347:
transformers or inductors work at much higher frequencies, requiring only much smaller, lighter, and cheaper wound components. Consequently these techniques are used even where a mains transformer could be used; for example, for domestic electronic appliances it is preferable to rectify mains voltage to DC, use switch-mode techniques to convert it to high-frequency AC at the desired voltage, then, usually, rectify to DC. The entire complex circuit is cheaper and more efficient than a simple mains transformer circuit of the same output. DC-to-DC converters are widely used for DC microgrid applications, in the context of different voltage levels.
401:(capacitors). This conversion method can increase or decrease voltage. Switching conversion is often more power-efficient (typical efficiency is 75% to 98%) than linear voltage regulation, which dissipates unwanted power as heat. Fast semiconductor device rise and fall times are required for efficiency; however, these fast transitions combine with layout parasitic effects to make circuit design challenging. The higher efficiency of a switched-mode converter reduces the heatsinking needed, and increases battery endurance of portable equipment. Efficiency has improved since the late 1980s due to the use of power
362:
317:, each with its own voltage level requirement different from that supplied by the battery or an external supply (sometimes higher or lower than the supply voltage). Additionally, the battery voltage declines as its stored energy is drained. Switched DC to DC converters offer a method to increase voltage from a partially lowered battery voltage thereby saving space instead of using multiple batteries to accomplish the same thing.
868:
1045:. Some sensitive radio-frequency and analog circuits require a power supply with so little noise that it can only be provided by a linear regulator. Some analog circuits which require a power supply with relatively low noise can tolerate some of the less-noisy switching converters, e.g. using continuous triangular waveforms rather than square waves.
1040:
The output of an ideal DC-to-DC converter is a flat, constant output voltage. However, real converters produce a DC output upon which is superimposed some level of electrical noise. Switching converters produce switching noise at the switching frequency and its harmonics. Additionally, all electronic
852:
converters. They are typically used in applications requiring relatively small currents, as at higher currents the increased efficiency and smaller size of switch-mode converters makes them a better choice. They are also used at extremely high voltages, as magnetics would break down at such voltages.
847:
Switched capacitor converters rely on alternately connecting capacitors to the input and output in differing topologies. For example, a switched-capacitor reducing converter might charge two capacitors in series and then discharge them in parallel. This would produce the same output power (less that
737:
topologies are similar in that energy stored in the magnetic core needs to be dissipated so that the core does not saturate. Power transmission in a flyback circuit is limited by the amount of energy that can be stored in the core, while forward circuits are usually limited by the I/V characteristics
263:
unit was often used, in which an electric motor drove a generator that produced the desired voltage. (The motor and generator could be separate devices, or they could be combined into a single "dynamotor" unit with no external power shaft.) These relatively inefficient and expensive designs were used
267:
The introduction of power semiconductors and integrated circuits made it economically viable by use of techniques described below. For example, first is converting the DC power supply to high-frequency AC as an input of a transformer - it is small, light, and cheap due to the high frequency — that
894:
Motor–generators can convert between any combination of DC and AC voltage and phase standards. Large motor–generator sets were widely used to convert industrial amounts of power while smaller units were used to convert battery power (6, 12 or 24 V DC) to a high DC voltage, which was required to
400:
or switched-mode DC-to-DC converters store the input energy temporarily and then release that energy to the output at a different voltage, which may be higher or lower. The storage may be in either magnetic field storage components (inductors, transformers) or electric field storage components
528:
of the charging voltage (that is, the ratio of the on/off times), the amount of power transferred to a load can be more easily controlled, though this control can also be applied to the input current, the output current, or to maintain constant power. Transformer-based converters may provide
1139:
There is at least one example of a very large (three refrigerator-size cabinets) and complex pre-transistor switching regulator using thyratron gas-filled tubes, although they appear to be used as regulators rather than for DC-to-DC conversion as such. This was the 1958 power supply for the
428:
using a power FET, whose "on resistance" is much lower, reducing switching losses. Before the wide availability of power semiconductors, low-power DC-to-DC synchronous converters consisted of an electro-mechanical vibrator followed by a voltage step-up transformer feeding a vacuum tube or
346:
Transformers used for voltage conversion at mains frequencies of 50–60 Hz must be large and heavy for powers exceeding a few watts. This makes them expensive, and they are subject to energy losses in their windings and due to eddy currents in their cores. DC-to-DC techniques that use
902:
For lower-power requirements at voltages higher than supplied by a vehicle battery, vibrator or "buzzer" power supplies were used. The vibrator oscillated mechanically, with contacts that switched the polarity of the battery many times per second, effectively converting DC to
432:
Most DC-to-DC converters are designed to move power in only one direction, from dedicated input to output. However, all switching regulator topologies can be made bidirectional and able to move power in either direction by replacing all diodes with independently controlled
779:
Specific to these converters is that the energy flows in both directions of the converter. These converters are commonly used in various applications and they are connected between two levels of DC voltage, where energy is transferred from one level to another.
1033:
The input voltage may have non-negligible noise. Additionally, if the converter loads the input with sharp load edges, the converter can emit RF noise from the supplying power lines. This should be prevented with proper filtering in the input stage of the
452:
Although they require few components, switching converters are electronically complex. Like all high-frequency circuits, their components must be carefully specified and physically arranged to achieve stable operation and to keep switching noise
890:
on one end of the shaft, when the generator coils output to another commutator on the other end of the shaft. The entire rotor and shaft assembly is smaller in size than a pair of machines, and may not have any exposed drive shafts.
885:
combines both functions into a single unit with coils for both the motor and the generator functions wound around a single rotor; both coils share the same outer field coils or magnets. Typically the motor coils are driven from a
760:
High-current systems often use multiphase converters, also called interleaved converters. Multiphase regulators can have better ripple and better response times than single-phase regulators.
848:
lost to efficiency of under 100%) at, ideally, half the input voltage and twice the current. Because they operate on discrete quantities of charge, these are also sometimes referred to as
264:
only when there was no alternative, as to power a car radio (which then used thermionic valves (tubes) that require much higher voltages than available from a 6 or 12 V car battery).
1577:
247:
Before the development of power semiconductors, one way to convert the voltage of a DC supply to a higher voltage, for low-power applications, was to convert it to AC by using a
1503:
Fossas, Enric; Olivar, Gerard (1996). "Study of chaos in the buck converter". Circuits and
Systems I: Fundamental Theory and Applications, IEEE Transactions on: 13–25.
457:) at acceptable levels. Their cost is higher than linear regulators in voltage-dropping applications, but their cost has been decreasing with advances in chip design.
1027:
These may include a power control IC, coil, capacitor, and resistor; decreases mounting space with a small number of components in a single integrated solution.
1141:
200:
287:
or even a resistor, these methods dissipated the excess as heat; energy-efficient conversion became possible only with solid-state switch-mode circuits.
135:
97:
709:
Magnetic DC-to-DC converters may be operated in two modes, according to the current in its main magnetic component (inductor or transformer):
705:
shapes the voltage across the transistor and current through it so that the transistor switches when either the voltage or the current is zero
1487:
1207:
1021:(EMI). Acceptable levels depend upon requirements, e.g. proximity to RF circuitry needs more suppression than simply meeting regulations.
268:
changes the voltage which gets rectified back to DC. Although by 1976 transistor car radio receivers did not require high voltages, some
1363:
1607:
1347:
1413:
193:
504:
circuits using diodes and capacitors to multiply a DC voltage by an integer value, typically delivering only a small current.
1116:
638:- Allows bidirectional voltage conversion with the output voltage the same polarity as the input and can be lower or higher.
1005:
at the switching frequency and its harmonics. Switching converters that produce triangular switching current, such as the
474:
which are used to output a stable DC independent of input voltage and output load from a higher but less stable input by
1602:
1018:
907:
AC, which could then be fed to a transformer of the required output voltage(s). It made a characteristic buzzing noise.
478:, could be described literally as DC-to-DC converters, but this is not usual usage. (The same could be said of a simple
454:
1321:
296:
1582:
1470:
Iqbal, Sajid; et al. (2014). "Study of bifurcation and chaos in dc-dc boost converter using discrete-time map".
1065:
940:
534:
356:
186:
34:
1390:
1379:
1117:"Watt's Up?: What Is Old is New Again: Soft-Switching and Synchronous Rectification in Vintage Automobile Radios"
726:
A converter may be designed to operate in continuous mode at high power, and in discontinuous mode at low power.
425:
230:
63:
49:
1405:
Control of
Parallel Converters for Load Sharing with Seamless Transfer between Grid Connected and Islanded Modes
1055:
374:
1587:
1391:
Topologies and
Control Schemes of Bidirectional DC–DC Power Converters: An Overview https://ieeexplore.ieee.org
1060:
768:
658:
1612:
1550:
402:
420:, and use less complex drive circuitry. Another important improvement in DC-DC converters is replacing the
320:
Most DC-to-DC converter circuits also regulate the output voltage. Some exceptions include high-efficiency
920:
68:
1334:
1017:
in continuous current mode, produce less harmonic noise than other switching converters. RF noise causes
1538:
Making -5V 14-bit Quiet, section of Linear
Technology Application Note 84, Kevin Hoskins, 1997, pp 57-59
1508:
1273:
887:
381:. The input is on the left, the output with load (rectangle) is on the right. The switch is typically a
310:
248:
106:
621:
598:
434:
332:
233:. Power levels range from very low (small batteries) to very high (high-voltage power transmission).
862:
406:
260:
417:
1474:. IEEE International Conference on Mechatronics and Control (ICMC'2014) 2014. pp. 1813–1817.
361:
1429:
1261:
936:
915:
A further means of DC to DC conversion in the kilowatts to megawatts range is presented by using
804:
501:
461:
438:
324:, which are a kind of DC to DC converter that regulates the current through the LEDs, and simple
314:
218:
73:
1300:
1483:
1409:
1203:
1010:
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The current fluctuates during the cycle, going down to zero at or before the end of each cycle
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Current and thus the magnetic field in the inductive energy storage may reach or cross zero.
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970:
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Multiple isolated bidirectional DC-to-DC converters are also commonly used in cases where
585:
579:
497:
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340:
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126:
116:
745:
switches can tolerate simultaneous full current and voltage (although thermal stress and
1154:
979:
Current and thus the magnetic field in the inductive energy storage never reaches zero.
960:
876:
559:
513:
512:
In these DC-to-DC converters, energy is periodically stored within and released from a
465:
366:
302:
222:
154:
144:
121:
88:
524:, typically within a frequency range of 300 kHz to 10 MHz. By adjusting the
1596:
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1224:
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944:
475:
464:(ICs) requiring few additional components. Converters are also available as complete
421:
411:
269:
242:
111:
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992:
932:
916:
479:
336:
1301:"Foldings and grazings of tori in current controlled interleaved boost converters"
624:- The output voltage is the same polarity as the input and can be lower or higher.
1002:
959:
A converter where the output voltage is lower than the input voltage (such as a
904:
896:
849:
842:
764:
521:
487:
325:
273:
252:
1249:
562:- The output voltage is lower than the input voltage, and of the same polarity.
533:
refers to one of these switching converters. These circuits are the heart of a
276:
requiring high voltages although transistorized power supplies were available.
17:
1479:
1172:
702:
695:
Transistors switch quickly while exposed to both full voltage and full current
525:
437:. A bidirectional converter is useful, for example, in applications requiring
1090:
969:
A converter that outputs a voltage higher than the input voltage (such as a
881:
429:
semiconductor rectifier, or synchronous rectifier contacts on the vibrator.
256:
83:
1402:
Majumder, Ritwik; Ghosh, Arindam; Ledwich, Gerard F.; Zare, Firuz (2008).
331:
DC-to-DC converters which are designed to maximize the energy harvest for
730:
664:
635:
517:
169:
164:
754:
594:
Inverting: the output voltage is of the opposite polarity as the input.
272:
operators continued to use vibrator supplies and dynamotors for mobile
226:
1380:
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION Bidirectional DC-DC Converters palawanboard.com
1223:
Jeff Barrow of
Integrated Device Technology, Inc. (21 November 2011).
1308:
875:
A motor–generator set, mainly of historical interest, consists of an
742:
382:
159:
365:
Comparison of non-isolated switching DC-to-DC converter topologies:
301:
DC-to-DC converters are used in portable electronic devices such as
1403:
1578:
DC-DC Converter
Technologies for Electric/Hybrid Electric Vehicles
1537:
1361:"On-Chip Voltage Regulation for Power Management inSystem-on-Chip"
866:
1472:
2014 International
Conference on Mechatronics and Control (ICMC)
1158:
750:
537:. Many topologies exist. This table shows the most common ones.
386:
1225:"Understand and reduce DC/DC switching-converter ground noise"
390:
313:
primarily. Such electronic devices often contain several sub-
753:), bipolar switches generally can't so require the use of a
588:- The output voltage can be lower or higher than the input.
529:
isolation between input and output. In general, the term
1588:
Switching regulator application note for LCD power supply
790:
Boost-buck non-inverting bidirectional DC-to-DC converter
405:, which are able to switch more efficiently with lower
1348:"Coupled Inductors Improve Multiphase Buck Efficiency"
931:
DC-to-DC converters are subject to different types of
582:- The output voltage is higher than the input voltage.
545:
Forward (energy transfers through the magnetic field)
468:
modules, ready for use within an electronic assembly.
221:
or electromechanical device that converts a source of
1250:"11kW, 70kHz LLC Converter Design for 98% Efficiency"
793:
Boost-buck inverting bidirectional DC-to-DC converter
871:
A motor generator with separate motor and generator.
767:
include interleaved buck regulators, sometimes as a
1199:
Electronic
Components and Technology, Third Edition
482:resistor, whether or not stabilised by a following
716:The current fluctuates but never goes down to zero
1140:IBM 704 computer, using 90 kW of power.
548:Flyback (energy is stored in the magnetic field)
1322:"Interleaving is Good for Boost Converters, Too"
1551:"Linear voltage regulator and its application"
1457:Complex behavior in switching power converters
571:Non-inverting: The output voltage is the same
194:
8:
1459:. Proceedings of the IEEE. pp. 768–781.
328:which double or triple the output voltage.
1533:
1531:
1150:
1148:
201:
187:
29:
1455:Tse, Chi K.; Bernardo, Mario Di (2002).
991:Unwanted electrical and electromagnetic
631:
617:
539:
360:
1335:"Advantages of Interleaving Converters"
1077:
476:dissipating excess volt-amperes as heat
445:the wheels while driving, but supplied
134:
96:
48:
41:
1517:
1506:
1437:
1427:
1282:
1271:
796:SEPIC bidirectional DC-to-DC converter
784:Boost bidirectional DC-to-DC converter
1085:
1083:
1081:
1001:Switching converters inherently emit
787:Buck bidirectional DC-to-DC converter
460:DC-to-DC converters are available as
441:of vehicles, where power is supplied
309:, which are supplied with power from
7:
799:CUK bidirectional DC-to-DC converter
1173:"How to Design DC-to-DC Converters"
688:In addition, each topology may be:
259:. Where higher power was needed, a
879:and generator coupled together. A
279:While it was possible to derive a
229:level to another. It is a type of
25:
1196:Stephen Sangwine (2 March 2007).
1121:Keysight Technologies: Watt's Up?
775:Bidirectional DC-to-DC converters
416:at higher frequencies than power
136:Electric power systems components
1258:10.1109/COMPEL49091.2020.9265771
1024:Coil-integrated DC/DC converters
995:, typically switching artifacts.
607:- Output current is continuous.
494:
243:Antique radio § Car radios
899:(thermionic valve) equipment.
646:With transformer (isolatable)
553:No transformer (non-isolated)
1:
1155:Radio Amateur's Handbook 1976
814:Isolated ĆUK & SEPIC/ZETA
283:voltage from a higher with a
98:Electric power infrastructure
1019:electromagnetic interference
857:Electromechanical conversion
1320:Ron Crews and Kim Nielson.
297:High-voltage direct current
1629:
1171:Andy Howard (2015-08-25).
1066:Switched-mode power supply
982:Discontinuous current mode
911:Electrochemical conversion
860:
840:
655:- 1 or 2 transistor drive.
535:switched-mode power supply
357:Switched-mode power supply
354:
294:
240:
27:Type of electronic circuit
1608:Electric power conversion
1480:10.1109/ICMC.2014.7231874
1202:. CRC Press. p. 73.
1115:Ed Brorein (2012-05-16).
1091:"Vibrator Power Supplies"
552:
547:
544:
542:
449:the wheels when braking.
426:synchronous rectification
64:Electric power conversion
50:Electric power conversion
1061:Combined Charging System
823:Dual-active bridge (DAB)
769:voltage regulator module
763:Many laptop and desktop
231:electric power converter
1583:Power Electronics Books
1299:Damian Giaouris et al.
976:Continuous current mode
659:Push-pull (half bridge)
1549:Bhimsen (2021-10-30).
1516:Cite journal requires
1281:Cite journal requires
1252:. November 2020: 1–8.
921:vanadium redox battery
872:
661:- 2 transistors drive.
599:Inverting (buck-boost)
493:There are also simple
394:
69:HVDC converter station
870:
811:Bidirectional flyback
679:- 1 transistor drive.
667:- 4 transistor drive.
636:Split-pi (boost-buck)
364:
351:Electronic conversion
107:Electric power system
1056:Buck–boost converter
917:redox flow batteries
439:regenerative braking
435:active rectification
398:Switching converters
333:photovoltaic systems
251:, then by a step-up
1603:DC-to-DC converters
1095:Radioremembered.org
1041:circuits have some
462:integrated circuits
418:bipolar transistors
1366:2012-11-19 at the
873:
805:galvanic isolation
531:DC-to-DC converter
502:Dickson multiplier
395:
219:electronic circuit
215:DC-to-DC converter
79:DC-to-DC converter
74:AC-to-AC converter
1489:978-1-4799-2538-4
1370:. 2006. p. 22-23.
1209:978-1-4200-0768-8
1011:forward converter
935:dynamics such as
738:of the switches.
686:
685:
573:electric polarity
484:voltage regulator
472:Linear regulators
322:LED power sources
211:
210:
150:Grid-tie inverter
59:Voltage converter
43:Power engineering
16:(Redirected from
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829:Half-full bridge
826:Dual-half bridge
749:can shorten the
747:electromigration
560:Step-down (buck)
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407:switching losses
341:power optimizers
307:laptop computers
285:linear regulator
255:, and finally a
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175:Protective relay
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1043:thermal noise
1039:
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1015:Ćuk converter
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945:intermittency
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832:Multiport DAB
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719:Discontinuous
718:
715:
712:
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422:flyback diode
419:
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368:
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337:wind turbines
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112:Power station
110:
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32:
31:
19:
1558:. Retrieved
1554:
1544:
1509:cite journal
1498:
1471:
1465:
1456:
1450:
1419:. Retrieved
1404:
1397:
1386:
1375:
1355:
1342:
1329:
1316:
1295:
1274:cite journal
1244:
1232:. Retrieved
1228:
1218:
1198:
1191:
1180:. Retrieved
1176:
1166:
1135:
1124:. Retrieved
1120:
1110:
1098:. Retrieved
1094:
1037:Output noise
993:signal noise
930:
919:such as the
914:
901:
893:
880:
874:
846:
802:
778:
765:motherboards
762:
759:
740:
728:
725:
708:
687:
530:
511:
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459:
451:
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431:
397:
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345:
330:
326:charge pumps
319:
300:
280:
278:
274:transceivers
266:
246:
214:
212:
78:
1229:Eetimes.com
1030:Input noise
1003:radio waves
951:Terminology
937:bifurcation
905:square wave
897:vacuum tube
850:charge pump
843:Charge pump
807:is needed.
731:half bridge
665:Full bridge
522:transformer
488:Zener diode
410: [
339:are called
253:transformer
1597:Categories
1560:2021-10-30
1421:2016-01-19
1234:18 January
1182:2015-10-02
1161:, p331-332
1126:2016-01-19
1100:18 January
1072:References
1034:converter.
888:commutator
837:Capacitive
757:(or two).
713:Continuous
703:LC circuit
526:duty cycle
495:capacitive
375:buck-boost
355:See also:
295:See also:
241:See also:
1440:ignored (
1430:cite book
1266:227278364
956:Step-down
882:dynamotor
817:Push-pull
741:Although
455:EMI / RFI
311:batteries
257:rectifier
84:Rectifier
1364:Archived
1050:See also
1007:split-pi
998:RF noise
895:operate
698:Resonant
518:inductor
508:Magnetic
335:and for
315:circuits
249:vibrator
170:Recloser
165:Bus duct
89:Inverter
35:a series
33:Part of
1350:. 2006.
1337:. 2003.
1324:. 2008.
1177:YouTube
1157:, pub.
966:Step-up
933:chaotic
820:Forward
755:snubber
735:flyback
677:Flyback
653:Forward
237:History
227:voltage
1486:
1412:
1264:
1206:
943:, and
941:crisis
743:MOSFET
516:in an
383:MOSFET
377:, and
217:is an
160:Busbar
1262:S2CID
1013:, or
988:Noise
586:SEPIC
520:or a
424:with
414:]
389:, or
371:boost
281:lower
1522:help
1484:ISBN
1442:help
1410:ISBN
1287:help
1236:2016
1204:ISBN
1159:ARRL
1102:2016
751:MTBF
733:and
729:The
500:and
403:FETs
387:IGBT
367:buck
305:and
291:Uses
1476:doi
1305:doi
1254:doi
701:An
605:Ćuk
490:.)
486:or
391:BJT
379:Ćuk
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