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277:. The Upanishads assert that one's birth does not determine one's eligibility for spiritual knowledge, only one's effort and sincerity matters. Some Dharmasutras and Dharmasastras, such as Paraskara Grhyasutra, Gautama Smriti and Yajnavalkya Smriti, state all four varnas are eligible to all fields of knowledge; while verses of Manusmriti state that Vedic study is available only to men of three varnas, unavailable to Shudra and women.
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260:, and suggests that Shudras can possess Vedic knowledge. Since the 19th century, the concept of Dvija has been increasingly questioned. Women have become students of Sanskrit and Vedic subjects, notably in India’s public institutions of higher learning, have chanted Vedic verses, and have even offered their services as specialists in Brahmanical rituals.
280:
The
Brahmanical centres of learning were open to all the Dvija castes, states Romila Thapar, and they "appear to have attracted mainly the Brahmin students". The Dvija restrictions may be theoretical, because most students learnt their economically useful skills through apprenticeship within their
252:
The initiation ceremony (upanayana) invests the male initiates with a sacred thread, a loop worn next to the skin over the left shoulder and across the right hip. This Dvija-ceremony was recommended in medieval era texts for the
Brahmins (priests and teachers), Kshatriyas (warriors), and Vaishyas
281:
family or at guilds. Other scholars also treat the Dvija concept as theory, because in reality ancient and medieval India had artisan schools where all social classes including
Shudras learnt skills, and these artisans and workers built sophisticated artwork, products and large temples.
217:
is not a Vedic or ancient tradition of
Hinduism, but an innovation that appeared sometime in the 1st millennium CE. This word is a significant scholarly marker to identify a text as likely from medieval India.
26:: द्विज) means "twice-born". The concept is premised on the belief that a person is first born physically and at a later date is born for a second time spiritually, usually when he undergoes the
101:"Dvija" means "twice-born": the first birth is physical, while the second birth is a 'spiritual' one. The second 'birth' occurs when one takes up fulfilling a role in society, at the time of
292:
concept has been prevalent over the range of class and caste backgrounds, and the disciples a guru attracts come from both genders and a range of classes and castes. During the
2494:
253:(merchants) before they began their schools. In contrast, the Shudras were considered ineligible for Dvija-ceremony and formal schooling in these texts.
175:
appear in chapter 1.60 of
Rigveda, but the context is not human beings, but "fire" once born in the heaven and then brought and born again on the earth.
550:. Volume 7 of Bibliothèque de l'École des Hautes Études, Sciences Religieuses: Série Histoire et prosopographie. Brepols, Belgium. pp. 124–126.
431:. Volume 7 of Bibliothèque de l'École des Hautes Études, Sciences Religieuses: Série Histoire et prosopographie. Brepols, Belgium. pp. 117–132.
256:
Some
Sanskrit texts present a different view. The Mahabharata, for example, states that a Shudra who is self-restrained and pure conduct is like a
249:
indicates that a non-dvija child may also be inducted into the Dvija category, if he wishes to pursue the duties associated with these varnas.
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and others, the guru tradition and availability of education extended to all segments of ancient and medieval society. Lise McKean states the
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Samuel Parker (1987), Artistic practice and education in India: A historical overview, Journal of
Aesthetic Education, pages 123-141
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684:
Stella
Kramrisch (1958), Traditions of the Indian Craftsman, The Journal of American Folklore, Volume 71, Number 281, pages 224-230
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Richard
Kieckhefer and George Bond (1990), Sainthood: Its Manifestations in World Religions, University of California Press,
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178:
The term is missing in all theological and rituals-related text preceding the 2nd-century BCE, as well as the earliest
120:. Traditionally, a Kshatriya would start learning the use of arms, while a Vaishya would start a trade apprenticeship.
1473:
69:, nor is it found in any Vedanga literature such as the Shrauta-sutras or Grihya-sutras. The word scarcely appears in
273:(social classes or castes). The Vedas and the Upanishads never mention any restrictions based either on gender or on
127:
concept was that a person is born physically through his parents at home, spiritually through his teacher at school (
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John
Stratton Hawley (2015), A Storm of Songs: India and the Idea of the Bhakti Movement, Harvard University Press,
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Lise McKean (1996), Divine Enterprise: Gurus and the Hindu Nationalist Movement, University of Chicago Press,
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Sheldon Pollock (2009), The Language of the Gods in the World of Men, University of California Press,
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Stella Kramrisch (1994), Exploring India's Sacred Art (Editor: Barbara Miller), Motilal Banarsidass,
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texts. It makes the first appearance in Gautama Dharmasutra but not in the context later understood.
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Hartmut Scharfe (2007), Education in Ancient India: Handbook of Oriental Studies, Brill Academic,
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that initiates him into a school for Vedic studies. The term also refers to members of the three
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Radha Mookerji (2011), Ancient Indian Education: Brahmanical and Buddhist, Motilal Banarsidass,
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Aux abords de la clairière: études indiennes et comparées en l'honneur de Charles Malamoud
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Aux abords de la clairière: études indiennes et comparées en l'honneur de Charles Malamoud
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630:(2000), Classical Hindu Thought: An Introduction, Oxford University Press,
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Authority and Meaning in Indian Religions: Hinduism and the Case of Vālmīki
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Silpis in Ancient India: Beyond their Ascribed Locus in Ancient Society
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Dvija, in medieval Indian texts, refers to a member of the first three
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text of mid to late 1st-millennium CE texts. The presence of the word
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Patric Olivelle (2012). Silvia D'Intino, Caterina Guenzi (ed.).
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Patric Olivelle (2012). Silvia D'Intino, Caterina Guenzi (ed.).
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81:
is a marker that the text is likely a medieval era Indian text.
34:
in the traditional Hindu social system, or social classes — the
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of Hinduism, which started in about mid 1st millennium CE, the
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The Hindu texts offer a conflicting view of whether access to
131:) who helps the student form the mind and realize the self.
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605:
KS Murthy (1993), Vedic Hermeneutics, Motilal Banarsidass,
193:(166 mentions) composed between 2nd to 3rd century CE. The
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appears at an average frequency of once every 1170 words.
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initiation was regarded as a second or spiritual birth.
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The Mahabharata has about 1.8 million words. The word
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Ancient Indian Social History: Some Interpretations
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706:, Social Scientist, Vol. 39, No. 7/8, pages 43-54
171:, Shrauta-sutras or Grihya-sutras. Words such as
112:(preach, counsel) in the matter of the nature of
267:and education was limited to men and to certain
73:literature. Increasing mentions of it appear in
16:Twice-born status of Hindu male after Upanayana
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209:214 and 1535 times respectively. This, states
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185:The first significant appearance of the word
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503:. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 67–68, 133.
392:Social and Cultural History of Ancient India
155:, nor in any Vedanga literature such as the
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527:, Numen, Volume 29, Fasc. 1, pages 33-61
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340:
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465:. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. p.
2495:Titles and occupations in Hinduism
300:included women and members of all
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657:. Orient Blackswan. p. 126.
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376:, Encyclopedia Britannica (2014)
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577:A Brief History of Dharmaśāstra
2363:Relations with other religions
574:Sures Chandra Banerji (1999).
1:
580:. Abhinav. pp. 176–178.
497:Radha Kumud Mookerji (1989).
143:, and its equivalent such as
85:The meaning of the two births
525:The Guru in Hindu Tradition
395:. Concept. pp. 55–56.
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329:Religious initiation rites
147:, is neither found in any
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1140:
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1507:Yoga Sutras of Patanjali
757:, pages 174-175, 270-271
500:Ancient Indian Education
61:is neither found in any
38:(priests and teachers),
1586:Thiruvilaiyadal Puranam
1561:Eighteen Greater Texts
651:Romila Thapar (1978).
98:
2314:Hindu gurus and sants
1566:Eighteen Lesser Texts
457:Julia Leslie (2003).
389:Manilal Bose (1998).
92:
2304:Anti-Hindu sentiment
846:at Wikimedia Commons
774:, pages 14-22, 57-58
523:Joel Mlecko (1982),
2410:Hinduism by country
1576:Iraiyanar Akapporul
1536:Tirumurukāṟṟuppaṭai
284:In practice, state
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510:978-81-208-0423-4
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2474:WikiProject
2346:Persecution
2334:Nationalism
2324:Iconography
2204:Ratha Yatra
2115:Janmashtami
2110:Rama Navami
2038:Vanaprastha
1989:Varnashrama
1965:Ritushuddhi
1950:Vidyarambha
1940:Chudakarana
1930:Nishkramana
1905:Garbhadhana
1546:Thirukkural
1541:Thiruppugal
1469:Nāradasmṛti
1432:Mahabharata
1210:Atharvaveda
1088:Vaisheshika
975:Puruṣārthas
670:22 February
482:22 February
324:Freemasonry
203:Mahabharata
191:Manu Smriti
2175:Kumbh Mela
2143:Gudi Padwa
2088:Durga Puja
2073:Shivaratri
1945:Karnavedha
1925:Namakarana
1887:Tirthatana
1654:Dattatreya
1491:Subhashita
1464:Manusmriti
1341:Dhanurveda
1274:Taittiriya
1259:Kaushitaki
1246:Upanishads
1019:Aparigraha
921:Philosophy
359:References
319:Fraternity
244:Asvalayana
236:Kshatriyas
135:Literature
106:initiation
95:Upanayanam
67:Upanishads
40:Kshatriyas
2398:Theosophy
2329:Mythology
2309:Criticism
2277:Etymology
2235:Svādhyāya
2134:New Year
2083:Navaratri
2055:Festivals
2033:Grihastha
2006:Kshatriya
1980:Antyeshti
1955:Upanayana
1920:Jatakarma
1910:Pumsavana
1897:Sanskaras
1862:Naivedhya
1816:Practices
1761:Mahavidya
1729:Saraswati
1716:Goddesses
1674:Kartikeya
1571:Athichudi
1526:Tirumurai
1379:Vyākaraṇa
1346:Natyaveda
1294:Chandogya
1219:Divisions
1200:Yajurveda
173:Dvijanman
157:Vyakarana
153:Upanishad
139:The word
103:Upanayana
57:The word
52:Upanayana
2489:Category
2454:Category
2405:Glossary
2373:Buddhism
2339:Hindutva
2299:Calendar
2180:Haridwar
2158:Vaisakhi
2153:Puthandu
2043:Sannyasa
1960:Keshanta
1791:Shashthi
1627:Trimurti
1454:Nitisara
1427:Ramayana
1422:Itihasas
1394:Jyotisha
1336:Ayurveda
1328:Upavedas
1309:Mandukya
1254:Aitareya
1236:Aranyaka
1231:Brahmana
1205:Samaveda
1130:Charvaka
930:Concepts
911:Timeline
903:Glossary
886:Hinduism
308:See also
240:Vaishyas
232:Brahmins
201:and the
48:samskara
44:Vaishyas
36:Brahmins
24:Sanskrit
2443:Outline
2393:Sikhism
2388:Judaism
2383:Jainism
2264:Related
2240:Namaste
2093:Ramlila
2023:Ashrama
2011:Vaishya
2001:Brahmin
1824:Worship
1776:Rukmini
1766:Matrika
1739:Parvati
1734:Lakshmi
1724:Tridevi
1679:Krishna
1664:Hanuman
1659:Ganesha
1610:Deities
1496:Tantras
1486:Stotras
1439:Puranas
1384:Nirukta
1374:Chandas
1369:Shiksha
1361:Vedanga
1314:Prashna
1304:Mundaka
1226:Samhita
1195:Rigveda
1126:Nāstika
1111:Advaita
1098:Vedanta
1093:Mīmāṃsā
1073:Samkhya
1061:Schools
1049:Akrodha
968:Saṃsāra
948:Ishvara
938:Brahman
314:Baptism
169:Chandas
165:Nirukta
161:Shiksha
145:Dvijati
129:gurukul
114:Brahman
50:of the
2464:Portal
2368:Baháʼí
2272:Hindus
2250:Tilaka
2219:Others
2195:Ujjain
2190:Prayag
2185:Nashik
2125:Pongal
2063:Diwali
2016:Shudra
1975:Vivaha
1882:Dhyāna
1857:Bhajan
1847:Bhakti
1832:Temple
1786:Shakti
1694:Varuna
1637:Vishnu
1632:Brahma
1481:Sutras
1417:Agamas
1173:Smriti
1104:Dvaita
1069:Āstika
1014:Asteya
1009:Ahimsa
995:Moksha
980:Dharma
893:topics
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242:. The
238:, and
228:varnas
151:, any
116:, the
32:varnas
2378:Islam
2356:India
2245:Bindi
2228:Other
2168:Ugadi
2163:Vishu
1996:Varna
1877:Tapas
1867:Yajna
1837:Murti
1771:Radha
1751:Durga
1746:Bhumi
1689:Surya
1669:Indra
1642:Shiva
1404:Other
1389:Kalpa
1279:Katha
1183:Vedas
1168:Śruti
1153:Texts
1083:Nyaya
1039:Damah
1029:Satya
985:Artha
963:Karma
953:Atman
907:Index
844:Dvija
374:Dvija
349:Dvija
335:Notes
302:varna
298:gurus
275:varna
270:varna
258:Dvija
247:sutra
215:Dvija
207:Dvija
187:Dvija
149:Vedas
141:Dvija
125:Dvija
79:Dvija
63:Vedas
59:Dvija
20:Dvija
2420:List
2282:List
2209:Teej
2138:Bihu
2120:Onam
2068:Holi
1872:Homa
1852:Japa
1842:Puja
1802:more
1796:Sita
1781:Sati
1756:Kali
1705:more
1699:Vayu
1684:Rama
1649:Agni
1619:Gods
1299:Kena
1269:Isha
1078:Yoga
1044:Dayā
1034:Dāna
1004:Niti
990:Kama
958:Maya
819:ISBN
802:ISBN
785:ISBN
768:ISBN
751:ISBN
734:ISBN
717:ISBN
672:2013
659:ISBN
632:ISBN
607:ISBN
582:ISBN
552:ISBN
505:ISBN
484:2013
471:ISBN
433:ISBN
397:ISBN
290:guru
265:guru
93:The
65:and
2294:Law
467:189
2491::
1128::
1071::
943:Om
643:^
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304:.
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230:–
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486:.
441:.
405:.
22:(
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