1580:
2988:
1688:
3210:
2909:
2898:
1441:
The bequests established independent duchies that created a collateral line of the family. The duchies of Saxe-Zeitz, Saxe-Merseburg and Saxe-Weissenfels that were created reverted to
Electoral Saxony in 1718, 1738 and 1746 respectively. In John George's time, the partitions weakened the electoral state economically, financially and politically, even though from a cultural point of view, new centers with palace buildings, cultural institutions and scientific facilities were established outside Dresden and Leipzig. The collateral lines striving for independence also limited the trend towards absolutist government that was growing in Electoral Saxony.
1170:
1432:(r. 1680–1691) that the war damage and dire social welfare situation were overcome. Resettlement of village farms and urban households proved to be the most difficult problem. The first sign of recovery was an increase in tax revenues. Mining, metallurgy, crafts, trade and transportation recovered slowly but steadily. The Saxon estates of the realm had regained influence during the war due to the territorial princes' great need for money. In the second half of the 17th century the electors had to convene the state parliament far more frequently than before, and in 1661 the estates were able to assert their right to self-assembly.
1770:
3126:
3154:
1421:
Karlheinz
Blaschke, Saxony's population was reduced by about half as a result of the war. Other authors point out that such a large decrease may have been true in individual regions, but that it cannot be applied to the entire population. The losses were mitigated to a large extent by religious refugees, about 150,000 of whom came to Saxony from Bohemia and Silesia. After the complete devastation of Magdeburg, its importance as a metropolis in the east of the Holy Roman Empire passed to Leipzig and Dresden, as well as to the rising Brandenburg city of Berlin.
965:. After five years of fighting, the situation remained unchanged, although large areas of the country had been devastated. The war was ended with the Peace of Pforta on 27 January 1451. The treaty confirmed the Altenburg partition, temporarily dividing the Wettin domain into an eastern and a western part. The western part of Saxony, which had been ruled by a collateral line of the Wettins since 1382, reverted to the main Wettin line after the death in 1482 of its last representative, Duke William III of Saxony. The unity of the country was then restored.
1758:
520:
475:
1357:
461:
3046:
3112:
2999:
2964:
1487:
1075:
1554:
Augustus also introduced a transparent accounting system to verify expenditures and a chamber of accounts that effectively organized the tax system. As a result of it and of the military retrenchment, the national debt was limited and manageable in spite of the high expenditures. A true absolutism did not develop in the
Electorate. The inherent contradictions between the elector's claim to absolute power, the nobility's will to assert itself, and the aspirations of the burghers proved to be insurmountable.
100:
503:
86:
3247:
1786:
3014:
537:
79:
806:(r. 1298–1356) ruled as dukes of Saxony for almost 150 years. They secured the continuity of the dynasty with their sons and asserted themselves as heirs to the Saxon electoral privilege. The electors were mainly concerned with external conflicts with other territorial rulers and pushed forward the territorial development of the still sparsely populated area. In 1290 the duchy was extended to include the Burgraviate of Magdeburg and the Countship of
3060:
869:, King of Germany and Bohemia, awarded the political inheritance of Albert III as an imperial fiefdom to the Wettin margraves of Meissen and granted them the Electorate of Saxony along with its electoral privilege. The Margravate of Meissen was absorbed into the Electorate of Saxony, and Saxe-Wittenberg was incorporated into the Wettin dominion as an electoral district. It was able to maintain a quasi-dominant position in the Wettin state until 1548.
1542:
564:
3140:
3025:
1801:
3084:
447:
433:
115:
989:
2950:
2936:
3098:
897:. The Wettins rose to become the leading power in central Germany. Politically, they proved to be committed administrators of the Empire and built up a compact territory, especially through purchases in the 15th century. From the area around Wittenberg the name "Saxony" gradually spread to encompass all the Wettin territories on the upper Elbe.
135:
1655:(a part of the Seven Years' War), Saxony's position as a European power came to an end. Augustus III and Heinrich von BrĂĽhl both died in 1763, and the Saxon-Polish dynastic alliance effectively ended with the Russian-Prussian alliance of 1764. The House of Wettin's official renunciation of the Polish kingship followed in 1765. Elector
1502:(r. 1694–1733), better known as Augustus II the Strong. Festivities, baroque splendor, art and patronage, as well as lavish grandeur and ostentation characterized both his reign and the period. Augustan Dresden continued to develop into the "Florence on the Elbe". The period saw the building of the
1408:
with the emperor and in an appendix to the treaty the next year gained possession of
Lusatia. Saxony's territory increased by about 13,000 square kilometers and almost reached its final borders. The devastation caused by the Thirty Years' War nevertheless continued, as battles against the Swedes went
1030:
became an important economic center of the Holy Roman Empire after the emperor granted it the right to hold fairs three times a year. At the imperial fairs the electors were able to convert their silver into cash, and with their filled coffers they started an active building program. Due to
Leipzig's
910:
Since the ruler's place of residence and his visibility to the people gained in importance in the early phase of the
Renaissance, the Wettins created a new seat in the Dresden valley of the Elbe towards the end of the 15th century. Dresden became the permanent residence of the elector, his councilors
1662:
The impact of the Seven Years' War on Saxony was devastating. As a central theater of battles and troop movements, it suffered significant destruction and many civilian casualties. An estimated 90,000 Saxons died as a result of the fighting. To avoid forced recruitment, many Saxons left the country.
1440:
John George I took advantage of the peace to put his territories in order. A clause in his will overrode the decree issued by Albert in 1499 which was intended to prevent a division in the inheritance. Small parts of
Electoral Saxony were bequeathed to his three sons Augustus, Christian and Maurice.
1243:
It was the
Albertine territories that for the most part made up what is now Saxony. Once again it became the second most important German state in the Holy Roman Empire after the Habsburg states, with the ability to play a decisive role in imperial politics. The state along the middle course of the
821:
permanently granted the electoral privilege to Rudolf I as Duke of Saxe-Wittenberg and decreed the indivisibility of the territory. The dukes of Saxe-Wittenberg rose to a place among the highest-ranking princes of the Empire. In addition to being one of the seven German electorates, Saxe-Wittenberg
681:
For about 200 years until the end of the 17th century, the
Electorate was the second most important territory in the Holy Roman Empire and a key protector of its Protestant principalities. At the time of its greatest extent in 1807 (one year after it was elevated to the status of a kingdom), Saxony
1256:
that allowed rulers within the Empire to choose either
Lutheranism or Catholicism, Saxony was firmly on the Habsburg side. Augustus, who had replaced Maurice as elector after he was killed in battle in 1553, saw himself as the leader of the Lutheran imperial states in whose interest the status quo
701:
From the end of the 12th to the middle of the 13th century, a narrow circle of imperial electors emerged that succeeded in excluding others from their number. The electoral college consisted initially of two ecclesiastical and two secular princes, one of whom was the duke of Saxony. The circle was
1709:, which brought the state treasury seven million guilders for further state investment. From 1791 on, Elector Frederick Augustus III entered into shifting coalitions which continued beyond Saxony's elevation to a kingdom in 1806. In 1805 the Electorate of Saxony covered 39,425 square kilometers.
1416:
that ended the Thirty Years' War, Swedish troops were slow in leaving Electoral Saxony. Only after payment of a stipulated tribute of 276,600 imperial thalers on 30 June 1650 did the last of the Swedes leave Leipzig. Life increasingly returned to normal after the hired mercenaries were also
1372:
and Bohemia, although he was unable to do anything about it. In 1631 he finally felt compelled to enter the war against the emperor on the side of Protestant Sweden. The decisive factor for the radical change in policy was the military situation – Swedish troops were already on Saxon soil at the
1046:. It was staffed by nobles and burghers and was the first independent public authority in Electoral Saxony that was detached from the prince and court. An effective local and central administration secured the rule of the electors. Internal order was restored after the unrest and insecurity that
1553:
Augustus reduced the influence of the nobility by establishing a centralized body for executive powers with the help of a privy cabinet created in 1706. It had specialized departments and gradually became the supreme central authority over the competing privy council of the territorial princes.
1420:
Most of the decrease in Saxony's population due to the war came about indirectly through epidemics and economic factors related to the stagnation of trade, but troop movements and wartime occupations also caused considerable loss in both urban and village populations. According to the historian
1671:
The Electorate stood on the verge of national bankruptcy after the Hubertusburg Peace. The national debt had reached 49 million thalers, about ten times the year's state revenue. Thomas von Fritsch and the restoration commission of which he was president placed the systematic reduction of the
762:
became the first Saxon duke. He did not succeed in establishing territorial rule over the full area of the old Duchy of Saxony that had been awarded to him, with the result that the new Ascanian Duchy of Saxony was formed only by his title and the imperial fiefs of Lauenburg and Wittenberg.
1549:
The luxurious life at court eventually exceeded the economic capacity of the state and was ultimately financed at the expense of military strength. The financial problems led to the abandonment of important positions in central Germany. Electoral Saxony's overextension favored the rise of
1276:
entrusted Augustus with the execution of the imperial sentences, and his successful military actions against both Grumbach and John Frederick in 1567 consolidated Electoral Saxony's position in the Empire. The Albertine electoral privilege was never again challenged by the Ernestines.
1136:
fought against his ideas and rejected open action against the emperor. It was only after George's death that the Reformation was introduced in the Albertine part of the country. For their part, the Ernestines became involved in the Reformation throughout the Empire, forming with the
1444:
Like other similarly-sized states of the time, Electoral Saxony pursued a foreign policy goal of advancing its own rise in a system of states dominated by rivalries. It remained at the side of the Austrian imperial house until the end of the 17th century. After the death of Emperor
1605:
was rooted in the aspirations for independence among German territorial princes. Saxony's rulers, like the other powerful imperial princes of the time, wanted to escape the central grip of the Holy Roman emperor and enhance their own dynastic rank in the European state system.
2576:
Metasch, Frank (2013). "Moderne Formen staatlicher Geldschöpfung – Die erfolgreiche Einführung von Papiergeld in Sachsen 1772" [Modern Forms of State Money Creation – The Successful Introduction of Paper Money in Saxony in 1772]. In Dresdner Geschichtsverein (ed.).
2505:
Plumpe, Werner (2014). "Ein historisches Lehrstück von Staatsverschuldung und Finanzpolitik – Das kursächsische Rétablissement von 1763" [A Historical Lesson of Public Debt and Fiscal Policy – The Electoral Saxon Rétablissement of 1763]. In Depenheuer, Otto (ed.).
846:(r. 1419–1422), Elector and Duke of Saxe-Wittenberg, died without descendants who were entitled to inherit. The German king, on the basis of the provisions of the Golden Bull, confiscated the duchy as a vacant imperial fiefdom. Both the Lauenburg Ascanians under Duke
1352:
for the emperor. In September 1620 Saxon troops marched into the two Lusatian territories and occupied them without major resistance. Because the emperor could not as agreed reimburse John George for the war costs, he had to give him the two Lusatias as a pledge in 1623.
1156:
and the Ore Mountains. The pressure on the peasantry was less in Saxony than in the southwestern areas of the Empire because of Saxony's strong sovereign position and administration which imposed barriers to arbitrary actions by the estate-owning nobility. In 1565, the
655:, the electoral district and electorship passed to the Albertine line. They remained electors until the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806, after which they gained the Saxon kingship through an alliance with Napoleon. The Electorate of Saxony then became the
2360:
Weise, Michael (2020). "Mobilität, Geschwindigkeit und Gewalt – die kroatischen Reiter in Brandenburg und Sachsen" [Mobility, Speed and Violence – the Croatian Horsemen in Brandenburg and Saxony]. In Asche, Matthias; Kollenberg, Marco; Zeiger, Antje (eds.).
1035:, traffic increased on the major trade routes that met in the city, and Leipzig became an important trading center for the whole of Europe. The customs revenues along the route in turn benefited the electoral treasury. In 1480 the printer Konrad Kachelofen from
1621:. The occupation cost Saxony 35 million Reichsthaler. Augustus regained possession of the Polish crown after the Swedes withdrew from Poland in 1709, but he was unable to assert his claim to Swedish Livonia and fell to the rank of a junior partner of Russia.
1094:
and held the prestigious electoral district in the north. His territory consisted of 14 exclaves in addition to the main complex. The Ernestines retained the title of elector, which could be transferred to all male members of the family. Albert resided in
1050:
had caused in Germany. Blood feuds were eliminated, the roads were secured from robbery, and an efficient legal system was established. Saxony became culturally, economically, and governmentally advanced compared to the other German states of the time.
1293:(r. 1586–1591). In time it prevailed over the orthodox Lutheran party, and the new church order was enforced nationwide. With Christian's death in 1591, the situation changed abruptly. Under a guardianship government established for the underaged
829:
In terms of size, Saxe-Wittenberg remained a rather insignificant territory in the Empire with an area of only about 4,500 to 5,000 square kilometers. There were no large urban centers, but the duchy's strategic location along the middle of the
726:
and the duke of Saxony. Tying electoral rights to individual territories took place in the early 13th century and solidified from then on. In the case of the Electorate of Saxony, the specific territory tied to was the Duchy of Saxe-Wittenberg.
1251:
Elector Maurice succeeded in clearing the way for the recognition of the new faith in the Empire. Under his rule, the Electorate of Saxony more than any other power in the Empire protected the Protestant faith. After the conclusion of the 1555
1023:
that stimulated a sustained economic boom. The mining dividends enabled the Saxon princes to pursue a broad domestic and foreign policy agenda. They purchased lands within the Wettin dominion and expanded their territory to the north and east.
1099:
as Duke of Saxony and was dominant in the east. He had the strategically better territory because it consisted of only two main areas and four exclaves. The two largest Saxon cities, Leipzig and Dresden, were located in his dominions.
933:) in Saxony. The estates were given the right to meet without being summoned by the ruler when there were reforms in taxation. As a result, state parliaments were held more and more frequently, and the Wettin "state of the estates" (
1732:, and was obliged to provide troop contingents for the French wars. Elector Frederick Augustus III of Saxony received the title of king, was from that point allowed to call himself King Frederick Augustus I of Saxony, and ruled the
1392:
lost its earlier importance. Other urban centers, notably Dresden/Meissen, were spared. Many smaller towns and villages fell victim to massive looting, especially after General Wallenstein gave free hand to his field marshal
1008:. Together the brothers had the Albrechtsburg Castle built in Meissen on the French model. In their policy, they pursued additional accommodation with Bohemia and provided active military assistance to the Empire against the
1769:
1086:
of 11 November 1485. It was not originally intended to be permanent, but in the end it significantly weakened the powerful position of the Electorate of Saxony in the Holy Roman Empire and led to open confrontation.
2886:
876:
since 1089 and of Meissen since 1125, gained a strategically important area to the north of their territories with Saxe-Wittenberg. It gave them a transportation connection to important northern German cities such as
1643:
and remained under occupation and a part of the theater of war until 1763. Augustus III was briefly taken prisoner before being allowed to leave for Poland. He ruled exclusively from Warsaw throughout the war.
1197:(r. 1547–1553) was enfeoffed with the electoral privilege in 1547 and with the Duchy of Saxe-Wittenberg in 1548, but contrary to the emperor's promises, he did not receive all of the Ernestine territories.
2864:
2662:
Beiträge auf dem von der Professur Regionalgeschichte Sachsens der Technischen Universität Chemnitz veranstalteten wissenschaftlichen Kolloquium am 25. Februar 2000. Technische Universität Chemnitz, Chemnitz
2087:
Schirmer, Uwe (2007). "Die Ernestinischen Kurfürsten bis zum Verlust der Kurwürde: 1485–1547" [The Ernestine Electors until the loss of electoral privilege: 1485–1547]. In Kroll, Frank-Lothar (ed.).
3544:
914:
The elector's increased expenses for equipping and maintaining an army and for his own court could no longer be met as before. The solution was to levy new types of taxes, which required the consent of the
1297:(r. 1591–1611), Calvinist movements in Saxony were opposed with violence. Calvinist supporters were removed from all offices, and the houses of wealthy Calvinists were stormed and set on fire.
1004:. Initially the two ruled in harmony, favored by the onset of a long economic upswing and increasing urban development. Agreement on political actions and decisions was ensured by a joint court in
794:
in 1269, a final division of the duchies under the two rulers became final and was formalized in 1296. Saxe-Wittenberg succeeded in claiming the electoral dignity permanently and for itself alone.
3176:
2617:
Statistischer Umriß der sämtlichen Europäischen Staaten in Hinsicht ihrer Größe, Bevölkerung, Kulturverhältnisse, Handlung, Finanz- und Militärverfassung und ihrer außereuropäischen Besitzungen
2879:
881:
and a stronger integration into the middle Elbe country which was densely populated and important economically. Access to the Elbe made it possible for them to participate in trade with the
1978:
Bünz, Enno (2007). "Die Kurfürsten von Sachsen bis zur Leipziger Teilung 1423–1485" [The Electors of Saxony until the Partition of Leipzig 1423–1485]. In Kroll, Frank-Lothar (ed.).
1848:
Thieme, André (2010). "1423 – Die Übertragung der sächsischen Kurwürde an die Wettiner" [1423 – The Transfer of the Saxon Electorate to the Wettins]. In Eigenwill, Reinhardt (ed.).
1248:(r. 1553–1586), worked to fill in the gaps. On 13 July 1547 the estates of the realm from the old and new territories were convened in Leipzig for two weeks as state parliament.
670:
of 1756–1763. Its middle-class structures were restricted in their development by the nobility and the administration and tended to lag behind contemporary western nations such as the
1757:
3575:
2621:
Statistical outline of all European states with regard to their size, population, cultural relations, trade, financial and military constitutions and their non-European possessions
1054:
After the western part of Saxony reverted to the main Wettin line following the death Duke William III in 1482, Saxony became the second power in the Holy Roman Empire next to the
942:
As was common in other German houses, the Wettins regularly divided their possessions among sons and brothers, which often led to intra-family tensions. After the death in 1440 of
2872:
1609:
King Augustus' increased importance in foreign affairs led to secret negotiations with Denmark and Russia that were directed against Sweden and that ultimately resulted in the
3580:
2596:
Burkhart, Johannes (2013). "Der Hubertusburger Frieden – eine sächsische Niederlage?" [The Hubertusburg Peace – a Saxon Defeat?]. In Dresdner Geschichtsverein (ed.).
1579:
1724:. After their defeat, the Electorate was occupied and 10,000 Bavarian soldiers and a French city commander moved into Dresden. On 11 December 1806 Saxony concluded the
1601:
in 1697, becoming King Augustus II of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania. The political calculation behind a dynastically based personal union with the elective kingdom of
3585:
1116:
in Wittenberg in 1517, the electoral district and Ernestine possessions of Saxony became the focus of European attention since it was there that the first phase of the
1678:. Through comprehensive reforms, Saxony not only returned to a budget surplus in 1774 but also achieved at least twenty years of unprecedented economic growth. The
1409:
on for more than ten years. Electoral Saxony left the direct fighting provisionally with the armistice of 1645 and permanently through a 1646 treaty with Sweden.
1364:
Saxony's relations with the emperor then began to deteriorate, in part because Saxony's neutrality was only minimally respected by the imperial troops led by
3246:
3198:
1617:
in 1700 turned into a military fiasco. The Swedes occupied Electoral Saxony in 1706/07 and forced Augustus to temporarily renounce the Polish crown in the
1565:. Under BrĂĽhl the mismanagement of Saxony's finances increased and budgets became unorganized, resulting in payment defaults and the danger of insolvency.
1336:
and the Bohemian estates that were behind the defenestration. After the death of the emperor in March 1619, the Bohemian estates deposed the newly crowned
1598:
1428:(r. 1656–1680) succeeded his father, Electoral Saxony was still suffering from the economic consequences of the war. It was not until the reign of
1687:
285:
662:
The Electorate of Saxony had a diversified economy and a high level of prosperity, although it suffered major setbacks during and following both the
1558:
1324:, in which angry Protestants threw Catholic officials out of a window of Prague Castle, marked the end of a long period of religious peace. Elector
1141:
of Lutheran princes a counterweight to the imperial Catholic side and openly calling for it to be challenged. The religious differences led to the
1228:. The fragmentation of the Ernestine possessions into numerous small states began in 1572. Two main Ernestine lines emerged in 1640, the House of
151:
2549:
Stellner, František (2000). "Zu den Ergebnissen des siebenjährigen Kriegs in Europa" [On the Results of the Seven Years' War in Europe].
1469:
and allowed the French to recruit on Saxon territory and to have its troops pass through it. In 1683 Elector John George III participated in the
1384:
the following year; both were won by the Protestant side. Leipzig was besieged several times, and its population declined from 17,000 to 14,000.
1659:(r. 1763–1806) rejected a new offer of the royal crown in 1791. Saxony was no longer in a position to play a role among the great powers.
2705:
2690:
2652:
2448:
2374:
1499:
3509:
1000:(r. 1464–1486) succeeded him at the age of 23. It marked the beginning of an almost twenty-year period of joint rule with his brother
943:
889:
and Elbe was connected to the long-settled land in the west through its political upgrade, which occurred at almost the same time that the
1574:
1186:
951:
843:
648:
259:
1602:
1462:
1308:
was founded as an alliance of the Protestant imperial estates, followed in 1609 by the union of the Catholic imperial estates into the
386:
168:
2489:
1429:
1684:
went far beyond repairing war damage and became one of the most significant and successful reconstruction efforts in German history.
2803:
2784:
2765:
2750:
2731:
2675:
2344:
2270:
2188:
2159:
2130:
2101:
2032:
1991:
1950:
1909:
1880:
1587:
1498:
On 27 April 1694 the prince who until then had scarcely made an appearance took over the affairs of state of Saxony as Elector
1446:
1425:
1368:, who on several occasions led marauding troops into Lusatia. John George also disliked the ruthlessly pursued recatholicization in
1261:
803:
246:
2299:
1401:
raided numerous villages, plundering them, maltreating and killing the inhabitants and leaving a swath of destruction in its wake.
1244:
Elbe that Electoral Saxony formed was not, however, fully connected geographically. Elector Maurice and his successor, his brother
1169:
3191:
1337:
1325:
1273:
1013:
817:, the fundamental law of the Empire settling the method of electing the German king by seven prince-electors. Through it Emperor
99:
527:
510:
480:
1785:
1618:
1597:
in 1696, Augustus II the Strong converted to Catholicism and with Habsburg support, military pressure and bribes, won the free
1356:
1294:
1082:
Tensions that had their origins in family relations increased between the two brothers Ernest and Albert and culminated in the
920:
636:
1696:
1656:
1290:
855:
847:
818:
605:
272:
3570:
3301:
2847:
1791:
1454:
1344:
as their king. John George then agreed with Ferdinand II that Saxony should reconquer the two Bohemian tributary lands of
1341:
1182:
968:
Of great importance for the development of the country was the agreement reached in 1459 between Elector Frederick II and
866:
1728:
with France, which brought it into French dependence. Electoral Saxony was granted some Prussian territories, joined the
1721:
1058:
domains. The family network of the Wettins expanded to include members who were ecclesiastical dignitaries in Magdeburg,
3129:
1625:
1377:
1333:
1304:, which was supported by the emperor. Electoral Saxony tried to mediate between the parties in the Empire. In 1608 the
3184:
1720:
in 1806, the Electorate of Saxony was allied with Prussia. Saxon soldiers fought against the Napoleonic armies in the
1713:
1245:
715:
678:
that started in the Electorate in the early 1500s. Especially in the 18th century, Saxon culture and arts flourished.
1629:
3590:
3115:
3087:
2668:
Kleinstädte in Kursachsen. Wandlungen einer Städtelandschaft zwischen Dreißigjährigem Krieg und Industrialisierung.
1729:
1381:
1194:
1190:
1001:
791:
644:
356:
3392:
3231:
3028:
1321:
997:
947:
894:
775:
759:
640:
78:
2512:
State Restructuring through Expropriation? Legitimation and Limits of State Access to the Assets of its Citizens
1561:(r. 1733–1763) had no political ambitions, he left the day-to-day political business to his prime minister
1078:
Saxony after the Partition of Leipzig. The Electorate is red, the Duchy yellow, and shared territory is striped.
3534:
2834:
1365:
1309:
1047:
767:
691:
609:
438:
2508:
Staatssanierung durch Enteignung? Legitimation und Grenzen staatlichen Zugriffs auf das Vermögen seiner Bürger
1835:
Germany and the Holy Roman Empire volume 2: The Peace of Westphalia to the Dissolution of the Reich, 1648–1806
682:
had reached a size of 34,994 square kilometers (about 13,500 square miles) and had a population of 2,010,000.
519:
474:
1300:
The growing differences between reformed and orthodox Lutheranism strengthened the influence of the Catholic
750:
of his power, and his duchy was divided, with the western part placed under the Archbishop of Cologne as the
3357:
2698:
Landesherr und Landstände in Kursachsen auf den Ständeversammlungen der zweiten Hälfte des 17. Jahrhunderts.
1486:
1149:
460:
1240:, the House of Saxe-Gotha counted a great many collateral lines, most of which ruled over their own lands.
3387:
3281:
3101:
2828:
2823:
Prof. Koch's Remarks - Dresden: Treasures from the Saxon State Library | Exhibitions - Library of Congress
1648:
1583:
1405:
1398:
1117:
1043:
969:
771:
373:
2436:
Brühl und das Renversement des alliances: Die antipreussische Aussenpolitik des Dresdener Hofes 1744–1756
3453:
3444:
3382:
3063:
3049:
2967:
2441:
Brühl and the Reversal of the Alliances: The anti-Prussian Foreign Policy of the Dresden Court 1744–1756
1800:
1523:
1491:
962:
452:
326:
1562:
1178:
1074:
3505:
3478:
3463:
3002:
2119:
Die Bildung des Freistaates Sachsen. Friedliche Revolution, Föderalisierung, deutsche Einheit 1989/90
1328:(r. 1611–1656) joined the emperor's side with the goal of preserving the status quo of the 1555
1265:
1237:
1083:
916:
739:
663:
597:
from 1356–1806. Its territory included the areas around the cities of Dresden, Leipzig and Chemnitz.
2333:
Der Dreißigjährige Krieg und das deutsche Volk. Untersuchungen zur Bevölkerungs- und Agrargeschichte
2123:
The formation of the Free State of Saxony. Peaceful Revolution, Federalization, German Unity 1989/90
85:
3263:
3157:
3143:
2953:
2939:
2819:
1725:
1636:
1466:
1458:
1413:
1301:
1138:
950:
reverted to the Electorate. Disagreements between the landgrave's nephews Elector Frederick II and
814:
751:
667:
601:
313:
300:
128:
1691:
King Frederick Augustus I of Saxony, who as Frederick Augustus III was the last elector of Saxony.
1173:
Saxony after the 1547 Capitulation of Wittenberg. Here red is the Electorate and yellow the Duchy.
3517:
3468:
3350:
3318:
3214:
2991:
2843:
2713:
Zur Entstehung des landesherrlichen Kirchenregimentes in Kursachsen und Braunschweig-WolfenbĂĽttel
2205:
1652:
1610:
1133:
1121:
977:
466:
1663:
Counterfeiting led to economic losses under which the Leipzig Fair and Saxon's credit suffered.
1272:, John Frederick refused to act against him, and he too was put under ban a year later. Emperor
1264:
continued to claim the electoral privilege that had been revoked from his father. When his ally
647:
lines, with the electoral district going to the Ernestines. In 1547, when the Ernestine elector
1632:
was forced to flee, and Elector Frederick Augustus II was elected as Polish King Augustus III.
616:
who chose the Holy Roman emperor. After the extinction of the male Saxe-Wittenberg line of the
3549:
3526:
3513:
3473:
3417:
3328:
3323:
3209:
2799:
2780:
2761:
2746:
2727:
2701:
2686:
2671:
2648:
2644:
2485:
2444:
2370:
2340:
2266:
2184:
2155:
2126:
2097:
2028:
1987:
1946:
1905:
1876:
1733:
1594:
1531:
1515:
1507:
1329:
1253:
976:. It brought about a hereditary settlement and a clear demarcation of the borders between the
924:
656:
632:
594:
496:
343:
155:
124:
3422:
3345:
3296:
2434:
1541:
1535:
1470:
1305:
1213:
1142:
882:
873:
755:
652:
625:
617:
2337:
The Thirty Years' War and the German People. Studies on Population and Agricultural History
1019:
The period of the joint reign of Ernest and Albert saw extensive silver discoveries in the
954:
led to the Division of Altenburg of 1445, in which William III received the Thuringian and
17:
3522:
3497:
3483:
3286:
2838:
1614:
1613:
of 1700–1721. Augustus' power politics failed due to early defeats; the Saxon invasion of
1550:
Brandenburg-Prussia to become the second major German and Protestant power in the Empire.
1519:
1511:
1125:
1039:
settled in Leipzig and with his letterpress began the Leipzig tradition of book printing.
858:(r. 1423–1428) laid claim to Saxe-Wittenberg and the associated electoral privilege.
779:
621:
580:
432:
59:
211:
Roman Catholic until 1525, then Lutheran until 1697, then again Roman Catholic since 1697
1236:. While the former had only a few collateral lines which were eventually united to form
754:, while the eastern part, which continued to bear the name Saxony, was enfeoffed to the
563:
3501:
3308:
3223:
2902:
1527:
1503:
1450:
1009:
1005:
973:
885:, which included several cities along the river. The former colonized land between the
823:
783:
747:
671:
613:
227:
164:
159:
45:
3564:
3458:
3367:
3340:
3291:
3255:
1394:
1349:
1345:
1129:
1109:
1020:
992:
The Albrechtsburg Castle, with the spires of the Meissen Cathedral visible behind it.
890:
861:
Frederick I's claim was based on his support of the Catholic forces in the religious
2061:
1775:
A coat of arms of the Elector of Saxony, over the entrance to the Electoral Hall in
3404:
2792:
Kursächsische Staatsfinanzen (1456–1656). Strukturen – Verfassung – Funktionseliten
1269:
1032:
996:
When Elector Frederick II died in Leipzig on 7 September 1464, his eldest son
862:
743:
735:
3449:
2822:
1672:
national debt at the center of a Saxon reconstruction program that was called the
1181:
in the Schmalkaldic War, the Albertine duke Maurice of Saxony, an ally of Emperor
2859:
3377:
3362:
1229:
1124:(r. 1486–1525) protected Luther, most notably when he sheltered him at the
1059:
719:
675:
1494:
in Dresden. It was rebuilt 1994–2005 following its destruction in World War II.
114:
3372:
2339:] (in German) (4th ed.). Stuttgart: Lucius & Lucius. p. 17.
1806:
1473:
that ended the second Turkish siege of the city and ensured its independence.
1233:
988:
831:
731:
183:
2848:
Supplementary Appendix: Germany in the late 18th Century – Caroline Schelling
813:
The electoral privilege was not institutionally regulated until 1356 and the
734:
of the early Middle Ages corresponded roughly to the present German state of
674:. Important humanistic and educational impulses came from Saxony through the
2154:] (in German). Leipzig: Leipziger Universitätsverlag. pp. 323–335.
1286:
1113:
1036:
955:
878:
330:
1624:
After Augustus' death in 1733, disputes over his successor resulted in the
2066:
Denkströme. Journal der Sächsischen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Leipzig
3412:
3335:
3313:
3273:
2367:
Half of Europe in Brandenburg. The Thirty Years' War and its Consequences
1763:
Coat of Arms of Electoral Saxony. In: Theatrum Saxonicum (Volume 1). 1608
1717:
1706:
1389:
1385:
1332:. Initially he and the elector of Mainz tried to mediate between Emperor
1221:
1209:
1153:
1055:
787:
2443:] (in German). MĂĽnster / Hamburg / Berlin / London: LIT. p. 1.
2152:
Contributions to the Constitutional and Administrative History of Saxony
2773:
Treue Deserteure: Das kursächsische Militär und der Siebenjährige Krieg
2312:(in German). Potsdam: Brandenburgische Universitätsdruckerei. p. 5
1776:
1640:
1369:
1165:
Rise of the Albertines as the Protestant protecting power in the Empire
1096:
1027:
851:
723:
711:
446:
369:
188:
2125:] (in German). Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. p. 32.
2363:
Halb Europa in Brandenburg. Der Dreißigjährige Krieg und seine Folgen
1225:
1201:
1091:
807:
628:, specifically the territory of the former Duchy of Saxe-Wittenberg.
2831:
1376:
The war affected Electoral Saxony especially badly in the west. The
1128:
for ten months in 1521/22 after Luther had refused to recant at the
923:(r. 1428–1464) organized in 1438 is considered to be the first
134:
2392:
Bevölkerungsgeschichte von Sachsen bis zur Industriellen Revolution
1360:
Elector John George I, who led Saxony during the Thirty Years' War.
1699:(1778/79), Saxony no longer participated in "haggling over land" (
1686:
1578:
1540:
1355:
1217:
1200:
The Ernestine line lost half of its possessions and retained only
1168:
1073:
1063:
987:
886:
707:
703:
562:
2683:
Die Herrscher Sachsens. Markgrafen, Kurfürsten, Könige 1089–1918.
2146:
Blaschke, Karlheinz (2002). Schirmer, Uwe; Thieme, André (eds.).
2027:] (in German). Dresden/Leipzig: Edition Leipzig. p. 27.
1453:(regent) for more than a year until the election of the Habsburg
786:. Initially the brothers ruled together, but after Albert became
635:, the Wettin noble house was divided between the sons of Elector
3436:
3432:
2484:] (in German). Leipzig: Koehler & Amelang. p. 208.
2396:
History of the Population of Saxony to the Industrial Revolution
2090:
Die Herrscher Sachsens. Markgrafen, Kurfürsten, Könige 1089–1918
1980:
Die Herrscher Sachsens. Markgrafen, Kurfürsten, Könige 1089–1918
1257:
achieved between Protestants and Catholics was to be preserved.
1205:
1158:
3180:
2868:
2846:. trans. Doug Scott (2014). "Germany in the Late 18th Century"
1736:
until 1827, after the Holy Roman Empire was dissolved in 1806.
2183:] (in German). Stuttgart: Kohlhammer Verlag. p. 84.
2062:"Sächsische Landesherrschaft contra Wittenberger Reformation"
1904:] (in German). Stuttgart: Kohlhammer Verlag. p. 70.
1090:
Ernest had his main focus in the north with his residence at
2553:(in German). Prague: Institute of World History. p. 92.
2148:
Beiträge zur Verfassungs- und Verwaltungsgeschichte Sachsens
1705:) and merely ended a permanent dispute over the area around
906:
Formation of the territorial complex in the late Middle Ages
2064:[Saxon sovereignty versus Wittenberg Reformation].
1586:, Elector of Saxony and King of Poland, wearing the Polish
2261:
Barnavi, Eli, ed. (1992). "The Return to Western Europe".
2094:
The Rulers of Saxony. Margraves, Electors, Kings 1089–1918
1984:
The Rulers of Saxony. Margraves, Electors, Kings 1089–1918
1875:] (in German). Stuttgart: Kohlhammer. pp. 13–16.
702:
extended in the 13th century to seven: the archbishops of
1152:
of 1525 touched Saxon territories only marginally in the
778:(r. 1260–1298) divided his land into the Duchies of
1465:(1663–1664). In the same year it became a member of the
1066:, with additional claims to duchies on the lower Rhine.
958:
parts and Frederick the eastern part of the Electorate.
2585:] (in German). Dresden: Sandstein. pp. 74, 77.
2514:] (in German). Berlin: Springer-Verlag. p. 14.
2369:] (in German). Berlin: Lukas Verlag. pp. 87f.
1042:
In 1483 Elector Ernest and Duke Albert established the
770:(r. 1212–1260). After his death in 1260, his sons
612:
an electorate, a territory whose ruler was one of the
2623:]. Vol. 2. Braunschweig: Vieweg. p. 22.
139:
The Holy Roman Empire at the 1648 Peace of Westphalia
1628:, which was won by Saxony. The legitimately elected
1412:
After the conclusion on 23 October 1648 of the
620:
in 1422, the duchy and the electorate passed to the
3431:
3403:
3272:
3254:
3222:
2796:
Quellen und Forschungen zur sächsischen Geschichte.
2719:
Band 16). Vandenhoeck und Ruprecht, Göttingen 1967.
2551:
Prague Papers on History of International Relations
1945:] (in German). Munich: C. H. Beck. p. 28.
551:
396:
383:
366:
353:
340:
323:
310:
296:
279:
266:
253:
240:
226:
218:
205:
Roman Catholic (until 1520s), Lutheran (from 1520s)
195:
179:
144:
32:
2096:] (in German). Munich: C.H. Beck. p. 60.
1986:] (in German). Munich: C.H. Beck. p. 41.
1856:] (in German). Beucha: Sax-Verlag. p. 47.
939:) that lasted until the 19th century was formed.
802:The Wittenberg Ascanians Albert I, Albert II and
2758:Kursachsen und der böhmische Aufstand 1618–1622.
2298:Dannenberg, Lars-Arne; Donath, Matthias (2016).
2250:] (in German). GĂĽtersloh: Mohn. p. 65.
1522:. New church buildings included the Protestant
624:. The electoral privilege was tied only to the
2832:Information in English language - Coat of Arms
2739:Die kursächsische Gerichtsverfassung 1423–1550
2482:August the Strong and the Electorate of Saxony
2398:] (in German). Weimar: Böhlau. p. 96.
1667:RĂ©tablissement and transformation to a kingdom
3576:States and territories disestablished in 1806
3192:
2880:
2717:Studien zur Kirchengeschichte Niedersachsens.
8:
1752:Based on many original preserved depictions:
1700:
1679:
1673:
1380:took place near Leipzig in 1631, as did the
1145:of 1546/47, which was won by the Catholics.
934:
928:
588:
51:
2905:of the Holy Roman Empire from 1356 to 1806
2743:Forschungen zur deutschen Rechtsgeschichte.
2700:Lang, Frankfurt am Main/Berlin/Bern 2007,
872:The Wettins, who had been margraves of the
37:
3581:States and territories established in 1356
3199:
3185:
3177:
2919:
2887:
2873:
2865:
1289:into Electoral Saxony began under Elector
919:. The meeting of the estates that Elector
113:
29:
27:State of the Holy Roman Empire (1356–1806)
2745:Band 17). Böhlau, Köln/Weimar/Wien 1997,
2604:]. Dresden: Sandstein. pp. 4–13.
2263:The Historical Atlas of the Jewish People
3586:States of the Confederation of the Rhine
2726:Drei Kastanien Verlag, Wittenberg 1999,
2563:
1485:
1461:against Sweden (1655–1660) and then the
798:Saxe-Wittenberg becomes Electoral Saxony
2860:Map of the Electorate of Saxony in 1789
2306:Reformation between the Elbe and Elster
2006:
1965:
1825:
1753:
1745:
1924:
961:Disputes over the division led to the
2536:
2463:
2420:
2408:
2285:
2047:
395:
382:
365:
352:
339:
322:
309:
305:
278:
265:
252:
239:
235:
225:
7:
3217:(1512–1806) of the Holy Roman Empire
2779:Band 41). Oldenbourg, MĂĽnchen 2008,
2524:
2301:Reformation zwischen Elbe und Elster
2248:Saxony in the Age of the Reformation
2244:Sachsen im Zeitalter der Reformation
2229:
2204:Kilcrease, Jack (11 December 2017).
2798:Band 28). Steiner, Stuttgart 2006,
1593:After the death of the Polish king
1575:Personal union of Poland and Saxony
1397:. From August to December 1632 the
1837:. Oxford: OUP Oxford. p. 188.
123: Electoral Saxony within the
25:
1635:In 1756, at the beginning of the
1185:, defeated the Ernestine elector
3245:
3208:
3152:
3138:
3124:
3110:
3096:
3082:
3058:
3044:
3023:
3012:
2997:
2986:
2962:
2948:
2934:
2907:
2896:
2478:August der Starke und Kursachsen
1799:
1784:
1768:
1756:
1014:War of the Burgundian Succession
838:Re-Enfeoffment of the Electorate
822:had possession of the office of
746:dynasty deprived the Saxon duke
535:
518:
501:
473:
459:
445:
431:
133:
98:
84:
77:
2670:Böhlau, Köln/Weimar/Wien 2001,
2206:"Luther's Time at the Wartburg"
984:Joint rule of Ernest and Albert
686:Establishment of the Electorate
2777:Militärgeschichtliche Studien.
2660:Landtage in Sachsen 1438–1831.
2598:Sachsen zwischen 1763 und 1813
2579:Sachsen zwischen 1763 und 1813
1850:Zäsuren sächsischer Geschichte
1697:War of the Bavarian Succession
946:, Landgrave of Thuringia, the
911:and administrative officials.
169:Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth
1:
2816:Dresden: Crossroads of Europe
1404:In 1635 Saxony concluded the
1342:Frederick V of the Palatinate
1322:1618 Defenestration of Prague
1161:of Saxony were expelled.
2681:Frank-Lothar Kroll (Hrsg.):
2602:Saxony Between 1763 and 1813
2583:Saxony between 1763 and 1813
2390:Blaschke, Karlheinz (1967).
2242:Blaschke, Karlheinz (1970).
1626:War of the Polish Succession
1449:in 1657, John George II was
1189:(r. 1532–1547). In the
2760:Aschendorff, MĂĽnster 1997,
2265:. Hutchinson. p. 138.
1867:Springer, Matthias (2004).
1714:War of the Fourth Coalition
716:count palatine of the Rhine
385:• Personal union with
18:Duchy of Saxony (1485–1547)
3607:
1939:Geschichte Sachsen-Anhalts
1730:Confederation of the Rhine
1572:
1569:Personal union with Poland
1457:. Saxony took part in the
1191:Capitulation of Wittenberg
972:, King of Bohemia, in the
834:gave the area promise.
826:of the Holy Roman Empire.
766:Bernhard was succeeded by
689:
593:), was a territory of the
567:1620 Taler - John George I
357:Capitulation of Wittenberg
3510:Lower Rhenish–Westphalian
3494:
3243:
3078:Added in the 19th century
3040:Added in the 17th century
2917:
2685:C.H. Beck, MĂĽnchen 2007,
2117:Richter, Michael (2004).
1937:Tullner, Mathias (2008).
1854:Caesuras of Saxon History
1695:After taking part in the
1599:election for the kingship
1388:was severely damaged and
1132:, but the Albertine duke
1031:newly granted market and
948:Landgraviate of Thuringia
895:Electorate of Brandenburg
854:Wettins in the person of
410:
406:
398:• Raised to kingdom
306:
292:
236:
172:(1697–1706 and 1709–1763)
112:
73:
68:
1943:History of Saxony-Anhalt
1833:Whaley, Joachim (2012).
1779:(Saxony state, Germany).
1639:, Saxony was invaded by
1588:Order of the White Eagle
1366:Albrecht von Wallenstein
901:Beginning of Wettin rule
692:List of rulers of Saxony
610:Duchy of Saxe-Wittenberg
439:Duchy of Saxe-Wittenberg
3545:Unencircled territories
2827:Chancellery of Saxony.
2711:Hans-Walter Krumwiede:
2331:Franz, GĂĽnther (1979).
1712:At the outbreak of the
1651:of 1763 that ended the
1482:Absolutism and splendor
392:1697–1706 & 1709–63
2829:Coat of arms of Saxony
2615:Hassel, Georg (1805).
2175:Gross, Reiner (2007).
2060:Jadatz, Heiko (2010).
2019:Gross, Reiner (2012).
1701:
1692:
1680:
1674:
1657:Frederick Augustus III
1649:Treaty of Hubertusburg
1590:
1584:Augustus II the Strong
1557:Because Augustus' son
1546:
1495:
1399:Croatian light cavalry
1361:
1281:Reformed Protestantism
1174:
1120:was anchored. Elector
1118:Protestant Reformation
1079:
993:
935:
929:
865:of 1419–1434. In 1423
589:
584:
568:
286:Frederick Augustus III
52:
38:
2658:Reiner GroĂź (Hrsg.):
1896:GroĂź, Reiner (2007).
1690:
1630:Stanisław Leszczyński
1619:Treaty of Altranstädt
1582:
1559:Frederick Augustus II
1545:The Dresden Cathedral
1544:
1489:
1378:Battle of Breitenfeld
1359:
1172:
1077:
991:
963:Saxon Fratricidal War
666:of 1618–1648 and the
585:KurfĂĽrstentum Sachsen
566:
453:Margravate of Meissen
53:KurfĂĽrstentum Sachsen
3571:Electorate of Saxony
2814:Hans-Albrecht Koch.
2810:Sources in English:
2771:Marcus von Salisch:
2433:Hanke, René (2006).
1792:Schwarzenberg Castle
1500:Frederick Augustus I
1285:The introduction of
1268:was placed under an
1266:Wilhelm von Grumbach
1238:Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach
1084:Partition of Leipzig
917:estates of the realm
740:Frederick Barbarossa
651:was defeated in the
573:Electorate of Saxony
203:Dominant confession:
34:Electorate of Saxony
3521:Circles est. 1512:
3496:Circles est. 1500:
2820:Library of Congress
2636:Sources in German:
2476:Czok, Karl (1987).
2021:Geschichte Sachsens
1467:League of the Rhine
1459:Second Northern War
1414:Peace of Westphalia
1302:Counter-Reformation
1260:The Ernestine duke
1139:Schmalkaldic League
970:George of Poděbrady
752:Duchy of Westphalia
602:Golden Bull of 1356
325:• Merged with
301:Early modern Europe
160:Imperial Electorate
129:Peace of Westphalia
91:Top: Electoral flag
39:Saxonia Electoralis
3542:
3538:
3215:Upper Saxon Circle
2923:
2844:Caroline Schelling
2837:2021-03-08 at the
2647:, Stuttgart 2007,
2566:, pp. 86, 91.
2423:, pp. 108 f..
2288:, p. 121–124.
1693:
1653:Third Silesian War
1611:Great Northern War
1591:
1563:Heinrich von BrĂĽhl
1547:
1496:
1463:Austro-Turkish War
1362:
1315:
1179:Battle of MĂĽhlberg
1175:
1148:The events of the
1134:George the Bearded
1122:Frederick the Wise
1080:
1044:Leipzig High Court
994:
978:Kingdom of Bohemia
738:. In 1180 Emperor
718:, the margrave of
569:
467:Duchy of Thuringia
93:Bottom: State flag
3591:History of Saxony
3556:
3555:
3550:Ernestine duchies
3535:Electoral Rhenish
3464:Schönburg (Saale)
3418:Quedlinburg Abbey
3314:Hatzfeld-Gleichen
3174:
3173:
3169:
3168:
3008:(until 1777)
2706:978-3-631-54598-0
2691:978-3-406-54773-7
2653:978-3-17-018946-1
2645:Kohlhammer Verlag
2450:978-3-8258-9455-9
2376:978-3-86732-323-9
2025:History of Saxony
1734:Kingdom of Saxony
1595:John III Sobieski
1532:Dresden Cathedral
1530:and the Catholic
1516:Moritzburg Castle
1508:Taschenbergpalais
1330:Peace of Augsburg
1316:Thirty Years' War
1262:John Frederick II
1254:Peace of Augsburg
1232:and the House of
980:and Saxony.
893:were granted the
842:In November 1422
664:Thirty Years' War
657:Kingdom of Saxony
633:Treaty of Leipzig
595:Holy Roman Empire
561:
560:
547:
546:
543:
542:
497:Kingdom of Saxony
489:
488:
344:Treaty of Leipzig
281:• 1763–1806
268:• 1423–1428
255:• 1419–1422
156:Holy Roman Empire
125:Holy Roman Empire
16:(Redirected from
3598:
3543:
3539:
3423:Walkenried Abbey
3249:
3213:
3212:
3201:
3194:
3187:
3178:
3163:
3162:
3156:
3155:
3149:
3148:
3142:
3141:
3135:
3134:
3128:
3127:
3121:
3120:
3114:
3113:
3107:
3106:
3100:
3099:
3093:
3090:
3086:
3085:
3069:
3066:
3062:
3061:
3055:
3052:
3048:
3047:
3031:
3027:
3026:
3020:
3016:
3015:
3009:
3005:
3001:
3000:
2994:
2990:
2989:
2973:
2970:
2966:
2965:
2959:
2956:
2952:
2951:
2945:
2942:
2938:
2937:
2920:
2912:
2911:
2910:
2901:
2900:
2899:
2889:
2882:
2875:
2866:
2722:Heinrich KĂĽhne:
2625:
2624:
2612:
2606:
2605:
2593:
2587:
2586:
2573:
2567:
2561:
2555:
2554:
2546:
2540:
2534:
2528:
2522:
2516:
2515:
2502:
2496:
2495:
2473:
2467:
2461:
2455:
2454:
2430:
2424:
2418:
2412:
2406:
2400:
2399:
2387:
2381:
2380:
2357:
2351:
2350:
2328:
2322:
2321:
2319:
2317:
2311:
2295:
2289:
2283:
2277:
2276:
2258:
2252:
2251:
2239:
2233:
2227:
2221:
2220:
2218:
2216:
2210:Reformation 2017
2201:
2195:
2194:
2172:
2166:
2165:
2143:
2137:
2136:
2114:
2108:
2107:
2084:
2078:
2077:
2075:
2073:
2057:
2051:
2045:
2039:
2038:
2016:
2010:
2004:
1998:
1997:
1975:
1969:
1963:
1957:
1956:
1934:
1928:
1922:
1916:
1915:
1893:
1887:
1886:
1864:
1858:
1857:
1845:
1839:
1838:
1830:
1813:
1803:
1788:
1772:
1760:
1750:
1726:Treaty of Poznań
1704:
1683:
1677:
1637:Seven Years' War
1603:Poland-Lithuania
1536:Gaetano Chiaveri
1471:Battle of Vienna
1382:Battle of LĂĽtzen
1306:Protestant Union
1187:John Frederick I
1143:Schmalkaldic War
1070:Renewed division
938:
932:
925:state parliament
883:Hanseatic League
874:March of Lusatia
756:House of Ascania
668:Seven Years' War
653:Schmalkaldic War
649:John Frederick I
626:Electoral Circle
618:House of Ascania
592:
577:Electoral Saxony
575:, also known as
539:
538:
531:
528:Duchy of Saxony
522:
514:
511:Duchy of Saxony
505:
504:
493:
492:
484:
481:Duchy of Saxony
477:
463:
449:
435:
428:
427:
412:
411:
402:20 December 1806
387:Poland–Lithuania
368:• Acquired
137:
122:
117:
102:
88:
81:
63:
55:
49:
41:
30:
21:
3606:
3605:
3601:
3600:
3599:
3597:
3596:
3595:
3561:
3560:
3557:
3552:
3547:
3541:
3537:
3520:
3490:
3427:
3399:
3268:
3250:
3241:
3218:
3207:
3205:
3175:
3170:
3165:
3164:
3160:
3153:
3151:
3150:
3146:
3139:
3137:
3136:
3132:
3125:
3123:
3122:
3118:
3111:
3109:
3108:
3104:
3097:
3095:
3094:
3091:
3083:
3081:
3080:
3071:
3070:
3067:
3059:
3057:
3056:
3053:
3045:
3043:
3042:
3033:
3032:
3024:
3022:
3021:
3013:
3011:
3010:
3007:
2998:
2996:
2995:
2987:
2985:
2984:
2975:
2974:
2971:
2963:
2961:
2960:
2957:
2949:
2947:
2946:
2943:
2935:
2933:
2932:
2913:
2908:
2906:
2897:
2895:
2893:
2856:
2839:Wayback Machine
2666:Katrin Keller:
2634:
2629:
2628:
2614:
2613:
2609:
2595:
2594:
2590:
2575:
2574:
2570:
2562:
2558:
2548:
2547:
2543:
2535:
2531:
2523:
2519:
2504:
2503:
2499:
2492:
2475:
2474:
2470:
2462:
2458:
2451:
2432:
2431:
2427:
2419:
2415:
2411:, pp. 17f.
2407:
2403:
2389:
2388:
2384:
2377:
2359:
2358:
2354:
2347:
2330:
2329:
2325:
2315:
2313:
2309:
2297:
2296:
2292:
2284:
2280:
2273:
2260:
2259:
2255:
2241:
2240:
2236:
2232:, pp. 54f.
2228:
2224:
2214:
2212:
2203:
2202:
2198:
2191:
2174:
2173:
2169:
2162:
2145:
2144:
2140:
2133:
2116:
2115:
2111:
2104:
2086:
2085:
2081:
2071:
2069:
2059:
2058:
2054:
2046:
2042:
2035:
2018:
2017:
2013:
2005:
2001:
1994:
1977:
1976:
1972:
1964:
1960:
1953:
1936:
1935:
1931:
1923:
1919:
1912:
1895:
1894:
1890:
1883:
1866:
1865:
1861:
1847:
1846:
1842:
1832:
1831:
1827:
1822:
1817:
1816:
1810:
1804:
1795:
1789:
1780:
1773:
1764:
1761:
1751:
1747:
1742:
1669:
1615:Swedish Livonia
1577:
1571:
1520:Augustus Bridge
1512:Pillnitz Palace
1484:
1479:
1438:
1430:John George III
1406:Peace of Prague
1318:
1310:Catholic League
1283:
1167:
1126:Wartburg Castle
1106:
1104:The Reformation
1072:
986:
908:
903:
840:
800:
780:Saxe-Wittenberg
699:
694:
688:
622:House of Wettin
614:prince-electors
608:designated the
556:
536:
529:
512:
502:
482:
399:
389:
376:
374:Peace of Prague
359:
346:
333:
319:10 January 1356
316:
282:
269:
262:(last Ascanian)
256:
243:
222:Feudal monarchy
214:
187:
175:
171:
140:
131:
120:
108:
107:
106:
103:
95:
94:
92:
89:
82:
64:
57:
50:
43:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3604:
3602:
3594:
3593:
3588:
3583:
3578:
3573:
3563:
3562:
3554:
3553:
3495:
3492:
3491:
3489:
3488:
3487:
3486:
3481:
3476:
3466:
3461:
3456:
3447:
3441:
3439:
3429:
3428:
3426:
3425:
3420:
3415:
3409:
3407:
3401:
3400:
3398:
3397:
3396:
3395:
3390:
3380:
3375:
3370:
3365:
3360:
3358:Saxe-Altenburg
3355:
3354:
3353:
3348:
3338:
3333:
3332:
3331:
3326:
3316:
3311:
3306:
3305:
3304:
3299:
3294:
3289:
3278:
3276:
3270:
3269:
3267:
3266:
3260:
3258:
3256:Ecclesiastical
3252:
3251:
3244:
3242:
3240:
3239:
3234:
3228:
3226:
3220:
3219:
3206:
3204:
3203:
3196:
3189:
3181:
3172:
3171:
3167:
3166:
3076:
3075:
3074:
3072:
3038:
3037:
3036:
3034:
2980:
2979:
2978:
2976:
2928:
2927:
2926:
2924:
2918:
2915:
2914:
2894:
2892:
2891:
2884:
2877:
2869:
2863:
2862:
2855:
2854:External links
2852:
2851:
2850:
2841:
2825:
2808:
2807:
2790:Uwe Schirmer:
2788:
2769:
2756:Frank MĂĽller:
2754:
2735:
2720:
2709:
2694:
2679:
2664:
2656:
2633:
2630:
2627:
2626:
2607:
2588:
2568:
2556:
2541:
2539:, p. 156.
2529:
2527:, p. 200.
2517:
2497:
2491:978-3733800345
2490:
2468:
2466:, p. 109.
2456:
2449:
2425:
2413:
2401:
2382:
2375:
2352:
2345:
2323:
2290:
2278:
2271:
2253:
2234:
2222:
2196:
2189:
2167:
2160:
2138:
2131:
2109:
2102:
2079:
2052:
2040:
2033:
2011:
1999:
1992:
1970:
1958:
1951:
1929:
1917:
1910:
1888:
1881:
1859:
1840:
1824:
1823:
1821:
1818:
1815:
1814:
1812:
1811:
1805:
1798:
1796:
1790:
1783:
1781:
1774:
1767:
1765:
1762:
1755:
1744:
1743:
1741:
1738:
1722:Battle of Jena
1702:Länderschacher
1681:RĂ©tablissement
1675:RĂ©tablissement
1668:
1665:
1573:Main article:
1570:
1567:
1504:Zwinger Palace
1483:
1480:
1478:
1475:
1451:imperial vicar
1437:
1434:
1426:John George II
1317:
1314:
1282:
1279:
1166:
1163:
1105:
1102:
1071:
1068:
1010:Ottoman Empire
1006:Dresden Castle
985:
982:
974:Treaty of Eger
907:
904:
902:
899:
839:
836:
799:
796:
784:Saxe-Lauenburg
748:Henry the Lion
722:, the king of
698:
695:
687:
684:
672:Dutch Republic
559:
558:
553:
549:
548:
545:
544:
541:
540:
533:
524:
523:
516:
507:
506:
499:
490:
487:
486:
478:
470:
469:
464:
456:
455:
450:
442:
441:
436:
424:
423:
418:
408:
407:
404:
403:
400:
397:
394:
393:
390:
384:
381:
380:
377:
367:
364:
363:
360:
354:
351:
350:
349:26 August 1485
347:
341:
338:
337:
336:6 January 1423
334:
324:
321:
320:
317:
311:
308:
307:
304:
303:
298:
297:Historical era
294:
293:
290:
289:
283:
280:
277:
276:
275:(first Wettin)
270:
267:
264:
263:
257:
254:
251:
250:
244:
241:
238:
237:
234:
233:
230:
228:Prince-Elector
224:
223:
220:
216:
215:
213:
212:
206:
199:
197:
193:
192:
181:
177:
176:
174:
173:
165:Personal union
162:
148:
146:
142:
141:
119:
118:
110:
109:
104:
97:
96:
90:
83:
76:
75:
74:
71:
70:
66:
65:
36:
33:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3603:
3592:
3589:
3587:
3584:
3582:
3579:
3577:
3574:
3572:
3569:
3568:
3566:
3559:
3551:
3546:
3536:
3532:
3528:
3524:
3519:
3518:(Lower) Saxon
3515:
3511:
3507:
3506:Upper Rhenish
3503:
3499:
3493:
3485:
3482:
3480:
3477:
3475:
3472:
3471:
3470:
3467:
3465:
3462:
3460:
3457:
3455:
3451:
3448:
3446:
3443:
3442:
3440:
3438:
3434:
3430:
3424:
3421:
3419:
3416:
3414:
3411:
3410:
3408:
3406:
3402:
3394:
3393:Sondershausen
3391:
3389:
3386:
3385:
3384:
3381:
3379:
3376:
3374:
3371:
3369:
3368:Saxe-Eisenach
3366:
3364:
3361:
3359:
3356:
3352:
3349:
3347:
3344:
3343:
3342:
3339:
3337:
3334:
3330:
3327:
3325:
3322:
3321:
3320:
3317:
3315:
3312:
3310:
3307:
3303:
3300:
3298:
3295:
3293:
3290:
3288:
3285:
3284:
3283:
3280:
3279:
3277:
3275:
3271:
3265:
3262:
3261:
3259:
3257:
3253:
3248:
3238:
3235:
3233:
3230:
3229:
3227:
3225:
3221:
3216:
3211:
3202:
3197:
3195:
3190:
3188:
3183:
3182:
3179:
3159:
3145:
3131:
3117:
3103:
3089:
3079:
3073:
3065:
3051:
3041:
3035:
3030:
3019:
3004:
2993:
2983:
2977:
2969:
2955:
2941:
2931:
2925:
2922:
2921:
2916:
2904:
2890:
2885:
2883:
2878:
2876:
2871:
2870:
2867:
2861:
2858:
2857:
2853:
2849:
2845:
2842:
2840:
2836:
2833:
2830:
2826:
2824:
2821:
2817:
2813:
2812:
2811:
2805:
2804:3-515-08955-1
2801:
2797:
2793:
2789:
2786:
2785:3-486-84852-6
2782:
2778:
2774:
2770:
2767:
2766:3-402-05674-7
2763:
2759:
2755:
2752:
2751:3-412-12296-3
2748:
2744:
2740:
2737:Heiner LĂĽck:
2736:
2733:
2732:3-933028-14-0
2729:
2725:
2724:Die Askanier.
2721:
2718:
2714:
2710:
2707:
2703:
2699:
2696:Nina KrĂĽger:
2695:
2692:
2688:
2684:
2680:
2677:
2676:3-412-11300-X
2673:
2669:
2665:
2661:
2657:
2654:
2650:
2646:
2643:
2642:Die Wettiner.
2640:Reiner GroĂź:
2639:
2638:
2637:
2631:
2622:
2618:
2611:
2608:
2603:
2599:
2592:
2589:
2584:
2580:
2572:
2569:
2565:
2564:Stellner 2000
2560:
2557:
2552:
2545:
2542:
2538:
2533:
2530:
2526:
2521:
2518:
2513:
2509:
2501:
2498:
2493:
2487:
2483:
2479:
2472:
2469:
2465:
2460:
2457:
2452:
2446:
2442:
2438:
2437:
2429:
2426:
2422:
2417:
2414:
2410:
2405:
2402:
2397:
2393:
2386:
2383:
2378:
2372:
2368:
2364:
2356:
2353:
2348:
2346:9783828252332
2342:
2338:
2334:
2327:
2324:
2307:
2303:
2302:
2294:
2291:
2287:
2282:
2279:
2274:
2272:0-09-177593-0
2268:
2264:
2257:
2254:
2249:
2245:
2238:
2235:
2231:
2226:
2223:
2211:
2207:
2200:
2197:
2192:
2190:9783170189461
2186:
2182:
2178:
2171:
2168:
2163:
2161:9783935693820
2157:
2153:
2149:
2142:
2139:
2134:
2132:9783666369001
2128:
2124:
2120:
2113:
2110:
2105:
2103:9783406547737
2099:
2095:
2091:
2083:
2080:
2067:
2063:
2056:
2053:
2050:, p. 28.
2049:
2044:
2041:
2036:
2034:9783361006744
2030:
2026:
2022:
2015:
2012:
2009:, p. 30.
2008:
2003:
2000:
1995:
1993:9783406547737
1989:
1985:
1981:
1974:
1971:
1968:, p. 13.
1967:
1962:
1959:
1954:
1952:9783406572869
1948:
1944:
1940:
1933:
1930:
1927:, p. 48.
1926:
1921:
1918:
1913:
1911:9783170189461
1907:
1903:
1899:
1892:
1889:
1884:
1882:3-17-016588-7
1878:
1874:
1870:
1863:
1860:
1855:
1851:
1844:
1841:
1836:
1829:
1826:
1819:
1808:
1802:
1797:
1793:
1787:
1782:
1778:
1771:
1766:
1759:
1754:
1749:
1746:
1739:
1737:
1735:
1731:
1727:
1723:
1719:
1715:
1710:
1708:
1703:
1698:
1689:
1685:
1682:
1676:
1666:
1664:
1660:
1658:
1654:
1650:
1645:
1642:
1638:
1633:
1631:
1627:
1622:
1620:
1616:
1612:
1607:
1604:
1600:
1596:
1589:
1585:
1581:
1576:
1568:
1566:
1564:
1560:
1555:
1551:
1543:
1539:
1537:
1533:
1529:
1525:
1521:
1517:
1513:
1509:
1505:
1501:
1493:
1488:
1481:
1476:
1474:
1472:
1468:
1464:
1460:
1456:
1452:
1448:
1447:Ferdinand III
1442:
1436:Early Baroque
1435:
1433:
1431:
1427:
1422:
1418:
1415:
1410:
1407:
1402:
1400:
1396:
1395:Heinrich Holk
1391:
1387:
1383:
1379:
1374:
1371:
1367:
1358:
1354:
1351:
1350:Lower Lusatia
1347:
1343:
1339:
1335:
1331:
1327:
1326:John George I
1323:
1313:
1311:
1307:
1303:
1298:
1296:
1292:
1288:
1280:
1278:
1275:
1271:
1267:
1263:
1258:
1255:
1249:
1247:
1241:
1239:
1235:
1231:
1227:
1223:
1219:
1215:
1211:
1207:
1203:
1198:
1196:
1192:
1188:
1184:
1180:
1171:
1164:
1162:
1160:
1155:
1151:
1150:Peasants' War
1146:
1144:
1140:
1135:
1131:
1130:Diet of Worms
1127:
1123:
1119:
1115:
1111:
1110:Martin Luther
1103:
1101:
1098:
1093:
1088:
1085:
1076:
1069:
1067:
1065:
1061:
1057:
1052:
1049:
1048:robber barons
1045:
1040:
1038:
1034:
1033:staple rights
1029:
1025:
1022:
1021:Ore Mountains
1017:
1015:
1011:
1007:
1003:
999:
990:
983:
981:
979:
975:
971:
966:
964:
959:
957:
953:
949:
945:
940:
937:
931:
926:
922:
918:
912:
905:
900:
898:
896:
892:
891:Hohenzollerns
888:
884:
880:
875:
870:
868:
864:
859:
857:
853:
849:
845:
837:
835:
833:
827:
825:
820:
816:
811:
809:
805:
797:
795:
793:
789:
785:
781:
777:
773:
769:
764:
761:
757:
753:
749:
745:
742:of the rival
741:
737:
733:
728:
725:
721:
717:
713:
709:
705:
696:
693:
685:
683:
679:
677:
673:
669:
665:
660:
658:
654:
650:
646:
642:
638:
634:
629:
627:
623:
619:
615:
611:
607:
603:
598:
596:
591:
586:
582:
578:
574:
565:
554:
552:Today part of
550:
534:
532:
526:
525:
521:
517:
515:
509:
508:
500:
498:
495:
494:
491:
485:
479:
476:
472:
471:
468:
465:
462:
458:
457:
454:
451:
448:
444:
443:
440:
437:
434:
430:
429:
426:
425:
422:
419:
417:
414:
413:
409:
405:
401:
391:
388:
378:
375:
371:
361:
358:
348:
345:
335:
332:
328:
318:
315:
302:
299:
295:
291:
287:
284:
274:
271:
261:
258:
248:
245:
231:
229:
221:
217:
210:
207:
204:
201:
200:
198:
194:
190:
185:
182:
178:
170:
166:
163:
161:
157:
153:
150:
149:
147:
143:
138:
136:
130:
126:
116:
111:
101:
87:
80:
72:
67:
61:
54:
47:
40:
31:
19:
3558:
3530:
3236:
3077:
3039:
3017:
2981:
2972:(until 1803)
2958:(until 1803)
2944:(until 1803)
2929:
2815:
2809:
2795:
2791:
2776:
2772:
2757:
2742:
2738:
2723:
2716:
2712:
2697:
2682:
2667:
2659:
2641:
2635:
2632:Bibliography
2620:
2616:
2610:
2601:
2597:
2591:
2582:
2578:
2571:
2559:
2550:
2544:
2532:
2520:
2511:
2507:
2500:
2481:
2477:
2471:
2459:
2440:
2435:
2428:
2416:
2404:
2395:
2391:
2385:
2366:
2362:
2355:
2336:
2332:
2326:
2314:. Retrieved
2305:
2300:
2293:
2281:
2262:
2256:
2247:
2243:
2237:
2225:
2213:. Retrieved
2209:
2199:
2180:
2177:Die Wettiner
2176:
2170:
2151:
2147:
2141:
2122:
2118:
2112:
2093:
2089:
2082:
2070:. Retrieved
2065:
2055:
2043:
2024:
2020:
2014:
2007:Tullner 2008
2002:
1983:
1979:
1973:
1966:Tullner 2008
1961:
1942:
1938:
1932:
1920:
1901:
1898:Die Wettiner
1897:
1891:
1872:
1868:
1862:
1853:
1849:
1843:
1834:
1828:
1748:
1711:
1694:
1670:
1661:
1646:
1634:
1623:
1608:
1592:
1556:
1552:
1548:
1524:Frauenkirche
1497:
1492:Frauenkirche
1477:Augustan Age
1443:
1439:
1423:
1419:
1411:
1403:
1375:
1363:
1340:and elected
1338:Ferdinand II
1319:
1299:
1295:Christian II
1284:
1270:imperial ban
1259:
1250:
1242:
1199:
1176:
1147:
1107:
1089:
1081:
1053:
1041:
1026:
1018:
995:
967:
960:
944:Frederick IV
941:
921:Frederick II
913:
909:
871:
863:Hussite Wars
860:
841:
828:
824:arch-marshal
812:
801:
765:
760:Bernhard III
744:Hohenstaufen
736:Lower Saxony
729:
700:
680:
661:
637:Frederick II
631:In the 1485
630:
599:
576:
572:
570:
421:Succeeded by
420:
415:
379:15 June 1635
242:• 1356
208:
202:
132:
127:at the 1648
105:Coat of arms
3531:Upper Saxon
3479:Wernigerode
3454:Klettenberg
3383:Schwarzburg
3378:Saxe-Weimar
3363:Saxe-Coburg
3232:Brandenburg
3224:Electorates
3161:(1803–1806)
3147:(1803–1806)
3133:(1803–1806)
3130:WĂĽrttemberg
3119:(1805–1806)
3105:(1803–1805)
3092:(1803–1806)
3029:Brandenburg
2316:17 November
2215:23 November
2181:The Wettins
2072:17 November
2068:(in German)
1925:Thieme 2010
1902:The Wettins
1869:Die Sachsen
1528:George Bähr
1291:Christian I
1274:Ferdinand I
1230:Saxe-Weimar
1112:posted his
1060:Halberstadt
1012:and in the
1002:Duke Albert
952:William III
936:Ständestaat
856:Frederick I
815:Golden Bull
720:Brandenburg
676:Reformation
530:(1547–1572)
513:(1485–1547)
483:(1485–1547)
416:Preceded by
362:19 May 1547
314:Golden Bull
273:Frederick I
191:(1547–1806)
186:(1356–1547)
3565:Categories
3548:See also:
3527:Burgundian
3514:Franconian
3388:Rudolstadt
3373:Saxe-Gotha
3088:Regensburg
3003:Palatinate
2537:Gross 2012
2464:Gross 2012
2421:Gross 2012
2409:Franz 1979
2286:Gross 2007
2048:Gross 2012
1873:The Saxons
1820:References
1807:Marienberg
1647:After the
1417:released.
1234:Saxe-Gotha
956:Franconian
844:Albert III
832:Elbe River
819:Charles IV
732:Old Saxony
697:Background
690:See also:
606:Charles IV
604:, Emperor
590:Kursachsen
260:Albert III
219:Government
184:Wittenberg
3445:Hohnstein
3319:Pomerania
2930:Spiritual
2525:Czok 1987
2230:BĂĽnz 2007
1455:Leopold I
1287:Calvinism
1183:Charles V
1114:95 theses
1037:Nuremberg
879:Magdeburg
867:Sigismund
792:Magdeburg
776:Albert II
714:plus the
645:Albertine
641:Ernestine
639:into the
331:Thuringia
247:Rudolph I
196:Religion
69:1356–1806
3523:Austrian
3498:Bavarian
3474:Stolberg
3469:Stolberg
3459:Mansfeld
3413:Gernrode
3405:Prelates
3336:Querfurt
3287:Bernburg
3116:WĂĽrzburg
3102:Salzburg
2903:Electors
2835:Archived
1718:Napoleon
1716:against
1518:and the
1390:Freiberg
1386:Chemnitz
1334:Matthias
1246:Augustus
1222:Eisenach
1210:Saalfeld
1154:Vogtland
1056:Habsburg
850:and the
804:Rudolf I
788:burgrave
768:Albert I
209:Elector:
3502:Swabian
3324:Further
3274:Secular
3064:Hanover
3050:Bavaria
2992:Bohemia
2982:Secular
2968:Cologne
1777:Stolpen
1707:Glaucha
1641:Prussia
1370:Silesia
1195:Maurice
1177:In the
1097:Dresden
1028:Leipzig
930:Landtag
852:Meissen
848:Erich V
724:Bohemia
712:Cologne
600:In the
555:Germany
370:Lusatia
355:•
342:•
327:Meissen
312:•
249:(first)
189:Dresden
180:Capital
154:of the
3484:Rossla
3433:Counts
3351:Junior
3329:Hither
3302:Zerbst
3297:Köthen
3292:Dessau
3282:Anhalt
3264:Cammin
3237:Saxony
3068:(1692)
3054:(1623)
3018:Saxony
3006:
2802:
2783:
2764:
2749:
2730:
2704:
2689:
2674:
2651:
2488:
2447:
2373:
2343:
2308:]
2269:
2187:
2158:
2129:
2100:
2031:
1990:
1949:
1908:
1879:
1809:, 1773
1794:, 1558
1514:, the
1510:, the
1506:, the
1373:time.
1226:Coburg
1202:Weimar
1092:Torgau
998:Ernest
808:Brehna
772:John I
581:German
557:Poland
288:(last)
232:
145:Status
121:
60:German
56:
42:
3450:Lohra
3437:Lords
3346:Elder
3341:Reuss
3309:Barby
3158:Hesse
3144:Baden
2954:Trier
2940:Mainz
2663:2000.
2619:[
2600:[
2581:[
2510:[
2480:[
2439:[
2394:[
2365:[
2335:[
2310:(PDF)
2304:[
2246:[
2179:[
2150:[
2121:[
2092:[
2023:[
1982:[
1941:[
1900:[
1871:[
1852:[
1740:Notes
1424:When
1346:Upper
1218:Gotha
1214:Weida
1108:When
1064:Mainz
887:Saale
708:Trier
704:Mainz
167:with
152:State
46:Latin
2800:ISBN
2781:ISBN
2762:ISBN
2747:ISBN
2728:ISBN
2702:ISBN
2687:ISBN
2672:ISBN
2649:ISBN
2486:ISBN
2445:ISBN
2371:ISBN
2341:ISBN
2318:2022
2267:ISBN
2217:2022
2185:ISBN
2156:ISBN
2127:ISBN
2098:ISBN
2074:2022
2029:ISBN
1988:ISBN
1947:ISBN
1906:ISBN
1877:ISBN
1490:The
1348:and
1320:The
1312:.
1224:and
1206:Jena
1159:Jews
1062:and
782:and
774:and
730:The
710:and
643:and
571:The
329:and
158:and
2794:(=
2775:(=
2741:(=
2715:(=
1534:of
1526:by
790:of
587:or
372:by
3567::
3540:·
3533:,
3529:,
3525:,
3516:,
3512:,
3508:,
3504:,
3500:,
3452:/
3435:/
2818:.
2208:.
1538:.
1220:,
1216:,
1212:,
1208:,
1204:,
1193:,
1016:.
810:.
758:.
706:,
659:.
583::
3200:e
3193:t
3186:v
2888:e
2881:t
2874:v
2806:.
2787:.
2768:.
2753:.
2734:.
2708:.
2693:.
2678:.
2655:.
2494:.
2453:.
2379:.
2349:.
2320:.
2275:.
2219:.
2193:.
2164:.
2135:.
2106:.
2076:.
2037:.
1996:.
1955:.
1914:.
1885:.
927:(
579:(
62:)
58:(
48:)
44:(
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.