge won numerous awards including the National Award of Excellence in the Transportation category at the 48th
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To meet the requirements of ANSI/APA PRG 320 and ensure that the correct product has been specified, delivered, and installed, CLT panels must be marked to identify a variety of information. This includes the grade, thickness, mill name, agency name or logo, ANSI/APA PRG 320 symbol, manufacturer
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Application of the adhesive occurs shortly after planing to avoid any issues affecting the surface of the lumber. Applying the adhesive is most often done in one of two ways: a through-feed process or side-by-side nozzles. In the through-feed process extruder heads distribute parallel threads of
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In 2002, Austria used
Schickhofer's research to create the first national CLT guidelines. The International European Technical Assessments (ETA) began to regulate the properties and design of CLT in 2006. Efforts to standardize CLT in Europe started in 2008 and by 2015 the first European product
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For the compressive strength research, the author uses a computational homogenization procedure that is implemented numerically within a finite element framework using the commercial software ANSYS 15.0. The study aims to determine the buckling strength of Cross-Laminated Timber (CLT) walls by
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CLT receives. Despite this, CLT ranks highly for its ability to withstand a fire once started. It is classified as REI 90, indicating that it can retain the necessary load bearing capacity and meet integrity requirements for 90 minutes during a fire. This leads to a better overall fire safety
240:– CLT panels are fully fabricated before they are transported to site. This enables quicker construction times compared to other materials which can lead to shorter schedules and its subsequent benefits such as cost savings, less risk for accidents, and reduced disruption to the neighborhood.
264:– CLT products have relatively high in and out of plane strength and stiffness due to the perpendicular layers. This reinforcement is comparable to a reinforced concrete slab and increases the panel's resistance to splitting. CLT has also been shown to perform well under seismic forces.
248:– CLT panels provide air tightness and great thermal insulation to buildings as the thermal conductivity (U) of a panel is approximately 0.3458 W/mK. Other common building materials can have U values ranging from 0.4 to 2.5 W/mK. The various layers of wood also serve as a
585:, as it absorbs and stores carbon dioxide. Its lightweight, prefabricated design minimizes waste and improves construction efficiency. Finally, CLT is durable and long-lasting, with a projected lifespan of over 100 years, making it a promising option for sustainable construction.
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The timber is then cut to a certain length depending on the application and specific client needs. Cut-offs from the longitudinal layers may be used to create the transverse layers if the same specifications are needed for both the parallel and perpendicular layers.
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The seismic behavior of cross-laminated timber (CLT) is an area of active research and development. Studies have shown that CLT has good seismic performance due to its high stiffness and strength, as well as its ductility and energy dissipation capacity.
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Ramage, Michael H.; Burridge, Henry; Busse-Wicher, Marta; Fereday, George; Reynolds, Thomas; Shah, Darshil U.; Wu, Guanglu; Yu, Li; Fleming, Patrick (February 2017). "The wood from the trees: The use of timber in construction". Renewable and
Sustainable
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manufacturers are tasked with finding the most efficient way of laying the lumber. This time between spreading the adhesive and applying pressure is known as assembly time and must fall within the time targeted by the specific adhesive used.
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417:, Wisconsin, became the tallest high-rise to utilize CLT components. Reaching 25 stories and 86.6 m, the Ascent relies on concrete, steel, and mass timber components. The CLT was primarily used to create the slabs for each floor.
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The manufacturing of CLT is generally divided into nine steps: primary lumber selection, lumber grouping, lumber planing, lumber cutting, adhesive application, panel lay-up, assembly pressing, quality control and marking and shipping.
379:, built in 2009, was the first building constructed using only CLT framing, including for the stairs and elevator shaft. At 9 stories and 30 m tall, at the time of construction, it was the tallest CLT building in the world.
307:, must be used in conjunction with the CLT panels. Changing the effective mass area of the CLT panel by increasing thickness or adding a second panel (creating an air gap) also improved the sound insulation to meet the standards.
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despite the occurrence of a compressive rupture in shear walls which are support elements against the vertical load. Story shear capacity calculated from a numerical model and element tests (such as connections) were safely
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framed with CLT alone. The building has 10 stories and stands just over 32 m tall. The 759 CLT panels necessary for the project were manufactured in
Austria using European spruce that was grown and harvested there.
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218:– CLT has many applications in construction as it can be used for walls, floors, and roofs. The size of the panels is also easily varied as it is only limited by the site storage and transportation to the site.
1800:
Sato, Motoshi; Isoda, Hiroshi; Araki, Yasuhiro; Nakagawa, Takafumi; Kawai, Naohito; Miyake, Tatsuya (2019-01-15). "A seismic behavior and numerical model of narrow paneled cross-laminated timber building".
464:. Construction is underway as of December 2022, but once complete, it will stand at four stories and have 360 parking spots. In order to help protect the CLT from the rain while keeping it exposed, a
1377:"Mass timber building material in the U.S. construction industry: Determining the existing awareness level, construction-related challenges, and recommendations to increase its current acceptance level"
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change depending on the direction at which the force is applied. By gluing layers of wood at right angles, the panel is able to achieve better structural rigidity in both directions. It is similar to
230:– Because CLT is made from wood, it sequesters carbon. Different factors will affect how much carbon is sequestered, but numerous studies have shown that the use of CLT (in combination with other
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In the compressive strength section, the impact of the number of CLT layers and the geometry of openings on a CLT panel is analyzed. Meanwhile, the seismic behavior of CLT is evaluated through a
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Hoeller, C., Mahn, J., Quirt, D., Schoenwald, S. and
Zeitler, B. (2017). Apparent Sound Insulation in Cross-Laminated Timber Buildings. National Research Council Canada. doi:10.4224/23002009.
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Lehmann, Steffen (2012-10-18). "Sustainable
Construction for Urban Infill Development Using Engineered Massive Wood Panel Systems". Sustainability. 4 (10): 2707–2742. doi:10.3390/su4102707.
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Laguarda Mallo, Maria Fernanda; Espinoza, Omar (2015-05-01). "Awareness, perceptions and willingness to adopt Cross-Laminated Timber by the architecture community in the United States".
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Kremer, P. D.; Symmons, M. A. (August 2015). "Mass timber construction as an alternative to concrete and steel in the Australia building industry: a PESTEL evaluation of the potential".
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Julien, F. (2010) Manufacturing cross-laminated timber (CLT): Technological and economic analysis, report to Quebec Wood Export Bureau. 201001259-3257AAM. Quebec, QC: FPInnovations
105:. An odd number of layers is most common, but there are configurations with even numbers as well (which are then arranged to give a symmetric configuration). Regular timber is an
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Pina, Juan Carlos; Saavedra Flores, Erick I.; Saavedra, Karin (2019-02-28). "Numerical study on the elastic buckling of cross-laminated timber walls subject to compression".
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Tažiková, A., Talian, J. and Galla, J. (2020). Analysis of Prefabricated Systems in the Construction of Family Houses. TEM Journal, 9(3), pp.959–965. doi:10.18421/tem93-17.
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panel product made from gluing together at least three layers of solid-sawn lumber (i.e. lumber cut from a single log). Each layer of boards is usually oriented
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adhesive along the piece of lumber in an airtight system to avoid air gaps in the glue that could affect bonding strength. This is typically used for phenol
507:, Washington, in 2019 and some politicians were calling for the use of pre-fabricated modular CLT construction to address the housing crisis in cities like
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Brandon, D. and Östman, B. (2016). Fire Safety Challenges of Tall Wood Buildings -Phase 2: Task 1 - Literature Review FINAL REPORT BY. Available at:
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is a fully CLT bridge in the design phase as of December 2022. Originally proposed in 2020 by Paul Cocksedge, this bridge will cross the
303:– CLT alone does not meet the necessary sound insulation ratings. In order to meet these requirements, additional elements, such as decoupled
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makes precision cuts for doors, windows, splices, and connections. Any minor repairs that are necessary at this stage are completed manually.
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350:. The structure is a curved tube in a shape of a smile touching the floor at its centre and has a maximum capacity of 60 people.
224:– CLT is a renewable, green, and sustainable material, if the trees used to make it are sourced from efficiently managed forests.
1064:
https://www.nfpa.org//-/media/Files/News-and-Research/Fire-statistics-and-reports/Building-and-life-safety/RFTallWoodPhase2.ashx
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Dyson Institute Village, on-campus housing for students at Dyson Institute of Engineering and Technology in Malmesbury, England.
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performance than unprotected steel, which loses its load bearing capacity after it is exposed to a fire for only 15 minutes.
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Brandner, Reinhard. (2013). Production and Technology of Cross Laminated Timber (CLT): A state-of-the-art Report. Graz.
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Open Platform and JAJA Architects won a design competition in 2020 for their plans to create a Park n’ Play garage in
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Inhabitat - Green Design, Innovation, Architecture, Green Building | Green design & innovation for a better world
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annual Association of Consulting Engineering Companies (ACEC) and also the Engineering a Better Canada Award.
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https://www.usg.edu/facilities/assets/facilities/documents/foc/2_Introduction_to_Mass_Timber_Construction.pdf
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1189:"Thermal performance of cross-laminated timber (CLT) and cross-laminated bamboo and timber (CLBT) panels"
1130:"Global potential for material substitution in building construction: The case of cross laminated timber"
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in London, using hardwood CLT panels. The 115-foot-long (35 m) "Smile" was designed by architect
1996:
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889:, Walsh, Frank J. & Watts, Robert L., "Composite lumber", issued 1923-08-21
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526:. The village was designed as a number of stacked studio apartment modules by London architects
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Sanborn, K.; Gentry, T. R.; Koch, Z.; Valkenburg, A.; Conley, C.; Stewart, L. K. (2019-06-01).
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429:, Quebec, Canada, is a 160-meter-long bridge that crosses the Uupaachikus Pass. Designed by
1661:"Prefabricated Housing Module Advances Wood Research at the University of British Columbia"
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1346:"Cross-Laminated Timber for Single-Family Residential Construction: Comparative Cost Study"
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opened a 23,000-square-metre (250,000 sq ft) modular construction CLT factory in
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The mechanical properties summary is based on the research of Pina et al. and Sato et al.
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1587:"paul cocksedge's exploded view bridge in cape town to use invasive eucalyptus tree wood"
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https://www.steelconstruction.info/images/8/87/Steel_construction_-_Fire_Protection.pdf
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128:(known as glulam), which is a product with all laminations orientated in the same way.
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standard for CLT, EN 16351, was approved. Also in 2015, CLT was incorporated into the
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1724:"WilkinsonEyre completes village of modular student housing pods for Dyson Institute"
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1846:"Cross-laminated timber for building construction: A life-cycle-assessment overview"
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The Glenwood is a CLT parking garage that is part of a larger redevelopment plan in
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1320:"Comparing the Costs of Cross Laminated Timber and Reinforced Concrete Structures"
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In September 2016 the world's first timber mega-tube structure was built at the
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1077:"Tall mass timber provisions represent historic new building code requirements"
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Linear elastic constitutive law is assumed to reduce the computational time.
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234:) in construction could significantly reduce our net carbon emission output.
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Coats, P. (2017). Introduction to Mass Timber Construction. Available at:
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to adjacent layers and glued on the wide faces of each board, usually in a
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CLT is used in a number of various different structures around the world.
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534:. The pods are constructed from CLT, with each pod wrapped in aluminum.
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Tata Steel (n.d.). STEEL CONSTRUCTION Fire Protection. Available at:
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1635:"Denmark's first timber parking garage will be enveloped in greenery"
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The interface between different layers is fully bonded with no slide.
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20mm cubic SOLID186 meshing elements was conducted by using ANSYS.
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D’Amico, Bernardino; Pomponi, Francesco; Hart, Jim (2021-01-10).
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Simply supported boundary conditions are used in all the models.
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CLT has also been identified as a suitable candidate for use in
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Seattle Should Lead on Mass Timber–and Solve Our Housing Crisis
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Wood Awards (n.d.). The Stadthaus. Wood Awards. Available at:
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1040:"2015 INTERNATIONAL BUILDING CODE (IBC) | ICC DIGITAL CODES"
448:, South Africa. Cocksedge plans to manufacture the CLT from
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Shan, Bo; Chen, Bozhang; Wen, Jie; Xiao, Yan (2022-11-03).
781:(U.S.), FPInnovations, Binational Softwood Lumber Council.
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that assesses the seismic shear capacity of the material.
270:– Wood is inherently flammable which leads to the D class
1445:"The Smile by Alison Brooks Architects Gives CLT a Boost"
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995:"Green technology behind high rise wood-based buildings"
522:, England, to provide on-campus student housing for the
910:"Ballistic performance of Cross-laminated Timber (CLT)"
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Only rectangular cut-outs for openings are considered.
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made from overlapping glass panels will be installed.
1611:"Glenwood CLT Parking Garage Study — SRG Partnership"
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As a building material, CLT has numerous advantages:
499:. Silicon Valley–based modular construction startup
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1020:"Cross Laminated Timber (CLT) | SkyCiv Engineering"
284:There are also some drawbacks associated with CLT:
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may be too technical for most readers to understand
1236:"Thermal Properties of Common Building Materials"
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252:, which can help reduce a building's energy use.
1591:designboom | architecture & design magazine
1474:https://woodawards.com/portfolio/the-stadthaus/
1324:Pacific Northwest Building Resilience Coalition
1193:Architectural Engineering and Design Management
382:In 2012, Forte Living, an apartment complex in
1375:Ahmed, Shafayet; Arocho, Ingrid (2020-12-01).
16:Wood panel product made from solid-sawn lumber
1902:
617:The wood is assumed to be in a dry condition.
524:Dyson Institute of Engineering and Technology
150:in accordance with ANSI/APA PRG 320 and the
8:
1722:Wilson, Rob; Williams, Fran (10 June 2019).
78:CLT-plate with three layers made from spruce
1844:Younis, Adel; Dodoo, Ambrose (2022-07-15).
1585:designboom, juliana neira I. (2020-02-28).
914:International Journal of Impact Engineering
101:way so that the outer layers have the same
1909:
1895:
1887:
1344:Burback, Brad; Pei, Shiling (2017-09-01).
1173:
1171:
867:"Glulam/CLT Structural Timber Association"
589:Objective and approaches of the researches
1861:
1392:
925:
773:Karacabeyli, Erol; Douglas, Brad (2019).
62:Learn how and when to remove this message
46:, without removing the technical details.
1564:School of Architecture & Environment
1560:"Mass timber design wins regional award"
452:trees, an invasive species in the area.
393:
357:
695:
733:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (
726:
518:was built in 2019 on the outskirts of
1795:
1793:
1791:
1747:
1745:
1743:
1741:
768:
766:
764:
44:make it understandable to non-experts
7:
2617:
1350:Journal of Architectural Engineering
903:
901:
775:CLT handbook: cross-laminated timber
762:
760:
758:
756:
754:
752:
750:
748:
746:
744:
152:National Fire Protection Association
2629:
1754:Construction and Building Materials
1692:Spokane Valley Economic Development
825:International Wood Products Journal
558:Cross-laminated timber (CLT) is an
1381:Cleaner Engineering and Technology
1362:10.1061/(ASCE)AE.1943-5568.0000267
14:
1766:10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.12.013
1443:Himelfarb, Ellen (29 July 2016).
538:Mechanical properties and effects
2628:
2616:
2607:
2606:
1453:American Institute of Architects
386:, Australia, became the tallest
344:American Hardwood Export Council
23:
2156:Oriented structural straw board
1850:Journal of Building Engineering
1815:10.1016/j.engstruct.2018.09.054
530:, and modeled after Montreal's
117:but with distinctively thicker
1487:"Forte Living | WoodSolutions"
927:10.1016/j.ijimpeng.2018.11.007
837:10.1179/2042645315Y.0000000010
1:
1276:10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.01.090
1264:Journal of Cleaner Production
1205:10.1080/17452007.2022.2140399
1146:10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.123487
1134:Journal of Cleaner Production
1018:Solie, Trevor (2021-07-04).
375:, a residential building in
342:, in collaboration with the
1659:RyanQuinlan (15 May 2017).
609:Assumptions of the research
148:International Building Code
109:material, meaning that the
2676:
2547:Non-timber forest products
2171:Structural insulated panel
1863:10.1016/j.jobe.2022.104482
1394:10.1016/j.clet.2020.100007
779:Forest Products Laboratory
2602:
425:The Mistissini Bridge in
222:Environmentally conscious
2512:Destructive distillation
1491:www.woodsolutions.com.au
2532:Green building and wood
664:Laminated veneer lumber
516:Dyson Institute Village
332:Chelsea College of Arts
185:resorcinol formaldehyde
2176:Wood–plastic composite
2102:Glued laminated timber
2097:Cross-laminated timber
1803:Engineering Structures
1615:www.srgpartnership.com
971:"Unstructured 9 extra"
659:Glued laminated timber
576:Why CLT is sustainable
487:
406:
369:
348:London Design Festival
262:Strength and stiffness
126:glued laminated timber
89:) is a subcategory of
83:Cross-laminated timber
79:
2249:Corrugated fiberboard
2151:Oriented strand board
1240:www.engineersedge.com
554:Summary of properties
485:
397:
361:
124:CLT is distinct from
77:
2634:WikiProject Forestry
975:www.fourthdoor.co.uk
634:For further research
601:1995 Kobe earthquake
497:modular construction
491:Modular construction
295:Limited track record
2660:Composite materials
2395:Ramial chipped wood
1726:. Architect Journal
1566:. 23 September 2015
462:Springfield, Oregon
111:physical properties
2312:Cellulosic ethanol
1711:, 14 February 2019
1449:Architect Magazine
599:have survived the
545:shaking table test
488:
456:Parking structures
407:
370:
338:and engineered by
245:Thermal insulation
216:Design flexibility
80:
2642:
2641:
2577:Wood preservation
2522:Engineered bamboo
2342:Pyroligneous acid
1234:Edge, Engineers.
1044:codes.iccsafe.org
796:978-0-86488-592-0
477:carbon neutrality
438:The Exploded View
72:
71:
64:
2667:
2632:
2631:
2620:
2619:
2610:
2609:
2567:Timber recycling
2562:Reclaimed lumber
2552:Natural building
2517:Dry distillation
2471:Split-rail fence
1911:
1904:
1897:
1888:
1876:
1875:
1865:
1841:
1835:
1834:
1797:
1786:
1785:
1749:
1736:
1735:
1733:
1731:
1719:
1713:
1712:
1703:
1697:
1696:
1687:
1681:
1680:
1678:
1676:
1671:on 31 March 2019
1667:. Archived from
1656:
1650:
1649:
1647:
1646:
1631:
1625:
1624:
1622:
1621:
1607:
1601:
1600:
1598:
1597:
1582:
1576:
1575:
1573:
1571:
1556:
1550:
1549:
1547:
1545:
1531:
1525:
1524:
1522:
1521:
1507:
1501:
1500:
1498:
1497:
1483:
1477:
1470:
1464:
1463:
1461:
1459:
1440:
1434:
1431:
1425:
1421:
1415:
1414:
1396:
1372:
1366:
1365:
1341:
1335:
1334:
1332:
1331:
1316:
1310:
1303:
1297:
1294:
1288:
1287:
1259:
1250:
1249:
1247:
1246:
1231:
1225:
1224:
1184:
1178:
1175:
1166:
1165:
1125:
1119:
1115:
1109:
1106:
1100:
1097:
1091:
1090:
1088:
1087:
1073:
1067:
1060:
1054:
1053:
1051:
1050:
1036:
1030:
1029:
1027:
1026:
1015:
1009:
1008:
1006:
1005:
991:
985:
984:
982:
981:
967:
961:
954:
948:
947:
929:
905:
896:
895:
894:
890:
883:
877:
876:
874:
873:
863:
857:
856:
820:
809:
808:
770:
739:
738:
732:
724:
722:
721:
715:
709:. Archived from
708:
700:
583:carbon footprint
67:
60:
56:
53:
47:
27:
26:
19:
2675:
2674:
2670:
2669:
2668:
2666:
2665:
2664:
2655:Engineered wood
2645:
2644:
2643:
2638:
2598:
2582:Wood processing
2490:
2424:
2371:
2278:
2230:
2187:
2117:parallel strand
2088:
2081:
1929:
1920:
1915:
1885:
1880:
1879:
1843:
1842:
1838:
1799:
1798:
1789:
1751:
1750:
1739:
1729:
1727:
1721:
1720:
1716:
1705:
1704:
1700:
1689:
1688:
1684:
1674:
1672:
1658:
1657:
1653:
1644:
1642:
1633:
1632:
1628:
1619:
1617:
1609:
1608:
1604:
1595:
1593:
1584:
1583:
1579:
1569:
1567:
1558:
1557:
1553:
1543:
1541:
1533:
1532:
1528:
1519:
1517:
1509:
1508:
1504:
1495:
1493:
1485:
1484:
1480:
1471:
1467:
1457:
1455:
1442:
1441:
1437:
1432:
1428:
1422:
1418:
1374:
1373:
1369:
1356:(3): 06017002.
1343:
1342:
1338:
1329:
1327:
1318:
1317:
1313:
1304:
1300:
1295:
1291:
1261:
1260:
1253:
1244:
1242:
1233:
1232:
1228:
1186:
1185:
1181:
1176:
1169:
1127:
1126:
1122:
1116:
1112:
1107:
1103:
1098:
1094:
1085:
1083:
1075:
1074:
1070:
1061:
1057:
1048:
1046:
1038:
1037:
1033:
1024:
1022:
1017:
1016:
1012:
1003:
1001:
993:
992:
988:
979:
977:
969:
968:
964:
955:
951:
907:
906:
899:
892:
885:
884:
880:
871:
869:
865:
864:
860:
822:
821:
812:
797:
772:
771:
742:
725:
719:
717:
713:
706:
704:"Archived copy"
702:
701:
697:
692:
649:Engineered Wood
645:
636:
611:
591:
578:
573:
560:engineered wood
556:
540:
493:
458:
423:
377:Hackney, London
367:Hackney, London
356:
328:
320:
282:
232:engineered wood
209:
160:
143:
134:
121:(or lamellae).
91:engineered wood
68:
57:
51:
48:
40:help improve it
37:
28:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2673:
2671:
2663:
2662:
2657:
2647:
2646:
2640:
2639:
2637:
2636:
2626:
2614:
2603:
2600:
2599:
2597:
2596:
2589:
2584:
2579:
2574:
2569:
2564:
2559:
2554:
2549:
2544:
2539:
2534:
2529:
2524:
2519:
2514:
2509:
2507:Certified wood
2504:
2498:
2496:
2492:
2491:
2489:
2488:
2483:
2481:Timber framing
2478:
2473:
2468:
2466:Sawdust brandy
2463:
2458:
2453:
2448:
2443:
2438:
2432:
2430:
2426:
2425:
2423:
2422:
2417:
2412:
2407:
2402:
2397:
2392:
2387:
2381:
2379:
2373:
2372:
2370:
2369:
2364:
2359:
2357:Sandalwood oil
2354:
2349:
2344:
2339:
2334:
2329:
2324:
2319:
2314:
2309:
2304:
2303:
2302:
2292:
2286:
2284:
2280:
2279:
2277:
2276:
2271:
2266:
2261:
2256:
2251:
2246:
2240:
2238:
2232:
2231:
2229:
2228:
2223:
2218:
2213:
2208:
2207:
2206:
2195:
2193:
2189:
2188:
2186:
2185:
2184:
2183:
2173:
2168:
2163:
2161:Particle board
2158:
2153:
2148:
2147:
2146:
2141:
2136:
2126:
2121:
2120:
2119:
2114:
2109:
2099:
2093:
2091:
2083:
2082:
2080:
2079:
2074:
2069:
2064:
2059:
2054:
2049:
2044:
2039:
2034:
2029:
2024:
2019:
2014:
2009:
2004:
1999:
1994:
1989:
1984:
1979:
1974:
1969:
1964:
1959:
1954:
1949:
1944:
1939:
1933:
1931:
1922:
1921:
1916:
1914:
1913:
1906:
1899:
1891:
1884:
1883:External links
1881:
1878:
1877:
1836:
1787:
1737:
1714:
1698:
1682:
1651:
1626:
1602:
1577:
1551:
1526:
1502:
1478:
1465:
1435:
1426:
1416:
1367:
1336:
1311:
1298:
1289:
1251:
1226:
1199:(5): 511–530.
1179:
1167:
1120:
1110:
1101:
1092:
1068:
1055:
1031:
1010:
986:
962:
949:
897:
878:
858:
831:(3): 138–147.
810:
795:
740:
694:
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691:
688:
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681:
676:
671:
669:Green building
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238:Prefabrication
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228:Carbon capture
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141:Building codes
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2568:
2565:
2563:
2560:
2558:
2555:
2553:
2550:
2548:
2545:
2543:
2540:
2538:
2537:List of woods
2535:
2533:
2530:
2528:
2525:
2523:
2520:
2518:
2515:
2513:
2510:
2508:
2505:
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2487:
2484:
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2479:
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2472:
2469:
2467:
2464:
2462:
2459:
2457:
2454:
2452:
2449:
2447:
2446:Billet (wood)
2444:
2442:
2439:
2437:
2434:
2433:
2431:
2427:
2421:
2418:
2416:
2413:
2411:
2408:
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2403:
2401:
2398:
2396:
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2391:
2388:
2386:
2383:
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2365:
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2360:
2358:
2355:
2353:
2350:
2348:
2345:
2343:
2340:
2338:
2335:
2333:
2330:
2328:
2325:
2323:
2320:
2318:
2315:
2313:
2310:
2308:
2307:Hemicellulose
2305:
2301:
2298:
2297:
2296:
2293:
2291:
2288:
2287:
2285:
2281:
2275:
2272:
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2267:
2265:
2262:
2260:
2257:
2255:
2252:
2250:
2247:
2245:
2242:
2241:
2239:
2237:
2233:
2227:
2224:
2222:
2219:
2217:
2214:
2212:
2209:
2205:
2202:
2201:
2200:
2197:
2196:
2194:
2190:
2182:
2179:
2178:
2177:
2174:
2172:
2169:
2167:
2164:
2162:
2159:
2157:
2154:
2152:
2149:
2145:
2142:
2140:
2137:
2135:
2132:
2131:
2130:
2127:
2125:
2122:
2118:
2115:
2113:
2110:
2108:
2105:
2104:
2103:
2100:
2098:
2095:
2094:
2092:
2090:
2084:
2078:
2075:
2073:
2070:
2068:
2065:
2063:
2060:
2058:
2055:
2053:
2050:
2048:
2045:
2043:
2040:
2038:
2035:
2033:
2032:Railroad ties
2030:
2028:
2025:
2023:
2020:
2018:
2015:
2013:
2010:
2008:
2005:
2003:
2000:
1998:
1995:
1993:
1990:
1988:
1985:
1983:
1980:
1978:
1975:
1973:
1970:
1968:
1965:
1963:
1960:
1958:
1955:
1953:
1950:
1948:
1945:
1943:
1940:
1938:
1935:
1934:
1932:
1927:
1923:
1919:
1918:Wood products
1912:
1907:
1905:
1900:
1898:
1893:
1892:
1889:
1882:
1873:
1869:
1864:
1859:
1855:
1851:
1847:
1840:
1837:
1832:
1828:
1824:
1820:
1816:
1812:
1808:
1804:
1796:
1794:
1792:
1788:
1783:
1779:
1775:
1771:
1767:
1763:
1759:
1755:
1748:
1746:
1744:
1742:
1738:
1725:
1718:
1715:
1710:
1709:
1702:
1699:
1694:
1693:
1686:
1683:
1670:
1666:
1662:
1655:
1652:
1640:
1636:
1630:
1627:
1616:
1612:
1606:
1603:
1592:
1588:
1581:
1578:
1565:
1561:
1555:
1552:
1540:
1536:
1530:
1527:
1516:
1512:
1506:
1503:
1492:
1488:
1482:
1479:
1475:
1469:
1466:
1454:
1450:
1446:
1439:
1436:
1430:
1427:
1420:
1417:
1412:
1408:
1404:
1400:
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1390:
1386:
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1368:
1363:
1359:
1355:
1351:
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1340:
1337:
1325:
1321:
1315:
1312:
1308:
1302:
1299:
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1045:
1041:
1035:
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1014:
1011:
1000:
996:
990:
987:
976:
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966:
963:
959:
953:
950:
945:
941:
937:
933:
928:
923:
919:
915:
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904:
902:
898:
888:
882:
879:
868:
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854:
850:
846:
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838:
834:
830:
826:
819:
817:
815:
811:
806:
802:
798:
792:
788:
787:FPInnovations
784:
783:Pointe-Claire
780:
776:
769:
767:
765:
763:
761:
759:
757:
755:
753:
751:
749:
747:
745:
741:
736:
730:
716:on 2021-07-21
712:
705:
699:
696:
689:
685:
682:
680:
677:
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672:
670:
667:
665:
662:
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633:
628:
625:
622:
619:
616:
613:
612:
608:
602:
597:
593:
592:
588:
586:
584:
581:a building's
575:
570:
568:
564:
561:
553:
551:
548:
546:
537:
535:
533:
529:
528:WilkinsonEyre
525:
521:
517:
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2456:Dugout canoe
2441:Bavin (wood)
2390:Black liquor
2327:Liquid smoke
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2077:Utility pole
2062:Timber truss
1982:Log building
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2572:Wood drying
2557:Papermaking
2377:By-products
2283:Derivatives
2221:Pellet fuel
1962:Flitch beam
1544:25 November
1270:: 198–210.
654:Brettstapel
571:Discussions
405:, Wisconsin
354:Plyscrapers
272:fire rating
268:Fire safety
119:laminations
107:anisotropic
103:orientation
2649:Categories
2429:Historical
2410:Wood flour
2259:Paperboard
2129:Fiberboard
2087:Engineered
1947:Bressummer
1856:: 104482.
1730:10 January
1695:, May 2019
1645:2022-12-11
1620:2022-12-11
1596:2022-12-11
1535:"Cecobois"
1520:2022-12-11
1515:Think Wood
1496:2022-12-11
1387:: 100007.
1330:2021-05-12
1245:2022-12-03
1140:: 123487.
1086:2022-12-11
1049:2022-12-11
1025:2022-12-13
1004:2022-12-13
999:Mynewsdesk
980:2022-12-13
887:US1465383A
872:2017-01-02
805:1159152153
785:, Québec:
720:2019-01-02
690:References
674:Plyscraper
604:evaluated.
532:Habitat 67
520:Malmesbury
450:Eucalyptus
427:Mistissini
411:Ascent MKE
399:Ascent MKE
388:plyscraper
346:, for the
311:Vibrations
280:Challenges
207:Advantages
52:April 2023
2451:Clapboard
2420:Woodchips
2415:Wood wool
2295:Cellulose
2290:Birch-tar
2244:Cardboard
2226:Wood fuel
2134:hardboard
2037:Reclaimed
2002:Panelling
1992:Log house
1987:Log cabin
1872:2352-7102
1831:116759211
1823:0141-0296
1782:139802384
1774:0950-0618
1760:: 82–91.
1458:2 October
1411:228821387
1403:2666-7908
1284:0959-6526
1221:253358258
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936:0734-743X
920:: 11–23.
853:109434228
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479:by 2050.
446:Cape Town
415:Milwaukee
403:Milwaukee
384:Melbourne
373:Stadthaus
363:Stadthaus
326:Pavilions
301:Acoustics
99:symmetric
2612:Category
2593:Yakisugi
2527:Forestry
2495:See also
2436:Axe ties
2405:Tall oil
2385:Barkdust
2367:Wood gas
2347:Pine tar
2337:Methanol
2269:Pulpwood
2216:Firewood
2199:Charcoal
2192:Fuelwood
2139:Masonite
2067:Treenail
1967:Flooring
1809:: 9–22.
1675:28 April
1570:28 April
1539:Cecobois
1511:"Ascent"
1424:5, 2018.
729:cite web
643:See also
2623:Commons
2502:Biomass
2476:Tanbark
2400:Sawdust
2211:Firelog
2204:biochar
2166:Plywood
2124:I-joist
2042:Shingle
1997:Molding
684:Plywood
509:Seattle
505:Spokane
501:Katerra
431:Stantec
421:Bridges
132:History
115:plywood
38:Please
2461:Potash
2362:Tannin
2322:Lignin
2236:Fibers
2181:lumber
2107:veneer
2047:Siding
2027:Rafter
2022:Purlin
1937:Batten
1930:timber
1926:Lumber
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466:façade
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2274:Rayon
2254:Paper
2072:Truss
2012:Plate
2007:Plank
1972:Joist
1957:Cruck
1827:S2CID
1778:S2CID
1407:S2CID
1217:S2CID
1158:S2CID
940:S2CID
849:S2CID
714:(PDF)
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289:Costs
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2052:Sill
2017:Post
1977:Lath
1942:Beam
1868:ISSN
1819:ISSN
1770:ISSN
1732:2022
1677:2019
1572:2019
1546:2017
1460:2016
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