33:
320:, often near the mother, and colonies are established at the joints of the cladode-trunk, flower-cladode, or fruit-cladode. Various factors can hinder cochineal development, including temperature, rain, and resistance factors of host plants. High temperatures and mechanical action of rain can negatively affect younger instars' survival, resulting in high mortality. Studies have shown that the species produces 4-5 generations per year in the Americas and Australia, with five generations occurring in the warmest areas.
594:
57:
278:
584:
can also have a strong negative impact on both the production of prickly pear fruit for fresh consumption and on cladodes as fodder for livestock feed. The cochineal species tends to form variably sized colonies on cladodes, which in some cases are totally covered by the insect. As a consequence, the
300:
of 3.7:1 (females:males) in greenhouse conditions. Field studies have shown that the female life cycle lasts 40–180 days, while males usually complete their cycle in 35–52 days. The optimal temperature for development is 30 °C, but males cannot emerge from the cocoon or adult females lay eggs at
676:
have been authorized for use in
Morocco to control the pest. However, chemical treatment of the cochineal colonies only provided temporary solutions against the pest. Several studies have observed that essential oils, botanical extracts, vegetable oils, detergents, and other bioactive chemicals have
607:
can have a devastating impact on the production of both prickly pear fruit and cladodes as livestock feed. The species has a tendency to form colonies of varying sizes on cladodes, often completely covering the plant. This leads to the dropping of fruit and the drying out and eventual falling off of
505:
cleaned 75% of the infested areas, including those with the highest levels of opuntia infestation. Subsequently, about 90% of the original 900,000 ha returned to sheep-rearing due to the success of the cochineal as a biological control agent. However, dense populations of prickly pear still exist in
264:
species have truncate dorsal setae and clusters of quinquelocular pores associated with tubular ducts on the body of females, and no microducts and cellular anal rings bearing setae. Large, truncate, and rounded setae longer than the width at the base and numerous narrow ventral pores on the last
249:
have females with an oval-shaped body that is purple-red in color and covered in a white, cotton-like wax. This wax protects the body of the cochineal from heat, cold, and predators. Adult females are sessile and form colonies of up to a few thousand individuals of mixed age, creating conspicuous
722:
plants. By 2014, the species was found to be widespread in the south of the country and causing severe damage to the cactus plants, whose fruit is an important source of income for local farmers. In 2015, new infestations were observed in neighboring regions. Although the predator beetle
331:
is native to Mexico and neighboring countries in
Central America but has been introduced to several other areas, including Australia, Algeria, Morocco, Israel, France, India, Kenya, Madagascar, Pakistan, South Africa, Sri Lanka, and the United States (California and Texas).
608:
the cladodes. The damage starts with yellowish areas and necrosis on the cladodes, which then leads to drying out of the entire plant within a year. The woody stems can survive for another six months after this, but the damage is already done. The high population level of
295:
before adult females and two nymphal instars, prepupa, and pupa before adult males. Its biology has been studied in various regions, both in the laboratory and the open field, with female and male cycles lasting 77 and 43 days, respectively, in lab observations, and an
689:
can be an effective way to manage the pest. The thickness of the cactus plant's cuticle and epidermis, as well as the presence of calcium oxalate, play a crucial role in resistance to the pest. In
Morocco, eight cultivars have shown immunity-type resistance to
635:
infested over 100,000 hectares, resulting in more than US$ 100 million in annual damage, with serious socioeconomic consequences for farming communities where milk production is linked to prickly pear cultivation. Since its first detection in
565:
away from the first areas of inoculum was assessed to promote a quicker spread of the scale insect. The colonies needed to be inoculated at no more than 10 m in between, as the spread of cochineal is primarily anemophilous. The efficacy of
694:, and more research is needed to develop resistant cultivars. Mechanical and physical methods, such as pruning and uprooting, can also be used to control the pest, but they are only effective when just a few plants are infested.
549:, which provides complete biological control of this cactus species. Rule & Hoffmann (2018) investigated the effectiveness of the "stricta" biotype of Dactylopius opuntiae as a biological control agent for both
570:
is often limited by predator coccinellids and to a greater extent by rain. In South Africa, the use of prickly pear for human consumption, for forage, and as a host plant for the rearing of
1226:
312:
females lay eggs one at a time beneath their bodies, with hatching occurring within 0.25–6 hours. Male and female crawlers are similar in appearance, but males of the
222:, and workers often referred to the same species by different names or used the same name for different species. De Lotto notes that it became common practice to call
996:"Dactylopius opuntiae (Cockerell, 1896), a new invasive pest of the cactus plants Opuntia ficus-indica in the South of Lebanon (Hemiptera, Coccoidea, Dactylopiidae)"
518:, confirming the importance of matching particular biotypes of biocontrol agents and host plants for weed control. A new strain of the cochineal was introduced from
1185:
1211:
1036:
1159:
1198:
656:
management in 2016, including a research program focusing on the most important components of cochineal management. Several insecticides such as
619:
was imported from Mexico to produce dye, but it has caused significant damage to forage cactus production. In other
Brazilian states such as
530:
in South Africa was also introduced in Kenya, resulting in the reduction in flowering and fruiting, and leading to the death of the plants.
1254:
1264:
915:
301:
35 °C, while crawlers' survival is negatively affected. The species usually reproduces bisexually, but it can reproduce by
1203:
316:
species have shorter and fewer filaments than females. After a period of active dispersal, the crawlers settle down on the
1107:
1094:
233:, even though their identity and status were never fully resolved. Eventually, in 1929, the species was classified as
56:
32:
1249:
1216:
702:
677:
a strong insecticidal effect on the pest in cactus plantations. Bouharroud et al. (2018) evaluated the efficacy of
725:
685:
The greatest female mortality rate was 99% at 150 ppm 6 days after treatment. Plant clones that are resistant to
545:
218:
413:
399:
1259:
1062:
1112:
161:
759:
The insect's natural predators help contain the damage they cause in
Central American countries where
593:
1133:
773:
718:
480:
474:
364:
343:
869:"First record of Dactylopius opuntiae (Cockerell) (Hemiptera: Coccoidea: Dactylopiidae) from Israel"
392:
648:
plants, leading local authorities to uproot and incinerate over 400 hectares of plantations in the
385:
371:
949:"Control of the prickly pear cochineal, Dactylopius opuntiae (Cockerell), in Morocco: an overview"
305:
under particular circumstances, such as high temperatures, resulting in lower progeny production.
216:
after he collected it from cactus plants in Mexico in 1896. Later, it was considered a synonym of
1015:
976:
896:
867:
Spodek, Malkie; Ben-Dov, Yair; Protasov, Alex; Carvalho, Carlos Jorge; Mendel, Zvi (2014-07-01).
844:
539:
378:
350:
51:
574:
has increased due to the reduction in the role of the prickly pear as a weed and the success of
1190:
995:
1120:
968:
923:
888:
836:
441:
427:
291:
follows a life cycle similar to that of other species in the genus, consisting of two nymphal
1099:
1007:
960:
880:
826:
468:
357:
463:
420:
406:
302:
815:"Dactylopius opuntiae , a new prickly pear cactus pest in the Mediterranean: an overview"
916:"Bug v killer cactus: Kenyan herders fight to stop a plant destroying their way of life"
814:
118:
1243:
1019:
980:
900:
753:
669:
309:
282:
255:
848:
501:
was introduced in 1932 along with three other insect species to control the cactus.
1125:
813:
Mazzeo, Gaetana; Nucifora, Salvatore; Russo, Agatino; Suma, Pompeo (January 2019).
661:
657:
434:
194:
1037:"Sabra Fruit, Symbol of Modern Israel, Under Threat From Central American Insect"
466:. In Mexico, its most commonly occurring predatory species have been found to be
1172:
749:
673:
665:
317:
277:
260:
198:
138:
128:
1085:
964:
652:
region. The
Moroccan Ministry of Agriculture implemented an emergency plan for
884:
624:
620:
972:
948:
927:
892:
840:
733:
colonies, their numbers were not high enough to control the pest population.
561:
was able to develop equally on both host plants. The dispersal capability of
1146:
868:
297:
108:
88:
68:
1011:
1079:
678:
649:
628:
612:
weakens the plants, which pathogens attack, in turn causing their death.
522:
collected in
Australia in 1997 with encouraging results. The genotype of
1164:
713:
637:
1177:
831:
741:
506:
cold and rainy areas, which are less favorable to the development of
292:
98:
78:
1056:
1151:
514:
inside the Kruger
National Park in the mid-1990s failed to control
592:
276:
258:, which occurs naturally within their body. Morphologically, all
1138:
1060:
533:
De Souza & Hoffmann (2015) assessed the performance of
250:
clusters of white wax all over the plant. Adult females of
543:, showing that it was less efficient than the congeneric
994:
Moussa, Zinette; Yammouni, Dany; Azar, Dany (2017).
1069:
644:has spread rapidly and caused serious damage to
585:fruits drop and cladodes dry out and fall off.
1000:Bulletin de la Société entomologique de France
947:Sabbahi, Rachid; Hock, Virginia (2022-12-01).
8:
1057:
31:
20:
830:
953:Journal of Plant Diseases and Protection
819:Entomologia Experimentalis et Applicata
786:
229:a distinct wild cochineal insect from
212:was first identified by Cockerell as
7:
1031:
1029:
862:
860:
858:
808:
806:
804:
802:
800:
798:
796:
794:
792:
790:
740:was reported for the first time in
729:was found in association with the
256:hydroxyanthrapurin (carminic acid)
14:
712:was first discovered in southern
557:. After a semi-field experiment,
493:Use as a biological control agent
744:. The insect was collected from
681:, a widespread terpene, against
265:three body segments distinguish
55:
697:The extensive damage caused by
578:as a biological control agent.
43:, a closely related species to
510:. Subsequent introductions of
1:
914:Muiruri, Peter (2022-06-06).
526:which effectively controlled
1281:
1255:Insects of Central America
965:10.1007/s41348-022-00655-y
703:integrated pest management
245:All species of the family
1265:Insects described in 1929
885:10.1007/s12600-013-0373-2
736:In 2013, the presence of
726:Cryptolaemus montrouzieri
167:
160:
52:Scientific classification
50:
39:
30:
23:
615:In northeastern Brazil,
488:Relationship with humans
269:from all its congeners.
254:produce red glucosidal
16:Species of scale insect
1012:10.3406/bsef.2017.3194
601:
546:Dactylopius ceylonicus
454:Like other members of
285:
231:Dactylopius tomentosus
219:Dactylopius tomentosus
191:prickly pear cochineal
683:Dactylopius opuntiae.
596:
414:Opuntia streptacantha
400:Opuntia Ă—occidentalis
314:Dactylopius austrinus
280:
214:Coccus cacti opuntiae
1227:Dactylopius opuntiae
1100:Dactylopius_opuntiae
1071:Dactylopius opuntiae
774:Phyllosticta concava
761:Opuntia ficus-indica
746:Opuntia ficus-indica
738:Dactylopius opuntiae
731:Dactylopius opuntiae
719:Opuntia ficus-indica
710:Dactylopius opuntiae
699:Dactylopius opuntiae
692:Dactylopius opuntiae
687:Dactylopius opuntiae
654:Dactylopius opuntiae
646:Opuntia ficus-indica
642:Dactylopius opuntiae
633:Dactylopius opuntiae
617:Dactylopius opuntiae
610:Dactylopius opuntiae
605:Dactylopius opuntiae
599:Dactylopius opuntiae
582:Dactylopius opuntiae
576:Dactylopius opuntiae
568:Dactylopius opuntiae
563:Dactylopius opuntiae
559:Dactylopius opuntiae
535:Dactylopius opuntiae
524:Dactylopius opuntiae
512:Dactylopius opuntiae
508:Dactylopius opuntiae
503:Dactylopius opuntiae
499:Dactylopius opuntiae
481:Laetilia coccidivora
475:Sympherobius barberi
460:Dactylopius opuntiae
365:Opuntia hyptiacantha
344:Opuntia ficus-indica
329:Dactylopius opuntiae
289:Dactylopius opuntiae
267:Dactylopius opuntiae
252:Dactylopius opuntiae
235:Dactylopius opuntiae
210:Dactylopius opuntiae
189:, also known as the
186:Dactylopius opuntiae
171:Dactylopius opuntiae
25:Dactylopius opuntiae
640:in September 2014,
597:Opuntia covered by
462:is not affected by
386:Opuntia engelmannii
372:Opuntia leucotricha
298:offspring sex ratio
602:
572:Dactylopius coccus
540:Opuntia monacantha
379:Opuntia littoralis
351:Opuntia fuliginosa
286:
193:, is a species of
41:Dactylopius coccus
1250:Insects of Mexico
1237:
1236:
1063:Taxon identifiers
832:10.1111/eea.12756
497:In South Africa,
442:Tacinga palmadora
428:Opuntia tomentosa
182:
181:
177:(Cockerell, 1929)
1272:
1230:
1229:
1220:
1219:
1207:
1206:
1194:
1193:
1181:
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1168:
1167:
1155:
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1142:
1141:
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1128:
1116:
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1103:
1102:
1090:
1089:
1088:
1058:
1051:
1050:
1048:
1047:
1033:
1024:
1023:
991:
985:
984:
959:(6): 1323–1330.
944:
938:
937:
935:
934:
911:
905:
904:
864:
853:
852:
834:
810:
705:(IPM) approach.
551:Opuntia humifusa
469:Leucopis bellula
464:parasitoid wasps
358:Opuntia humifusa
173:
153:D. opuntiae
60:
59:
35:
21:
1280:
1279:
1275:
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1027:
993:
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988:
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913:
912:
908:
873:Phytoparasitica
866:
865:
856:
812:
811:
788:
783:
769:
591:
555:Opuntia stricta
537:in controlling
528:Opuntia stricta
520:Opuntia stricta
516:Opuntia stricta
495:
490:
452:
447:
421:Opuntia stricta
407:Opuntia robusta
338:
326:
303:parthenogenesis
275:
243:
207:
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175:
169:
156:
54:
17:
12:
11:
5:
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1234:
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1117:
1104:
1091:
1075:
1073:
1067:
1066:
1061:
1053:
1052:
1025:
1006:(2): 173–178.
986:
939:
906:
879:(3): 377–379.
854:
785:
784:
782:
779:
778:
777:
768:
765:
748:plants in the
590:
587:
494:
491:
489:
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451:
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438:
431:
424:
417:
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396:
393:Opuntia maxima
389:
382:
375:
368:
361:
354:
347:
339:
337:
334:
325:
322:
274:
271:
242:
239:
237:by Cockerell.
206:
203:
197:in the family
180:
179:
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165:
164:
158:
157:
150:
148:
144:
143:
136:
132:
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119:Sternorrhyncha
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28:
27:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1277:
1266:
1263:
1261:
1260:Dactylopiidae
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754:Upper Galilee
751:
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721:
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670:spirotetramat
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456:Dactylopiidae
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310:ovoviviparous
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284:
283:Austin, Texas
279:
272:
270:
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263:
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257:
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247:Dactylopiidae
240:
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211:
204:
202:
200:
199:Dactylopiidae
196:
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188:
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174:
172:
166:
163:
162:Binomial name
159:
155:
154:
149:
146:
145:
142:
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137:
134:
133:
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129:Dactylopiidae
127:
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42:
38:
34:
29:
26:
22:
19:
1070:
1044:. Retrieved
1040:
1003:
999:
989:
956:
952:
942:
931:. Retrieved
920:The Guardian
919:
909:
876:
872:
825:(1): 59–72.
822:
818:
772:
763:originates.
760:
758:
745:
737:
735:
730:
724:
717:
709:
707:
701:requires an
698:
696:
691:
686:
682:
674:mineral oils
662:pyriproxyfen
658:chlorpyrifos
653:
645:
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632:
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598:
581:
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459:
455:
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440:
435:Opuntia tuna
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426:
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405:
398:
391:
384:
377:
370:
363:
356:
349:
342:
328:
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324:Distribution
313:
307:
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281:Specimen in
266:
259:
251:
246:
244:
234:
230:
226:
223:
217:
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209:
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195:scale insect
190:
185:
184:
183:
170:
168:
152:
151:
139:
44:
40:
24:
18:
1173:iNaturalist
750:Hula Valley
666:acetamiprid
273:Development
261:Dactylopius
241:Description
224:Dactylopius
140:Dactylopius
45:D. opuntiae
1244:Categories
1224:ScaleNet:
1046:2023-05-09
933:2023-05-09
781:References
679:D-Limonene
621:Pernambuco
336:Host cacti
115:Suborder:
89:Arthropoda
1020:243970105
981:251300877
973:1861-3837
928:0261-3077
901:255605939
893:1876-7184
841:0013-8703
708:In 2012,
147:Species:
109:Hemiptera
75:Kingdom:
69:Eukaryota
1191:10705180
1086:Q3700751
1080:Wikidata
849:91327131
767:See also
650:Doukkala
318:cladodes
227:opuntiae
205:Taxonomy
125:Family:
85:Phylum:
79:Animalia
65:Domain:
1165:2090121
1041:Haaretz
752:of the
714:Lebanon
638:Morocco
625:ParaĂba
450:Ecology
293:instars
135:Genus:
105:Order:
99:Insecta
95:Class:
1217:701504
1204:200986
1178:335785
1152:DACLOP
1139:836524
1113:353376
1018:
979:
971:
926:
899:
891:
847:
839:
742:Israel
672:, and
627:, and
478:, and
1186:IRMNG
1126:6BZLM
1016:S2CID
977:S2CID
897:S2CID
845:S2CID
629:Ceará
1212:NCBI
1199:ITIS
1160:GBIF
1147:EPPO
1108:BOLD
969:ISSN
924:ISSN
889:ISSN
837:ISSN
589:Pest
553:and
308:The
1134:EoL
1121:CoL
1095:AFD
1008:doi
1004:122
961:doi
957:129
881:doi
827:doi
823:167
716:on
1246::
1214::
1201::
1188::
1175::
1162::
1149::
1136::
1123::
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1097::
1082::
1039:.
1028:^
1014:.
1002:.
998:.
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955:.
951:.
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887:.
877:42
875:.
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857:^
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756:.
668:,
664:,
660:,
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484:.
472:,
458:,
201:.
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1022:.
1010::
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963::
936:.
903:.
883::
851:.
829::
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