Dark skin - Knowledge (XXG)

637:

Folate is a water-soluble vitamin B complex which naturally occurs in green, leafy vegetables, whole grains, and citrus fruits. Women need folate to maintain healthy eggs, for proper implantation of eggs, and for the normal development of placenta after fertilization. Folate is needed for normal sperm production in men. Furthermore, folate is essential for fetal growth, organ development, and neural tube development. Folate breaks down in high intensity UVR. Dark-skinned women suffer the lowest level of neural tube defects. Folate plays an important role in DNA production and gene expression. It is essential for maintaining proper levels of amino acids which make up proteins. Folate is used in the formation of myelin, the sheath that covers nerve cells and makes it possible to send electrical signals quickly. Folate also plays an important role in the development of many neurotransmitters, e.g.

681:. A dark-skinned person requires about six times as much UVB than lightly pigmented persons. This is not a problem near the equator; however, it can be a problem at higher latitudes. For humans with dark skin in climates of low UVR, it can take about two hours to produce the same amount of vitamin D as humans with light skin produce in 15 minutes. Dark-skinned people having a high body-mass index and not taking vitamin D supplements were associated with vitamin D deficiency. Vitamin D plays an important role in regulating the human immune system and chronic deficiencies in vitamin D can make humans susceptible to specific types of cancers and many kinds of infectious diseases. Vitamin D deficiency increases the risk of developing tuberculosis five-fold and also contributes to the development of breast, prostate, and colourectal cancer. 688:, the softening of bones in children potentially leading to fractures and deformity. Rickets is caused by reduced vitamin D synthesis that causes an absence of vitamin D, which then causes the dietary calcium to not be properly absorbed. This disease in the past was commonly found among dark-skinned Americans of the southern part of the United States who migrated north into low sunlight environments. The popularity of sugary drinks and decreased time spent outside have contributed to significant rise of developing rickets. Deformities of the female pelvis related to severe rickets impair normal childbirth, which leads to higher mortality of the infant, mother, or both. 1112: 1081: 838: 140:, numerous types of cancers, and possibly cardiovascular disease and low immune system activity. However, some recent studies have questioned if the thresholds indicating vitamin D deficiency in light-skinned individuals are relevant for dark-skinned individuals, as they found that, on average, dark-skinned individuals have higher bone density and lower risk of fractures than lighter-skinned individuals with the same levels of vitamin D. This is possibly attributed to lower presence of vitamin D binding agents (and thus its higher bioavailability) in dark-skinned individuals. 746:, which results in most of the intermediate wavelength UVB reflected or destroyed en route; because of this there is less potential for vitamin D biosynthesis in regions far from the equator. Higher amount of vitamin D intake for dark-skinned people living in regions with low levels of sunlight are advised by doctors to follow a vitamin D-rich diet or take vitamin D supplements, although there is recent evidence that dark-skinned individuals are able to process vitamin D more efficiently than lighter-skinned individuals so may have a lower threshold of sufficiency. 915: 820:

they experience very high UVR exposure from cloudless skies near the equator which is reflected from water or sand. Water reflects, depending on colour, about 10 to 30% of UVR that falls on it. People in these populations spend long hours fishing on the sea. Because it is impractical to wear extensive clothing in a watery environment, culture and technology does little to buffer UVR exposure. The skin takes a very large amount of ultraviolet radiation. These populations are probably near or at the maximum darkness that human skin can achieve.

360:, and this combined with the limited ability of pheomelanin to absorb UVR contributes to higher skin cancer rates among light-skinned individuals. The damaging effect of UVR on DNA structure and the entailing elevated skin cancer risk is widely recognized. However, these cancer types usually affect people at the end or after their reproductive career and could have not been the evolutionary reason behind the development of dark skin pigmentation. Of all the major skin cancer types, only malignant 1015: 1096: 33: 1044: 270:

periods before being forced back to the shades. The more they could forage, the more and healthier offspring they could produce, and the higher the chance they had to pass on their genes for abundant sweat glands. With less hair, sweat could evaporate more easily and cool the bodies of humans faster. A few million years of evolution later, early humans had sparse body hair and more than 2 million sweat glands in their body.

955: 232: 278:. While high UV radiation can cause skin cancer, the development of cancer usually occurs after child-bearing age. As natural selection favours individuals with traits of reproductive success, skin cancer had little effect on the evolution of dark skin. Previous hypotheses suggested that sunburned nipples impeded breastfeeding, but a slight tan is enough to protect mothers against this issue. 380:) to protect against UVR-induced damage. This hypothesis is not consistent with the evidence that most of the hominid evolution took place in savanna environments and not in tropical rainforests. Humans living in hot and sunny environments have darker skin than humans who live in wet and cloudy environments. The antimicrobial hypothesis also does not explain why some populations (like the 868: 222:(the amount of sunlight the skin reflects) and the actual UV radiation in a particular geographic area is highly correlated, which supports this idea. Genetic evidence also supports this notion, demonstrating that around 1.2 million years ago there was a strong evolutionary pressure which acted on the development of dark skin pigmentation in early members of the genus 663: 762:. Areas that are further away from the equator and generally closer to the poles have a lower concentration of UVR and contain lighter-skinned populations. This is the result of human evolution which contributed to variable melanin content in the skin to adapt to certain environments. A larger percentage of dark-skinned people are found in the 852:, as with all other populations outside of Africa, are descendants of the Out-of-Africa wave. Genetic evidence has pointed out that the Indigenous peoples of Australia are genetically dissimilar to the dark-skinned populations of Africa and that they are more closely related to other non-African populations. 484:

In people with naturally occurring dark skin, the tanning occurs with the dramatic mobilization of melanin upward in the epidermis and continues with the increased production of melanin. This accounts for the fact that dark-skinned people get visibly darker after one or two weeks of sun exposure, and

476:

Although darkly-pigmented skin absorbs about 30 to 40% more sunlight than lightly pigmented skin, dark skin does not increase the body's internal heat intake in conditions of intense solar radiation. Solar radiation heats up the body's surface and not the interior. Furthermore, this amount of heat is

438:

Dark skin offers great protection against UVR because of its eumelanin content, the UVR-absorbing capabilities of large melanosomes, and because eumelanin can be mobilized faster and brought to the surface of the skin from the depths of the epidermis. For the same body region, light- and dark-skinned

823:

More recent research has found that human populations over the past 50,000 years have changed from dark-skinned to light-skinned and vice versa. Only 100–200 generations ago, the ancestors of most people living today likely also resided in a different place and had a different skin colour. According

443:

from dark skin cocultured with melanocytes give rise to a melanosome distribution pattern characteristic of dark skin. Melanosomes are not in aggregated state in darkly pigmented skin compared to lightly pigmented skin. Due to the heavily melanised melanosomes in darkly-pigmented skin, it can absorb

364:

have a major effect in a person's reproductive age. The mortality rates of melanoma have been very low (less than 5 per 100,000) before the mid-20th century. It has been argued that the low melanoma mortality rates during reproductive age cannot be the principal reason behind the development of dark

5272:

62% of the Ethiopians fall in the first cluster, which encompasses the majority of the Jews, Norwegians and Armenians, indicating that placement of these individuals in a 'Black' cluster would be an inaccurate reflection of the genetic structure. Only 24% of the Ethiopians are placed in the cluster

1022:

South Asia has some of the greatest skin colour diversity outside of Africa. Skin colour among South Indians is on average darker than North Indians. This is mainly because of the weather conditions in South Asia—higher UV indices are in the south. Several genetic surveys of South Asian populations

828:

are an example of this, having re-darkened after their ancestors migrated down from areas much farther north. Scientists originally believed that such shifts in pigmentation occurred relatively slowly. However, researchers have since observed that changes in skin colouration can happen in as little

819:

in the southeast coast of Africa have darker skin than other surrounding populations. (The native people of Bougainville, Papua New Guinea, have some of the darkest skin pigmentation in the world.) Although these people are widely separated they share similar physical environments. In both regions,

978:

had. According to scientific studies, populations in Africa also have the highest skin colour diversity. High levels of skin colour variation exists between different populations in Sub-Saharan Africa. These differences depend in part on general distance from the equator, illustrating the complex

795:

has restricted humans with darker skin in tropical latitudes, especially in non-forested regions, where ultraviolet radiation from the sun is usually the most intense. Different dark-skinned populations are not necessarily closely related genetically. Before the modern mass migration, it has been

615:

to various UVR levels around the world. As a consequence there are many health implications that are the product of population movements of humans of certain skin pigmentation to new environments with different levels of UVR. Modern humans are often ignorant of their evolutionary history at their

435:. People with naturally-occurring dark skin have melanosomes which are clumped, large and full of eumelanin. A four-fold difference in naturally-occurring dark skin gives seven- to eight-fold protection against DNA damage, but even the darkest skin colour cannot protect against all damage to DNA. 273:

Hairless skin, however, is particularly vulnerable to be damaged by ultraviolet light and this proved to be a problem for humans living in areas of intense UV radiation, and the evolutionary result was the development of dark-coloured skin as a protection. Scientists have long assumed that humans

217:

between 1.2 and 4 million years ago, to allow for better cooling through sweating, their naked and lightly pigmented skin was exposed to sunlight. In the tropics, natural selection favoured dark-skinned human populations as high levels of skin pigmentation protected against the harmful effects of

766:

because latitudinal land mass distribution is disproportionate. The present distribution of skin colour variation does not completely reflect the correlation of intense UVR and dark skin pigmentation due to mass migration and movement of peoples across continents in the recent past. Dark-skinned

636:

Dark-pigmented people living in high sunlight environments are at an advantage due to the high amounts of melanin produced in their skin. The dark pigmentation protects from DNA damage and absorbs the right amounts of UV radiation needed by the body, as well as protects against folate depletion.

269:

Sweating dissipated heat through evaporation. Early humans, like chimpanzees now, had few sweat glands, and most of them were located in the palms of the hand and the soles of the feet. At times, individuals with more sweat glands were born. These humans could search for food and hunt for longer

2876:

Saraiya; Glanz, K; Briss, P. A.; Nichols, P; White, C; Das, D; Smith, S. J.; Tannor, B; Hutchinson, A. B.; Wilson, K. M.; Gandhi, N; Lee, N. C.; Rimer, B; Coates, R. C.; Kerner, J. F.; Hiatt, R. A.; Buffler, P; Rochester, P; et al. (2004). "Interventions to prevent skin cancer by reducing

1062:

Earliest European colonial descriptions of North American populations include terms such as "brown", "tawny" or "olive", though some populations were also described as "light-skinned". Most North American indigenous populations rank similar to African and Oceanian populations in regards to the

517:

gene has shown that there is a lack of diversity in dark-skinned African samples in the allele of the gene compared to non-African populations. This is remarkable given that the number of polymorphisms for almost all genes in the human gene pool is greater in African samples than in any other

397: 897:

with dark skin pigmentation. The islands of Melanesia are located immediately north and northeast of Australia as well as east coast of Papua New Guinea. The western end of Melanesia from New Guinea through the Solomon Islands were first colonized by humans about 40,000 to 29,000 years ago.

344:

The main other hypotheses that have been put forward through history to explain the evolution of dark skin colouration relate to increased mortality due to skin cancers, enhanced fitness as a result of protection against sunburns, and increasing benefits due to antibacterial properties of

1034:

had, on average, the darkest skin. A pan-India study of Telugu and North Indian castes found a similar correlation between skin colour and caste association, linked to the absence of the rs1426654-A variant of the SLC245-A gene, but are also linked to mutations overriding these variants.

1402: 5419:

Iliescu, Florin Mircea; Chaplin, George; Rai, Niraj; Jacobs, Guy S.; Mallick, Chandana Basu; Mishra, Anshuman; Thangaraj, Kumarasamy; Jablonski, Nina G. (2018). "The influences of genes, the environment, and social factors on the evolution of skin color diversity in India".

375:

Another group of hypotheses contended that dark skin pigmentation developed as antibacterial protection against tropical infectious diseases and parasites. Although it is true that eumelanin has antibacterial properties, its importance is secondary to 'physical adsorption'

301:, a professor of anthropology and expert on evolution of human skin colouration, found several cases in which mothers' visits to tanning studios were connected to neural tube defects in early pregnancy. She also found that folate was crucial to sperm development; some 578:

gene account for 20–25% of the variation between dark- and light-skinned populations of Africa, and appear to have arisen as recently as within the last 10,000 years. The Ala111Thr or rs1426654 polymorphism in the coding region of the SLC24A5 gene reaches fixation in

477:

negligible compared to the heat produced when muscles are actively used during exercise. Regardless of skin colour, humans have excellent capabilities to dissipate heat through sweating. Half of the solar radiation reaching the Earth's surface is in the form of

188:

migration, but may in fact be a later evolutionary adaptation to tropical rainforest regions. Due to mass migration and increased mobility of people between geographical regions in the recent past, dark-skinned populations today are found all over the world.

942:, it was generally believed that Papuans and Aboriginal Australians shared a common origin. However, a 1999 study failed to find clear indications of a single shared genetic origin between the two populations, suggesting multiple waves of migration into 316:

pigmentation evolved in climates of little sunlight. Light skin pigmentation protects against vitamin D deficiency. It is known that dark-skinned people who have moved to climates of limited sunlight can develop vitamin D-related conditions such as

447:

Darkly-pigmented skin protects against direct and indirect DNA damage. Photodegration occurs when melanin absorbs photons. Recent research suggest that the photoprotective effect of dark skin is increased by the fact that melanin can capture

522:

f gene does not significantly contribute to variation in skin colour around the world, the allele found in high levels in African populations probably protects against UV radiation and was probably important in the evolution of dark skin.

4404:

Kim, Dae Hyun; Sabour, Siamak; Sagar, Utpal N.; Adams, Suzanne; Whellan, David J. (1 December 2008). "Prevalence of hypovitaminosis D in cardiovascular diseases (from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2001 to 2004)".

456:, which are created by the interaction of UVR and layers of the skin. Heavily pigmented melanocytes have greater capacity to divide after ultraviolet irradiation, which suggests that they receive less damage to their DNA. Despite this, 4692:

Certainly dark skin is present all over the world in different populations. Indigenous Australians, indigenous peoples of India, indigenous peoples of Africa are all very darkly pigmented even though they're not particularly closely

905:

hair is exceptionally rare outside Europe, North Africa and West Asia, especially among dark-skinned populations. However, Melanesians are one of the dark-skinned human populations known to have naturally-occurring blond hair.

439:

individuals have similar numbers of melanocytes (there is considerable variation between different body regions), but pigment-containing organelles, called melanosomes, are larger and more numerous in dark-skinned individuals.

5359:

Mishra, Anshuman; Nizammuddin, Sheikh; Mallick, Chandana Basu; Singh, Sakshi; Prakash, Satya; Siddiqui, Niyamat Ali; Rai, Niraj; Carlus, S. Justin; Sudhakar, Digumarthi V. S.; Tripathi, Vishnu P.; Möls, Märt (1 March 2017).

485:

then lose their colour after months when they stay out of the sun. Darkly-pigmented people tend to exhibit fewer signs of aging in their skin than the lightly pigmented because their dark skin protects them from most

472:

of people with dark or heavily tanned skin is more condensed and contains more cornified cell layers than in lightly pigmented humans. These qualities of dark skin enhance the barrier protection function of the skin.

285:—a vitamin B complex—levels. The study found that even short periods of intense sunlight are able to halve folate levels if someone has light skin. Low folate levels are correlated with neural tube defects, such as 5480:

Vaughan, Alden T. (1 October 1982). "From White Man to Redskin: Changing Anglo-American Perceptions of the American Indian". The American Historical Review. 87 (4): 918. doi:10.2307/1857900. ISSN 0002-8762. JSTOR

641:

which regulates appetite, sleep, and mood. Serum folate is broken down by UV radiation or alcohol consumption. Because the skin is protected by the melanin, dark-pigmented people have a lower chance of developing

5237:

Wilson, James F.; Weale, Michael E.; Smith, Alice C.; Gratrix, Fiona; Fletcher, Benjamin; Thomas, Mark G.; Bradman, Neil; Goldstein, David B. (2001). "Population genetic structure of variable drug response".

143:

The global distribution of generally dark-skinned populations is strongly correlated with the high ultraviolet radiation levels of the regions inhabited by them. These populations, with the exception of

4587: 3769:

Lamason, R. L.; Mohideen, MA; Mest, JR; Wong, AC; Norton, HL; Aros, MC; Jurynec, MJ; Mao, X; et al. (2005). "SLC24A5, a Putative Cation Exchanger, Affects Pigmentation in Zebrafish and Humans".

266:

are prone to overheating—5 or 6 °C rise in temperature can lead to heatstroke—there was a need for the development of better heat regulation. The solution was sweating and loss of body hair.

4530: 5493:

Reference SNP(refSNP) Cluster Report: rs1426654 **clinically associated** Archived 5 December 2017 at the Wayback Machine.. Ncbi.nlm.nih.gov (30 December 2008). Retrieved 27 February 2011.

1755:

All modern humans originated from darkly pigmented ancestors who evolved per- manent eumelanin pigmentation in their skin to protect them from the UVR-rich sunshine of equatorial Africa.

352:

Darkly pigmented, eumelanin-rich skin protects against DNA damage caused by the sunlight. This is associated with lower skin cancer rates among dark-skinned populations. The presence of

938:

have dark skin pigmentation and have inhabited the island for at least 40,000 years. Due to their similar phenotype and the location of New Guinea being in the migration route taken by

5008: 855:

The term black initially has been applied as a reference to the skin pigmentation of Indigenous Australians; today it has been embraced by Aboriginal activists as a term for shared

4857: 968:

is the region in Africa situated south of the Sahara where a large number of dark-skinned populations live. Dark-skinned groups on the continent have the same receptor protein as

126:

which provide superior protection against the deleterious effects of ultraviolet radiation. This helps the body to retain its folate reserves and protects against damage to DNA.

1655:

William; Rasmussen, S. A.; Flores, A; Kirby, R. S.; Edmonds, L. D.; et al. (2005). "Decline in the prevalence of spina bifida and anencephaly by race/ethnicity:1995–2002".

1739: 1080: 1111: 3915:

Pagani L, Kivisild T, Tarekegn A, Ekong R, Plaster C, Romero IG, Ayub Q, Mehdi SQ, Thomas MG, Luiselli D, Bekele E, Bradman N, Balding DJ, Tyler-Smith C (21 June 2012).

3747: 5337: 3893: 2016:

Zhang, Xiaoming; Liu, Qi; Zhang, Hui; Zhao, Shilei; Huang, Jiahui; Sovannary, Tuot; Bunnath, Long; Aun, Hong Seang; Samnom, Ham; Su, Bing; Chen, Hua (27 April 2021).

758:(UVR) and the distribution of skin pigmentation around the world. Areas that have higher amounts of UVR have darker-skinned populations, generally located nearer the 4033: 3968: 4794: 1059:

and other Arctic populations. A combination of protein-heavy diets and summer snow reflection have been speculated as favouring the retention of pigmented skin.

184:. Studies into non-African populations indicates dark skin is not necessarily a retention of the pre-existing high UVR-adapted state of modern humans before the 4595: 791:

live in some of the areas with the highest UV radiation in the world, and have evolved very dark skin pigmentations as protection from the sun's harmful rays.

4565: 504:. Many genes work together in complex, additive, and non-additive combinations to determine the skin colour of an individual. The skin colour variations are 3280:

Schreier, W. J.; Schrader, T. E.; Koller, F. O.; Gilch, P; Crespo-Hernández, C. E.; Swaminathan, V. N.; Carell, T; Zinth, W; Kohler, B; et al. (2007).

81:. In the heat of the savannas, better cooling mechanisms were required, which were achieved through the loss of body hair and development of more efficient 715:

disease and vitamin D deficiency also suggest a link between health of cardiac and smooth muscle. Low vitamin D levels have also been linked to impaired

1074:

are also typically considered dark-skinned. High ultraviolet radiation levels occur throughout the Andes region of Peru, Bolivia, Chile, and Argentina.

262:. They not only had to cope with more intense sunlight but had to develop a better cooling system. It was harder to get food in the hot savannas and as 5510: 691:

Vitamin D deficiency is most common in regions with low sunlight, especially in the winter. Chronic deficiencies in vitamin D may also be linked with

5164:

Rogers, Alan R.; Iltis, David; Wooding, Stephen (1 February 2004). "Genetic Variation at the MC1R Locus and the Time since Loss of Human Body Hair".

4534: 3419:

Thong, H.Y.; et al. (2003). "The patterns of melanosome distribution in keratinocytes of human skin as one determining factor of skin colour".

2220: 1888: 1767:

Nielsen; et al. (2006). "The importance of the depth distribution of melanin in skin for DNA protection and other photobiological processes".

829:

as 100 generations (~2,500 years), with no intermarriage required. The speed of change is also affected by clothing, which tends to slow it down.

1454:

genetic evidence that strong levels of natural selection acted about 1.2 mya to produce darkly pigmented skin in early members of the genus Homo

58:, although this usage can be ambiguous in some countries where it is also used to specifically refer to different ethnic groups or populations. 4618: 185: 5053: 3867: 5566: 5331: 4962:

Norton HL, Friedlaender JS, Merriwether DA, Koki G, Mgone CS, Shriver MD (2006). "Skin and hair pigmentation variation in island Melanesia".

4765: 4331: 3607: 3164: 2793: 4679: 3630: 3108:"Tyrosine-induced melanogenesis shows differences in morphologic and melanogenic preferences of melanosomes from light and dark skin types" 2018:"The distinct morphological phenotypes of Southeast Asian aborigines are shaped by novel mechanisms for adaptation to tropical rainforests" 4998: 4849: 5678: 3820:

Gibbons, A. (2007). "AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGISTS MEETING: European Skin Turned Pale Only Recently, Gene Suggests".

526:

Skin colour seems to vary mostly due to variations in a number of genes of large effect as well as several other genes of small effect (

3655:

Rana, B. K.; Hewett-Emmett, D.; Jin, L.; Chang, B. H.; Sambuughin, N.; Lin, M.; Watkins, S.; Bamshad, M.; Jorde, L. B. (1 April 1999).

1187: 1023:

in different regions have found a weak negative correlation between social status and skin darkness, represented by the melanin index.

305:

drugs are based on folate inhibition. It has been found that folate may have been the driving force behind the evolution of dark skin.

4648: 4060: 1819: 1132: 1086: 312:

to low UVR areas and higher latitudes sometime between 120,000 and 65,000 years ago, dark skin posed a disadvantage. Populations with

2686: 1724: 2484: 1357: 1289: 3720: 2813: 1563: 1328: 258:

and chimpanzee lineages diverged, and between 4.5 and 2 million years ago early humans moved out of rainforests to the savannas of

85:. The loss of body hair led to the development of dark skin pigmentation, which acted as a mechanism of natural selection against 4827: 4025: 3964: 1379: 5142: 1095: 979:

interactions of evolutionary forces which have contributed to the geographic distribution of skin colour at any point of time.

3743: 1304: 388:) who live far from the tropics and are exposed to high UVR have darker skin pigmentation than their surrounding populations. 5655: 5321: 4886: 3147:

Kielbassa; Epe, B; et al. (2000). "DNA damage induced by ultraviolet and visible light and its wavelength dependence".

1577:

Molloy; Mills, J. L.; Kirke, P. N.; Weir, D. G.; Scott, J. M.; et al. (1999). "Folate status and neural tube defects".

982:

Due to frequently differing ancestry among dark-skinned populations, the presence of dark skin in general is not a reliable

274:

evolved melanin in order to absorb or scatter harmful sun radiation. Some researchers assumed that melanin protects against

1211: 372:. There are no data or studies that support that sunburn can cause damage so seriously it can affect reproductive success. 197:

Due to natural selection, people who lived in areas of intense sunlight developed dark skin colouration to protect against

5646: 5602: 1156: 808: 4705: 4487:

Harms, M.; et al. (2008). "Developmental vitamin D deficiency alters adult behaviour in 129/SvJ and C57BL/6J mice".

3990:

Buccimazza SS, Molteno CD, Dunnem TT, Viljoen DL (1994). "Prevalence of neural tube defects in Cape Town, South Africa".

3889: 2089: 97:; the relationship between folate breakdown induced by ultraviolet radiation and reduced fitness as a failure of normal 93:. The primary factor contributing to the evolution of dark skin pigmentation was the breakdown of folate in reaction to 5124: 2445: 2298: 2120: 129:

Dark-skinned people who live in high latitudes with mild sunlight are at an increased risk—especially in the winter—of

5362:"Genotype-Phenotype Study of the Middle Gangetic Plain in India Shows Association of rs2470102 with Skin Pigmentation" 837: 5285:

Mohamoud, A. M. (October 2006). "P52 Characteristics of HLA Class I and Class II Antigens of the Somali Population".

4787: 1841:

Holick, Michael F. (21 November 2013). "Bioavailability of Vitamin D and Its Metabolites in Black and White Adults".

1051:

couple from Colombia. Many other Indigenous peoples of tropical or subtropical areas of the Americas have dark skin.

914: 396: 5631: 4557: 2521:"Characterization of a novel human type II epithelial keratin K1b, specifically expressed in eccrine sweat glands" 444:

more energy from UVR and thus offers better protection against sunburns and by absorption and dispersion UV rays.

5699: 5559: 3917:"Ethiopian Genetic Diversity Reveals Linguistic Stratification and Complex Influences on the Ethiopian Gene Pool" 1550:

Copp; et al. (1998). "Embryonic mechanisms underlying the prevenetion of neural tube defects by vitamins".

250:

The earliest primate ancestors of modern humans most likely had pale skin, like our closest modern relative—the

3035: 616:

peril. Cultural practices that increase problems of conditions among dark-skinned populations are traditional

5442: 5388: 2606:

Rigel, D.S. (2008). "Cutaneous ultraviolet exposure and its relationship to the development of skin cancer".

1620:

Lucock, M. (2000). "Folic acid: nutritional biochemistry, molecular biology, and role in disease processes".

5044: 612: 449: 5503: 2519:

Langbein; Rogers, M. A.; Praetzel, S; Cribier, B; Peltre, B; Gassler, N; Schweizer, J; et al. (2005).

1699:"The genetic architecture of normal variation in human pigmentation: an evolutionary perspective and model" 1964:

Harding, R; Healy, E; Ray, A; Ellis, N; Flanagan, N; Todd, C; Dixon, C; Sajantila, A; et al. (2000).

939: 849: 842: 2212: 943: 145: 94: 1880: 1466:

Bower, C.; Stanley (1992). "The role of nutritional factors in the aetiology of neural tube defects".

5552: 4622: 4124: 3778: 3556: 3293: 3011: 2964: 2921: 2725: 2255: 1922: 1776: 674: 673:

Dark-skinned people living in low sunlight environments have been recorded to be very susceptible to

329: 133: 2333:"Evidence that stress to the epidermal barrier influenced the development of pigmentation in humans" 5210:

Relethford, JH (2000). "Human skin color diversity is highest in sub-Saharan African populations".

5049: 5031: 3863: 3467:"Mechanisms of skin tanning in different racial/ethnic groups in response to ultraviolet radiation" 3106:

Van Nieuwpoort; Smit, N. P.; Kolb, R; Van Der Meulen, H; Koerten, H; Pavel, S; et al. (2004).

2955:

Pfeifer; You, Y. H.; Besaratinia, A; et al. (2005). "Mutations induced by ultraviolet light".

1027: 919: 804: 763: 651: 505: 4757: 3547:

Szabo, G; et al. (1969). "Racial differences in the fate of melanosomes in human epidermis".

3339:"Development in the floating world: defenses of eggs and embryos against damage from UV radiation" 1014: 5586: 5463: 5302: 5263: 5189: 5003: 4671: 4512: 4469: 4148: 3845: 3802: 3580: 3508:"Keratinocytes Play a Role in Regulating Distribution Patterns of Recipient Melanosomes in Vitro" 3444: 3262: 3219: 2585: 2190: 1946: 1680: 1602: 1491: 1445: 1146: 1137:

The preference or disfavour for darker skin has varied depending on geographical area and time.

965: 728: 720: 333: 302: 259: 239: 4913:"Origins and dispersals of Pacific peoples: Evidence from mtDNA phylogenesis of the pacific rat" 3623: 228:. The effect of sunlight on folic acid levels has been crucial in the development of dark skin. 5077:"Peopling of Sahul: mtDNA Variation in Aboriginal Australian and Papua New Guinean Populations" 986:, including among groups in Africa. For example, Wilson et al. (2001) found that most of their 5626: 5455: 5447: 5401: 5393: 5327: 5255: 5219: 5181: 5106: 4979: 4944: 4504: 4461: 4430: 4422: 4386: 4337: 4327: 4296: 4247: 4183: 4140: 4007: 3946: 3837: 3794: 3694: 3676: 3603: 3572: 3529: 3488: 3436: 3401: 3393: 3319: 3254: 3211: 3170: 3160: 3129: 3088: 3027: 2980: 2937: 2894: 2858: 2789: 2743: 2667: 2623: 2577: 2542: 2480: 2427: 2409: 2370: 2352: 2306: 2279: 2271: 2055: 2037: 1995: 1938: 1858: 1792: 1698: 1672: 1637: 1594: 1532: 1483: 647: 453: 251: 90: 1030:

found an association between the proportion of dark skin and ranking in the caste hierarchy.

5575: 5437: 5429: 5383: 5373: 5294: 5247: 5173: 5096: 5088: 4971: 4934: 4924: 4736: 4496: 4453: 4414: 4376: 4368: 4319: 4286: 4278: 4237: 4229: 4175: 4132: 4095: 3999: 3936: 3928: 3829: 3786: 3684: 3668: 3564: 3519: 3478: 3428: 3383: 3350: 3309: 3301: 3246: 3201: 3152: 3119: 3078: 3070: 3019: 2972: 2929: 2886: 2848: 2733: 2657: 2615: 2569: 2532: 2417: 2401: 2360: 2344: 2263: 2186: 2182: 2045: 2029: 1985: 1977: 1930: 1850: 1784: 1664: 1629: 1586: 1559: 1522: 1475: 1441: 1437: 1332: 1184: 923: 625: 428: 369: 219: 44: 4644: 2912:

Agar, N.; Young, A. R. (2005). "Melanogenesis: a photoprotective response to DNA damage?".

1811: 32: 5039: 4056: 2690: 1308: 1191: 696: 469: 465: 263: 102: 5298: 4128: 3782: 3712: 3560: 3297: 3015: 2968: 2925: 2809: 2729: 2259: 1926: 1780: 368:

Studies have found that even serious sunburns could not affect sweat gland function and

5101: 5076: 4381: 4356: 4314:

Grant, W.B. (2008). "Solar Ultraviolet Irradiance and Cancer Incidence and Mortality".

4291: 4266: 4242: 4217: 4166:

Chaplin G, Jablonski NG (2009). "Vitamin D and the evolution of human depigmentation".

3941: 3916: 3689: 3656: 3314: 3281: 3083: 3058: 2422: 2389: 2365: 2332: 2331:

Elias, Peter M.; Menon, Gopinathan; Wetzel, Bruce K.; Williams, John (Jack) W. (2009).

2050: 2017: 1990: 1965: 1479: 1043: 983: 712: 704: 588: 478: 423:

from the radiation damage of UV light. Melanin is produced in specialized cells called

298: 173: 4939: 4912: 3156: 2390:"Was skin cancer a selective force for black pigmentation in early hominin evolution?" 5693: 5193: 4879: 4448:

McGrath, J.J.; et al. (2004). "Vitamin D – implications for brain development".

3524: 3507: 3483: 3466: 3432: 3388: 3371: 3124: 3107: 3074: 2853: 2836: 2537: 2520: 2348: 1788: 1118: 995: 970: 931: 788: 719:

and brain functions. In addition, recent studies have linked vitamin D deficiency to

716: 692: 377: 98: 5467: 5306: 5267: 5150: 4741: 4724: 4473: 4152: 3849: 3448: 3370:

Haass, Nikolas K.; Smalley, Keiran S. M.; Li, Ling; Herlyn, Meenhard (1 June 2005).

3266: 3223: 2589: 2473: 2194: 1950: 1684: 1606: 1495: 1449: 954: 662: 464:) damages the immune system even in darker skinned individuals due to its effect on 419:

is the dominant form of melanin found in human skin. Eumelanin protects tissues and

297:. In these abnormalities children are born with an incomplete brain or spinal cord. 136:. As a consequence of vitamin D deficiency, they are at a higher risk of developing 5660: 5636: 4516: 3806: 3584: 1301: 1151: 1071: 1048: 812: 796:

argued that the majority of dark-pigmented people lived within 20° of the equator.

755: 724: 700: 596: 584: 290: 107: 82: 55: 5143:"black Africa | Definition of black Africa in English by Lexico Dictionaries" 4418: 4115:

Loomis, W. F. (1967). "Skin-pigment regulation of vitamin-D biosynthesis in man".

4100: 4083: 3833: 3672: 2560:

Blum, H.F. (1961). "Does the melanin pigment of human skin have adaptive value?".

293:. UV rays can strip away folate, which is important to the development of healthy 231: 4357:"Factors that influence the cutaneous synthesis and dietary sources of vitamin D" 4136: 3023: 2976: 2933: 2890: 4457: 4323: 4318:. Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology. Vol. 624. pp. 16–30. 2646:"Recent trends in cutaneous melanoma incidence among white in the United States" 1207: 1003: 959: 894: 800: 736: 643: 440: 432: 353: 286: 275: 198: 123: 3932: 2619: 893:, whose name means "black islands", have several islands that are inhabited by 574:, which would probably increase the number of related genes. Variations in the 5665: 5598: 5592: 5378: 5361: 4709: 4500: 4372: 4282: 2837:"Regulation of human skin pigmentation and responses to ultraviolet radiation" 2097: 1166: 1161: 935: 816: 784: 780: 743: 600: 528: 486: 424: 409: 357: 313: 169: 165: 74: 66: 5451: 5397: 5185: 4426: 4233: 3680: 3397: 2413: 2356: 2310: 2275: 2041: 65:

of dark skin is believed to have begun around 1.2 million years ago, in

5128: 4929: 4819: 4003: 3790: 3305: 2662: 2645: 2243: 2128: 1590: 1371: 991: 926:. People from Bougainville have some of the darkest skin tones among humans. 886: 880: 867: 825: 792: 776: 772: 678: 638: 621: 592: 571: 501: 493: 416: 346: 328:

A 2022 study revealed that traits such as dark skin show strong signals for

209:

pigmentation of the skin was caused by ultraviolet radiation of the sun. As

206: 177: 161: 157: 130: 119: 62: 17: 5459: 5405: 5259: 5223: 5110: 4983: 4948: 4508: 4465: 4434: 4390: 4341: 4300: 4251: 4187: 3950: 3841: 3798: 3698: 3533: 3492: 3440: 3405: 3355: 3338: 3323: 3258: 3215: 3174: 3133: 3092: 3031: 2984: 2941: 2898: 2862: 2747: 2671: 2627: 2581: 2546: 2431: 2405: 2374: 2283: 2267: 2059: 1999: 1942: 1934: 1913:

Jablonski, N.G.; Chaplin (2000). "The evolution of human skin coloration".

1862: 1796: 1676: 1668: 1641: 1633: 1598: 4144: 4011: 3576: 2033: 1536: 1487: 824:

to Nina Jablonski, darkly-pigmented modern populations in South India and

3237:

Sinha; et al. (2002). "UV-induced DNA damage and repair: a review".

1854: 1317:"specifically the dark-skinned peoples of Africa, Oceania, or Australia." 987: 732: 617: 412: 385: 361: 243: 181: 149: 5641: 5433: 4975: 4179: 2446:"Evolutionary history is more than skin deep - Understanding Evolution" 1527: 1510: 1102: 999: 890: 876: 856: 759: 685: 666: 552: 546: 405: 318: 235: 210: 137: 115: 78: 70: 51: 48: 3568: 2173:

Nina, Jablonski (2004). "The evolution of human skin and skin color".

1564:

10.1002/(sici)1098-2779(1998)4:4<264::aid-mrdd5>3.0.co;2-g

1428:

Nina, Jablonski (2004). "The evolution of human skin and skin color".

3250: 3004:

Mutation Research/Fundamental and Molecular Mechanisms of Mutagenesis

768: 708: 580: 322: 309: 294: 282: 202: 153: 86: 3206: 3189: 2999: 2738: 2713: 1287:"belonging to or denoting any human group having dark-coloured skin" 742:

Outside the tropics UVR has to penetrate through a thicker layer of

5544: 5323:

Vitamin D: Physiology, Molecular Biology, and Clinical Applications

5177: 5092: 3372:"Adhesion, migration and communication in melanocytes and melanoma" 2573: 1981: 105:

led to the selection of dark skin pigmentation. By the time modern

5650: 5606: 5251: 4267:"Molecular actions of vitamin D contributing to cancer prevention" 1552:

Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities Research Reviews

1056: 1042: 1031: 1013: 953: 913: 902: 872: 866: 836: 661: 562: 534: 431:. Melanin is produced inside small membrane-bound packages called 381: 255: 230: 31: 3602:(10th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Co. pp. 135–136. 2788:. Berkeley, Los Angeles, London: University of California Press. 3059:"The protective role of melanin against UV damage in human skin" 540: 513: 497: 224: 5548: 3000:"MC1R and the response of melanocytes to ultraviolet radiation" 114:

Humans with dark skin pigmentation have skin naturally rich in

3657:"High polymorphism at the human melanocortin 1 receptor locus" 990:

samples showed closer genetic affinities with lighter-skinned

754:

There is a correlation between the geographic distribution of

461: 457: 420: 214: 4729:

Journal of Environmental Engineering and Landscape Management

4203:

In Bone Loss and Osteoporosis: an Anthropological Perspective

3713:"Effects of Ecology and Climate on Human Physical Variations" 2810:"Effects of Ecology and Climate on Human Physical Variations" 684:

The most prevalent disease to follow vitamin D deficiency is

395: 3282:"Thymine dimerization in DNA is an ultrafast photoreaction" 4999:"Another Genetic Quirk of the Solomon Islands: Blond Hair" 3460: 3458: 3151:. Methods in Enzymology. Vol. 319. pp. 436–445. 2094:

Human Biological Adaptability: Skin Color as an Adaptation

1353:

Oxford Dictionaries. April 2010. Oxford University Press.

1285:

Oxford Dictionaries. April 2010. Oxford University Press.

998:

populations. Mohamoud (2006) likewise observed that their

481:

and is absorbed similarly regardless of skin colouration.

2877:

exposure to ultraviolet radiation: a systematic review".

1355:"especially of African or Australian Aboriginal ancestry" 508:

from light to dark, as it is usual for polygenic traits.

4216:

Garland CF, Garland FC, Gorham ED, et al. (2006).

3864:"Graphical display of Allele Frequencies for Ala111Thr" 2639: 2637: 2394:

Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences

5537:

William Montagna, Giuseppe Prota, John A. Kenney Jr.,

2500:

Montagna, W. "The consequences of having naked skin".

1331:. American Anthropological Association. Archived from 4450:

Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology

1769:

Journal of Photochemistry and Photobiology B: Biology

1018:

Fisherman from Chennai, Tamil Nadu in southern India.

1966:"Evidence for Variable Selective Pressures at MC1R" 5212:Human Biology; an International Record of Research 5205: 5203: 4758:"Your Family May Once Have Been A Different Color" 4725:"Ultraviolet radiation albedo of natural surfaces" 2472: 570:). This does not take into account the effects of 408:found in their skin. Melanin is derivative of the 5443:20.500.11820/435c03a5-a3ca-4046-aa50-c81c38d08645 5389:20.500.11820/797d6f60-82a1-4544-a593-f87f598384aa 4205:. Kluwer Academic/Plenum Press. pp. 135–150. 4084:"Pigmentation, sunlight, and nutritional disease" 4026:"Dark-skinned immigrants urged to take vitamin D" 3744:"Genetics of human pigmentation: Gene expression" 1313:"a member of any of various dark-skinned peoples" 54:. People with dark skin are often referred to as 5504:"High UV occurs throughout the Altiplano region" 3965:"Dark-skinned immigrant urged to take vitamin D" 1881:"Bone Density Higher in Blacks, Vitamin D Lower" 356:in light skin increases the oxidative stress in 281:A 1978 study examined the effect of sunlight on 89:(vitamin B9) depletion, and to a lesser extent, 4917:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 3890:"ALFRED – Polymorphism Information – Ala111Thr" 3600:Human genetics : concepts and applications 3190:"UV damage, DNA repair and skin carcinogenesis" 1275:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 192–213. 1006:populations than to other African populations. 148:, almost exclusively live near the equator, in 5489: 5487: 2608:Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology 1879:DeVita Raeburn, Elizabeth (20 November 2013). 201:(UV) light, mainly to protect their body from 5560: 4850:"Aboriginal identity goes beyond skin colour" 2011: 2009: 1224:a person or race having skin of a dark colour 427:, which are found at the lowest level of the 73:species after they moved from the equatorial 8: 4588:"Vitamin D deficiency and skin sun exposure" 4218:"The Role of Vitamin D in Cancer Prevention" 3239:Photochemical & Photobiological Sciences 2213:"The Biology of Skin Color: Black and White" 2168: 2166: 246:evolution of dark skin may have taken place 5567: 5553: 5545: 2779: 2777: 2687:"Department of Anthropology at Penn State" 2164: 2162: 2160: 2158: 2156: 2154: 2152: 2150: 2148: 2146: 1089:Mother and daughter from the Urus islands. 583:, and is also common among populations in 496:trait, which means that several different 5441: 5387: 5377: 5100: 4964:American Journal of Physical Anthropology 4938: 4928: 4740: 4380: 4290: 4241: 4168:American Journal of Physical Anthropology 4099: 3940: 3688: 3523: 3482: 3387: 3354: 3313: 3205: 3123: 3082: 2852: 2775: 2773: 2771: 2769: 2767: 2765: 2763: 2761: 2759: 2757: 2737: 2661: 2536: 2421: 2364: 2083: 2081: 2079: 2077: 2075: 2073: 2071: 2069: 2049: 1989: 1908: 1906: 1526: 1002:samples were genetically more similar to 859:and identity, regardless of skin colour. 669:is a condition associated with dark skin. 404:Dark-skinned humans have high amounts of 2650:Journal of the National Cancer Institute 2601: 2599: 2244:"The evolution of human skin coloration" 1266: 1264: 1262: 1260: 1258: 1256: 1254: 1252: 4361:Archives of Biochemistry and Biophysics 2879:American Journal of Preventive Medicine 2689:. Penn State University. Archived from 2187:10.1146/annurev.anthro.33.070203.143955 1468:Journal of Paediatrics and Child Health 1442:10.1146/annurev.anthro.33.070203.143955 1250: 1248: 1246: 1244: 1242: 1240: 1238: 1236: 1234: 1232: 1196:"naturally having skin of a dark color" 1177: 1076: 1055:Relatively dark skin remains among the 500:are involved in determining a specific 111:evolved, all humans were dark-skinned. 5516:from the original on 23 September 2020 4619:"Why Black People Need More Vitamin D" 4063:from the original on 26 September 2018 4057:"Darker Skin? More Vitamin D, Please!" 3921:The American Journal of Human Genetics 3636:from the original on 15 September 2012 2502:Birth Defects: Original Article Series 2299:"Why Humans and Their Fur Parted Ways" 2242:Jablonski, N. G.; Chaplin, G. (2000). 2206: 2204: 1970:The American Journal of Human Genetics 4800:from the original on 21 November 2018 4682:from the original on 12 November 2012 2223:from the original on 16 February 2013 1874: 1872: 1745:from the original on 25 February 2014 7: 5366:Journal of Investigative Dermatology 4756:Krulwich, Robert (2 February 2009). 4036:from the original on 9 November 2012 3971:from the original on 9 November 2012 3896:from the original on 12 October 2016 3512:Journal of Investigative Dermatology 3471:Journal of Investigative Dermatology 3112:Journal of Investigative Dermatology 3057:Brenner, M.; Hearing, V. J. (2008). 2525:Journal of Investigative Dermatology 2337:Pigment Cell & Melanoma Research 1511:"Folic acid and neural tube defects" 1214:from the original on 22 January 2017 1026:A study of caste populations in the 308:As humans dispersed from equatorial 5679:Pre-modern conceptions of whiteness 5299:10.1111/j.1365-3148.2006.00694_52.x 5056:from the original on 6 October 2019 4911:Matisoo-Smith E, Robins JH (2004). 4860:from the original on 9 October 2011 4316:Sunlight, Vitamin D and Skin Cancer 3870:from the original on 4 October 2013 2714:"Human migrations: Eastern odyssey" 1891:from the original on 8 October 2019 1843:The New England Journal of Medicine 1403:"New-discovery-in-racial-migration" 5539:Black Skin. Structure and Function 5340:from the original on 17 April 2021 5147:Lexico Dictionaries | English 5125:"Modern human variation: overview" 5081:American Journal of Human Genetics 5048:(Online ed.). United States: 5011:from the original on 14 April 2020 4706:"Modern human variation: overview" 4645:"Micronutrient Information Center" 4407:The American Journal of Cardiology 3723:from the original on 30 April 2020 3038:from the original on 30 April 2020 2816:from the original on 30 April 2020 1723:Jablonski, Nina G. (Spring 2011). 1480:10.1111/j.1440-1754.1992.tb02610.x 1370:James, Mackers (8 November 1828). 1133:Discrimination based on skin color 218:sunlight. Indigenous populations' 25: 5422:American Journal of Human Biology 4768:from the original on 3 March 2020 4723:Chadysiene R, Girgzdys A (2008). 4651:from the original on 8 April 2015 4594:. 26 October 2011. Archived from 4568:from the original on 24 July 2018 4222:American Journal of Public Health 3750:from the original on 14 June 2013 3465:Tadokoro, T; et al. (2005). 2297:Wade, Nicholas (19 August 2003). 1822:from the original on 8 April 2015 1622:Molecular Genetics and Metabolism 518:geographic region. So, while the 458:medium-wave ultraviolet radiation 4830:from the original on 26 May 2020 4355:Chen, T.C.; et al. (2007). 3525:10.1046/j.0022-202x.2001.01411.x 3506:Minwala, S; et al. (2001). 3484:10.1111/j.0022-202X.2005.23760.x 3433:10.1046/j.1365-2133.2003.05473.x 3389:10.1111/j.1600-0749.2005.00235.x 3125:10.1111/j.0022-202X.2004.22533.x 3075:10.1111/j.1751-1097.2007.00226.x 2854:10.1111/j.1600-0749.2006.00358.x 2538:10.1111/j.0022-202X.2005.23860.x 2349:10.1111/j.1755-148X.2009.00588.x 1816:Micronutrient Information Center 1789:10.1016/j.jphotobiol.2005.11.008 1725:"Why Human Skin Comes in Colors" 1382:from the original on 26 May 2020 1110: 1094: 1079: 4997:Sindya N. Bhanoo (3 May 2012). 4892:from the original on 8 May 2018 4742:10.3846/1648-6897.2008.16.83-88 4676:Race – The Power of an Illusion 4672:"Interview with Jonathan Marks" 3149:Singlet Oxygen, UV-A, and Ozone 3063:Photochemistry and Photobiology 1409:. Canadian Broadcasting Company 511:Data collected from studies on 4826:. 8 November 1828. p. 1. 4556:Painter, Kim (19 April 2009). 3421:British Journal of Dermatology 2835:Miyamura; et al. (2007). 2388:Greaves, Mel (22 April 2014). 707:, and possibly other types of 1: 5075:Redd AJ, Stoneking M (1999). 4419:10.1016/j.amjcard.2008.06.067 4271:Molecular Aspects of Medicine 4101:10.1525/aa.1934.36.3.02a00100 3892:. Allele Frequency Database. 3866:. Allele Frequency Database. 3834:10.1126/science.316.5823.364a 3157:10.1016/s0076-6879(00)19041-x 2998:Rouzaud; et al. (2005). 2479:. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. 2175:Annual Review of Anthropology 1430:Annual Review of Anthropology 1401:Brana, La (27 January 2017). 1271:Muehlenbein, Michael (2010). 1157:Brown (racial classification) 658:Disadvantages in low sunlight 152:areas with intense sunlight: 4137:10.1126/science.157.3788.501 3188:Cleaver and Crowely (2002). 3024:10.1016/j.mrfmmm.2004.09.014 2977:10.1016/j.mrfmmm.2004.06.057 2934:10.1016/j.mrfmmm.2004.11.016 2891:10.1016/j.amepre.2004.08.009 254:. About 7 million years ago 5036:ānistān: (iv.) ethnography" 4531:"How to get your vitamin D" 4458:10.1016/j.jsbmb.2004.03.070 4324:10.1007/978-0-387-77574-6_2 3673:10.1093/genetics/151.4.1547 2644:Jemal; et al. (2001). 2562:Quarterly Review of Biology 1818:. Linus Pauling Institute. 1070:Native South Americans and 711:. The relationship between 632:Advantages in high sunlight 5716: 5632:Color terminology for race 5320:Michael F. Holick (2010). 4621:. The Root. Archived from 4489:Behavioural Brain Research 3933:10.1016/j.ajhg.2012.05.015 3337:Epel; et al. (1999). 2620:10.1016/j.jaad.2007.04.034 2248:Journal of Human Evolution 1915:Journal of Human Evolution 1273:Human Evolutionary Biology 1130: 1117:Indigenous fisherman from 946:with distinct ancestries. 646:and conditions related to 5674: 5622: 5582: 5379:10.1016/j.jid.2016.10.043 5326:. Springer. p. 531. 4854:The Sydney Morning Herald 4501:10.1016/j.bbr.2007.09.032 4373:10.1016/j.abb.2006.12.017 4283:10.1016/j.mam.2008.07.003 2471:Dawkins, Richard (2004). 2127:. Palomer. Archived from 2096:. Palomar. Archived from 1360:(accessed 6 August 2012). 1292:(accessed 6 August 2012). 1210:. thefreedictionary.com. 994:than with darker-skinned 392:Biochemistry and genetics 321:, and different forms of 5541:, Elsevier Science, 2012 4820:"Classified Advertising" 4452:. 89–90 (1–5): 557–560. 4234:10.2105/ajph.2004.045260 2784:Jablonski, Nina (2012). 2712:Appenzeller Tim (2012). 1307:19 February 2016 at the 611:Skin pigmentation is an 332:and selective pressure ( 4930:10.1073/pnas.0403120101 4088:American Anthropologist 4004:10.1002/tera.1420500304 3791:10.1126/science.1116238 3306:10.1126/science.1135428 3194:Frontiers in Bioscience 2090:"Skin Color Adaptation" 2022:National Science Review 1591:10.1002/biof.5520100230 1063:presence of the allele 767:populations inhabiting 750:Geographic distribution 613:evolutionary adaptation 4082:Murray, F. G. (1934). 2450:evolution.berkeley.edu 2406:10.1098/rspb.2013.2955 2268:10.1006/jhev.2000.0403 2125:Modern Human Variation 1935:10.1006/jhev.2000.0403 1669:10.1542/peds.2005-0592 1634:10.1006/mgme.2000.3027 1376:Classified Advertising 1052: 1019: 962: 940:Indigenous Australians 927: 883: 850:Indigenous Australians 846: 670: 401: 247: 242:are where most of the 37: 36:A woman with dark skin 5293:(Supplement s1): 47. 3746:. Discover Magazine. 3717:www.culturechange.org 3598:Lewis, Ricki (2012). 3376:Pigment Cell Research 2663:10.1093/jnci/93.9.678 1302:Dictionary.com: black 1194:Princeton University 1046: 1017: 957: 917: 870: 843:Aboriginal Australian 840: 811:in Melanesia and the 665: 400:Darkly pigmented skin 399: 234: 213:gradually lost their 146:indigenous Tasmanians 95:ultraviolet radiation 35: 5287:Transfusion Medicine 5166:Current Anthropology 5045:Encyclopædia Iranica 4712:on 18 December 2012. 4265:Fleet, J.C. (2008). 3777:(5755): 1782–17886. 3742:Khan, Razib (2009). 3356:10.1093/ICB/39.2.271 1855:10.1056/NEJMe1312291 1509:Minns, R.A. (1996). 1335:on 14 September 2018 1190:4 March 2016 at the 1101:Indigenous man from 675:vitamin D deficiency 506:normally distributed 330:Convergent evolution 5131:on 5 November 2012. 5050:Columbia University 4824:Hobart Town Courier 4788:"Aboriginal Genome" 4625:on 17 November 2012 4129:1967Sci...157..501F 3783:2005Sci...310.1782L 3561:1969Natur.222.1081S 3555:(5198): 1081–1082. 3298:2007Sci...315..625S 3016:2005MRFMM.571..133R 2969:2005MRFMM.571...19P 2926:2005MRFMM.571..121A 2730:2012Natur.485...24A 2475:The Ancestor's Tale 2260:2000JHumE..39...57J 2100:on 18 December 2012 2034:10.1093/nsr/nwab072 1927:2000JHumE..39...57J 1781:2006JPPB...82..194N 920:Bougainville Island 764:Southern Hemisphere 721:autoimmune diseases 679:vitamin D synthesis 652:neural tube defects 607:Health implications 365:skin pigmentation. 5434:10.1002/ajhb.23170 5004:The New York Times 4976:10.1002/ajpa.20343 4838:– via Trove. 4617:Villarosa, Linda. 4598:on 2 February 2013 4537:on 13 January 2013 4180:10.1002/ajpa.21079 3343:American Zoologist 3200:(1–3): 1024–1043. 2693:on 16 January 2013 2400:(1781): 20132955. 2303:The New York Times 2211:Gina, Kirchweger. 2131:on 5 November 2012 1528:10.1038/sc.1996.79 1147:Albinism in humans 1053: 1020: 966:Sub-Saharan Africa 963: 950:Sub-Saharan Africa 928: 884: 847: 845:man with dark skin 729:multiple sclerosis 671: 402: 334:positive Selection 303:male contraception 260:sub-Saharan Africa 248: 38: 5687: 5686: 5627:Fitzpatrick scale 5333:978-1-60327-303-9 4923:(24): 9167–9172. 4670:Marks, Jonathan. 4647:. Linus Pauling. 4413:(11): 1540–1544. 4333:978-0-387-77573-9 4201:Vieth, R (2003). 4123:(3788): 501–506. 3609:978-0-07-352530-3 3569:10.1038/2221081a0 3292:(5812): 625–629. 3166:978-0-12-182220-0 2957:Mutation Research 2914:Mutation Research 2795:978-0-520-25153-3 2685:Jablonski, Nina. 2217:Evolution Library 1849:(21): 2047–2048. 889:, a subregion of 735:and incidence of 648:folate deficiency 492:Skin colour is a 454:hydrogen peroxide 122:), and have more 16:(Redirected from 5707: 5700:Human skin color 5613:Dark/Black/Ebony 5593:Light/White/Fair 5576:Human skin color 5569: 5562: 5555: 5546: 5526: 5525: 5523: 5521: 5515: 5508: 5500: 5494: 5491: 5482: 5478: 5472: 5471: 5445: 5416: 5410: 5409: 5391: 5381: 5356: 5350: 5349: 5347: 5345: 5317: 5311: 5310: 5282: 5276: 5275: 5234: 5228: 5227: 5207: 5198: 5197: 5161: 5155: 5154: 5149:. Archived from 5139: 5133: 5132: 5127:. Archived from 5121: 5115: 5114: 5104: 5072: 5066: 5065: 5063: 5061: 5027: 5021: 5020: 5018: 5016: 4994: 4988: 4987: 4959: 4953: 4952: 4942: 4932: 4908: 4902: 4901: 4899: 4897: 4891: 4884: 4876: 4870: 4869: 4867: 4865: 4846: 4840: 4839: 4837: 4835: 4816: 4810: 4809: 4807: 4805: 4799: 4792: 4784: 4778: 4777: 4775: 4773: 4753: 4747: 4746: 4744: 4720: 4714: 4713: 4708:. Archived from 4702: 4696: 4695: 4689: 4687: 4667: 4661: 4660: 4658: 4656: 4641: 4635: 4634: 4632: 4630: 4614: 4608: 4607: 4605: 4603: 4584: 4578: 4577: 4575: 4573: 4553: 4547: 4546: 4544: 4542: 4533:. Archived from 4527: 4521: 4520: 4484: 4478: 4477: 4445: 4439: 4438: 4401: 4395: 4394: 4384: 4352: 4346: 4345: 4311: 4305: 4304: 4294: 4262: 4256: 4255: 4245: 4213: 4207: 4206: 4198: 4192: 4191: 4163: 4157: 4156: 4112: 4106: 4105: 4103: 4079: 4073: 4072: 4070: 4068: 4055:Oglesby, Erika. 4052: 4046: 4045: 4043: 4041: 4022: 4016: 4015: 3987: 3981: 3980: 3978: 3976: 3961: 3955: 3954: 3944: 3912: 3906: 3905: 3903: 3901: 3886: 3880: 3879: 3877: 3875: 3860: 3854: 3853: 3817: 3811: 3810: 3766: 3760: 3759: 3757: 3755: 3739: 3733: 3732: 3730: 3728: 3709: 3703: 3702: 3692: 3667:(4): 1547–1557. 3652: 3646: 3645: 3643: 3641: 3635: 3628: 3620: 3614: 3613: 3595: 3589: 3588: 3544: 3538: 3537: 3527: 3503: 3497: 3496: 3486: 3477:(6): 1326–1332. 3462: 3453: 3452: 3416: 3410: 3409: 3391: 3367: 3361: 3360: 3358: 3334: 3328: 3327: 3317: 3277: 3271: 3270: 3251:10.1039/b201230h 3234: 3228: 3227: 3209: 3185: 3179: 3178: 3144: 3138: 3137: 3127: 3118:(5): 1251–1255. 3103: 3097: 3096: 3086: 3054: 3048: 3047: 3045: 3043: 2995: 2989: 2988: 2952: 2946: 2945: 2920:(1–2): 121–132. 2909: 2903: 2902: 2873: 2867: 2866: 2856: 2832: 2826: 2825: 2823: 2821: 2806: 2800: 2799: 2781: 2752: 2751: 2741: 2709: 2703: 2702: 2700: 2698: 2682: 2676: 2675: 2665: 2641: 2632: 2631: 2614:(5): S129–S132. 2603: 2594: 2593: 2557: 2551: 2550: 2540: 2516: 2510: 2509: 2497: 2491: 2490: 2478: 2468: 2462: 2461: 2459: 2457: 2442: 2436: 2435: 2425: 2385: 2379: 2378: 2368: 2328: 2322: 2321: 2319: 2317: 2294: 2288: 2287: 2239: 2233: 2232: 2230: 2228: 2208: 2199: 2198: 2170: 2141: 2140: 2138: 2136: 2119:O'Neil, Dennis. 2116: 2110: 2109: 2107: 2105: 2088:O'Neil, Dennis. 2085: 2064: 2063: 2053: 2013: 2004: 2003: 1993: 1961: 1955: 1954: 1910: 1901: 1900: 1898: 1896: 1876: 1867: 1866: 1838: 1832: 1831: 1829: 1827: 1807: 1801: 1800: 1764: 1758: 1757: 1752: 1750: 1744: 1729: 1720: 1714: 1713: 1711: 1709: 1703:academic.oup.com 1695: 1689: 1688: 1652: 1646: 1645: 1628:(1–2): 121–138. 1617: 1611: 1610: 1585:(2–3): 291–294. 1574: 1568: 1567: 1547: 1541: 1540: 1530: 1506: 1500: 1499: 1463: 1457: 1456: 1425: 1419: 1418: 1416: 1414: 1398: 1392: 1391: 1389: 1387: 1367: 1361: 1351: 1345: 1344: 1342: 1340: 1325: 1319: 1299: 1293: 1283: 1277: 1276: 1268: 1227: 1226: 1221: 1219: 1204: 1198: 1182: 1114: 1098: 1083: 924:Papua New Guinea 807:at the northern 781:Papua New Guinea 466:Langerhans cells 370:thermoregulation 340:Other hypotheses 264:mammalian brains 220:skin reflectance 47:that is rich in 45:human skin color 27:Human skin color 21: 5715: 5714: 5710: 5709: 5708: 5706: 5705: 5704: 5690: 5689: 5688: 5683: 5670: 5618: 5578: 5573: 5534: 5532:Further reading 5529: 5519: 5517: 5513: 5506: 5502: 5501: 5497: 5492: 5485: 5479: 5475: 5418: 5417: 5413: 5358: 5357: 5353: 5343: 5341: 5334: 5319: 5318: 5314: 5284: 5283: 5279: 5240:Nature Genetics 5236: 5235: 5231: 5209: 5208: 5201: 5163: 5162: 5158: 5153:on 2 July 2019. 5141: 5140: 5136: 5123: 5122: 5118: 5074: 5073: 5069: 5059: 5057: 5040:Ehsan Yarshater 5029: 5028: 5024: 5014: 5012: 4996: 4995: 4991: 4961: 4960: 4956: 4910: 4909: 4905: 4895: 4893: 4889: 4882: 4878: 4877: 4873: 4863: 4861: 4848: 4847: 4843: 4833: 4831: 4818: 4817: 4813: 4803: 4801: 4797: 4790: 4786: 4785: 4781: 4771: 4769: 4755: 4754: 4750: 4722: 4721: 4717: 4704: 4703: 4699: 4685: 4683: 4669: 4668: 4664: 4654: 4652: 4643: 4642: 4638: 4628: 4626: 4616: 4615: 4611: 4601: 4599: 4592:Chicago Tribune 4586: 4585: 4581: 4571: 4569: 4555: 4554: 4550: 4540: 4538: 4529: 4528: 4524: 4486: 4485: 4481: 4447: 4446: 4442: 4403: 4402: 4398: 4354: 4353: 4349: 4334: 4313: 4312: 4308: 4264: 4263: 4259: 4215: 4214: 4210: 4200: 4199: 4195: 4165: 4164: 4160: 4114: 4113: 4109: 4081: 4080: 4076: 4066: 4064: 4054: 4053: 4049: 4039: 4037: 4024: 4023: 4019: 3989: 3988: 3984: 3974: 3972: 3963: 3962: 3958: 3914: 3913: 3909: 3899: 3897: 3888: 3887: 3883: 3873: 3871: 3862: 3861: 3857: 3819: 3818: 3814: 3768: 3767: 3763: 3753: 3751: 3741: 3740: 3736: 3726: 3724: 3711: 3710: 3706: 3654: 3653: 3649: 3639: 3637: 3633: 3626: 3622: 3621: 3617: 3610: 3597: 3596: 3592: 3546: 3545: 3541: 3505: 3504: 3500: 3464: 3463: 3456: 3418: 3417: 3413: 3369: 3368: 3364: 3336: 3335: 3331: 3279: 3278: 3274: 3236: 3235: 3231: 3207:10.2741/cleaver 3187: 3186: 3182: 3167: 3146: 3145: 3141: 3105: 3104: 3100: 3056: 3055: 3051: 3041: 3039: 3010:(1–2): 133–52. 2997: 2996: 2992: 2954: 2953: 2949: 2911: 2910: 2906: 2875: 2874: 2870: 2834: 2833: 2829: 2819: 2817: 2808: 2807: 2803: 2796: 2783: 2782: 2755: 2739:10.1038/485024a 2724:(7396): 24–26. 2711: 2710: 2706: 2696: 2694: 2684: 2683: 2679: 2643: 2642: 2635: 2605: 2604: 2597: 2559: 2558: 2554: 2518: 2517: 2513: 2499: 2498: 2494: 2487: 2470: 2469: 2465: 2455: 2453: 2444: 2443: 2439: 2387: 2386: 2382: 2330: 2329: 2325: 2315: 2313: 2296: 2295: 2291: 2241: 2240: 2236: 2226: 2224: 2210: 2209: 2202: 2172: 2171: 2144: 2134: 2132: 2118: 2117: 2113: 2103: 2101: 2087: 2086: 2067: 2015: 2014: 2007: 1963: 1962: 1958: 1912: 1911: 1904: 1894: 1892: 1878: 1877: 1870: 1840: 1839: 1835: 1825: 1823: 1809: 1808: 1804: 1766: 1765: 1761: 1748: 1746: 1742: 1727: 1722: 1721: 1717: 1707: 1705: 1697: 1696: 1692: 1654: 1653: 1649: 1619: 1618: 1614: 1576: 1575: 1571: 1549: 1548: 1544: 1508: 1507: 1503: 1465: 1464: 1460: 1427: 1426: 1422: 1412: 1410: 1400: 1399: 1395: 1385: 1383: 1369: 1368: 1364: 1352: 1348: 1338: 1336: 1329:"Global Census" 1327: 1326: 1322: 1309:Wayback Machine 1300: 1296: 1284: 1280: 1270: 1269: 1230: 1217: 1215: 1206: 1205: 1201: 1192:Wayback Machine 1183: 1179: 1175: 1143: 1135: 1129: 1122: 1115: 1106: 1099: 1090: 1084: 1047:A dark-skinned 1041: 1012: 952: 930:The indigenous 918:Buka boys from 912: 865: 835: 809:Solomon Islands 752: 677:due to reduced 660: 634: 609: 470:stratum corneum 394: 342: 195: 103:spermatogenesis 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 5713: 5711: 5703: 5702: 5692: 5691: 5685: 5684: 5682: 5681: 5675: 5672: 5671: 5669: 5668: 5663: 5658: 5653: 5644: 5639: 5634: 5629: 5623: 5620: 5619: 5617: 5616: 5610: 5596: 5590: 5583: 5580: 5579: 5574: 5572: 5571: 5564: 5557: 5549: 5543: 5542: 5533: 5530: 5528: 5527: 5495: 5483: 5473: 5411: 5372:(3): 670–677. 5351: 5332: 5312: 5277: 5273:with the Bantu 5229: 5199: 5178:10.1086/381006 5172:(1): 105–108. 5156: 5134: 5116: 5093:10.1086/302533 5087:(3): 808–828. 5067: 5022: 4989: 4970:(2): 254–268. 4954: 4903: 4871: 4841: 4811: 4779: 4748: 4715: 4697: 4662: 4636: 4609: 4579: 4548: 4522: 4495:(2): 343–350. 4479: 4440: 4396: 4367:(2): 213–217. 4347: 4332: 4306: 4277:(6): 388–396. 4257: 4228:(2): 252–261. 4208: 4193: 4174:(4): 451–461. 4158: 4107: 4094:(3): 438–445. 4074: 4047: 4017: 3998:(3): 194–199. 3982: 3956: 3907: 3881: 3855: 3812: 3761: 3734: 3704: 3647: 3615: 3608: 3590: 3539: 3518:(2): 341–347. 3498: 3454: 3427:(3): 498–505. 3411: 3382:(3): 150–159. 3362: 3349:(2): 271–278. 3329: 3272: 3245:(4): 225–236. 3229: 3180: 3165: 3139: 3098: 3069:(3): 539–549. 3049: 2990: 2963:(1–2): 19–31. 2947: 2904: 2885:(5): 422–466. 2868: 2827: 2801: 2794: 2753: 2704: 2677: 2656:(9): 678–683. 2633: 2595: 2574:10.1086/403275 2552: 2531:(3): 428–444. 2511: 2492: 2485: 2463: 2452:. 1 March 2014 2437: 2380: 2343:(4): 420–434. 2323: 2289: 2234: 2200: 2142: 2111: 2065: 2028:(3): nwab072. 2005: 1982:10.1086/302863 1976:(4): 1351–61. 1956: 1902: 1868: 1833: 1810:Jane, Higdon. 1802: 1775:(3): 194–198. 1759: 1715: 1690: 1663:(3): 580–586. 1647: 1612: 1569: 1558:(4): 264–268. 1542: 1521:(8): 460–465. 1501: 1458: 1420: 1393: 1372:"Proclamation" 1362: 1346: 1320: 1294: 1278: 1228: 1208:"Dark-skinned" 1199: 1176: 1174: 1171: 1170: 1169: 1164: 1159: 1154: 1149: 1142: 1139: 1131:Main article: 1128: 1125: 1124: 1123: 1116: 1109: 1107: 1100: 1093: 1091: 1085: 1078: 1040: 1037: 1028:Gangetic Plain 1011: 1008: 984:genetic marker 951: 948: 911: 908: 901:In the world, 864: 861: 834: 831: 751: 748: 713:cardiovascular 659: 656: 633: 630: 608: 605: 589:Horn of Africa 479:infrared light 393: 390: 341: 338: 299:Nina Jablonski 194: 191: 174:Southeast Asia 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5712: 5701: 5698: 5697: 5695: 5680: 5677: 5676: 5673: 5667: 5664: 5662: 5659: 5657: 5654: 5652: 5648: 5645: 5643: 5640: 5638: 5635: 5633: 5630: 5628: 5625: 5624: 5621: 5614: 5611: 5608: 5604: 5600: 5597: 5594: 5591: 5588: 5585: 5584: 5581: 5577: 5570: 5565: 5563: 5558: 5556: 5551: 5550: 5547: 5540: 5536: 5535: 5531: 5512: 5505: 5499: 5496: 5490: 5488: 5484: 5477: 5474: 5469: 5465: 5461: 5457: 5453: 5449: 5444: 5439: 5435: 5431: 5428:(5): e23170. 5427: 5423: 5415: 5412: 5407: 5403: 5399: 5395: 5390: 5385: 5380: 5375: 5371: 5367: 5363: 5355: 5352: 5339: 5335: 5329: 5325: 5324: 5316: 5313: 5308: 5304: 5300: 5296: 5292: 5288: 5281: 5278: 5274: 5269: 5265: 5261: 5257: 5253: 5252:10.1038/ng761 5249: 5245: 5241: 5233: 5230: 5225: 5221: 5218:(5): 773–80. 5217: 5213: 5206: 5204: 5200: 5195: 5191: 5187: 5183: 5179: 5175: 5171: 5167: 5160: 5157: 5152: 5148: 5144: 5138: 5135: 5130: 5126: 5120: 5117: 5112: 5108: 5103: 5098: 5094: 5090: 5086: 5082: 5078: 5071: 5068: 5055: 5051: 5047: 5046: 5041: 5037: 5035: 5026: 5023: 5010: 5006: 5005: 5000: 4993: 4990: 4985: 4981: 4977: 4973: 4969: 4965: 4958: 4955: 4950: 4946: 4941: 4936: 4931: 4926: 4922: 4918: 4914: 4907: 4904: 4888: 4881: 4875: 4872: 4859: 4855: 4851: 4845: 4842: 4829: 4825: 4821: 4815: 4812: 4796: 4789: 4783: 4780: 4767: 4763: 4759: 4752: 4749: 4743: 4738: 4734: 4730: 4726: 4719: 4716: 4711: 4707: 4701: 4698: 4694: 4681: 4677: 4673: 4666: 4663: 4650: 4646: 4640: 4637: 4624: 4620: 4613: 4610: 4597: 4593: 4589: 4583: 4580: 4567: 4563: 4559: 4558:"Your Health" 4552: 4549: 4536: 4532: 4526: 4523: 4518: 4514: 4510: 4506: 4502: 4498: 4494: 4490: 4483: 4480: 4475: 4471: 4467: 4463: 4459: 4455: 4451: 4444: 4441: 4436: 4432: 4428: 4424: 4420: 4416: 4412: 4408: 4400: 4397: 4392: 4388: 4383: 4378: 4374: 4370: 4366: 4362: 4358: 4351: 4348: 4343: 4339: 4335: 4329: 4325: 4321: 4317: 4310: 4307: 4302: 4298: 4293: 4288: 4284: 4280: 4276: 4272: 4268: 4261: 4258: 4253: 4249: 4244: 4239: 4235: 4231: 4227: 4223: 4219: 4212: 4209: 4204: 4197: 4194: 4189: 4185: 4181: 4177: 4173: 4169: 4162: 4159: 4154: 4150: 4146: 4142: 4138: 4134: 4130: 4126: 4122: 4118: 4111: 4108: 4102: 4097: 4093: 4089: 4085: 4078: 4075: 4062: 4058: 4051: 4048: 4035: 4031: 4027: 4021: 4018: 4013: 4009: 4005: 4001: 3997: 3993: 3986: 3983: 3970: 3966: 3960: 3957: 3952: 3948: 3943: 3938: 3934: 3930: 3926: 3922: 3918: 3911: 3908: 3895: 3891: 3885: 3882: 3869: 3865: 3859: 3856: 3851: 3847: 3843: 3839: 3835: 3831: 3828:(5823): 364. 3827: 3823: 3816: 3813: 3808: 3804: 3800: 3796: 3792: 3788: 3784: 3780: 3776: 3772: 3765: 3762: 3749: 3745: 3738: 3735: 3722: 3718: 3714: 3708: 3705: 3700: 3696: 3691: 3686: 3682: 3678: 3674: 3670: 3666: 3662: 3658: 3651: 3648: 3632: 3625: 3619: 3616: 3611: 3605: 3601: 3594: 3591: 3586: 3582: 3578: 3574: 3570: 3566: 3562: 3558: 3554: 3550: 3543: 3540: 3535: 3531: 3526: 3521: 3517: 3513: 3509: 3502: 3499: 3494: 3490: 3485: 3480: 3476: 3472: 3468: 3461: 3459: 3455: 3450: 3446: 3442: 3438: 3434: 3430: 3426: 3422: 3415: 3412: 3407: 3403: 3399: 3395: 3390: 3385: 3381: 3377: 3373: 3366: 3363: 3357: 3352: 3348: 3344: 3340: 3333: 3330: 3325: 3321: 3316: 3311: 3307: 3303: 3299: 3295: 3291: 3287: 3283: 3276: 3273: 3268: 3264: 3260: 3256: 3252: 3248: 3244: 3240: 3233: 3230: 3225: 3221: 3217: 3213: 3208: 3203: 3199: 3195: 3191: 3184: 3181: 3176: 3172: 3168: 3162: 3158: 3154: 3150: 3143: 3140: 3135: 3131: 3126: 3121: 3117: 3113: 3109: 3102: 3099: 3094: 3090: 3085: 3080: 3076: 3072: 3068: 3064: 3060: 3053: 3050: 3037: 3033: 3029: 3025: 3021: 3017: 3013: 3009: 3005: 3001: 2994: 2991: 2986: 2982: 2978: 2974: 2970: 2966: 2962: 2958: 2951: 2948: 2943: 2939: 2935: 2931: 2927: 2923: 2919: 2915: 2908: 2905: 2900: 2896: 2892: 2888: 2884: 2880: 2872: 2869: 2864: 2860: 2855: 2850: 2846: 2842: 2838: 2831: 2828: 2815: 2811: 2805: 2802: 2797: 2791: 2787: 2780: 2778: 2776: 2774: 2772: 2770: 2768: 2766: 2764: 2762: 2760: 2758: 2754: 2749: 2745: 2740: 2735: 2731: 2727: 2723: 2719: 2715: 2708: 2705: 2692: 2688: 2681: 2678: 2673: 2669: 2664: 2659: 2655: 2651: 2647: 2640: 2638: 2634: 2629: 2625: 2621: 2617: 2613: 2609: 2602: 2600: 2596: 2591: 2587: 2583: 2579: 2575: 2571: 2567: 2563: 2556: 2553: 2548: 2544: 2539: 2534: 2530: 2526: 2522: 2515: 2512: 2507: 2503: 2496: 2493: 2488: 2486:9780618619160 2482: 2477: 2476: 2467: 2464: 2451: 2447: 2441: 2438: 2433: 2429: 2424: 2419: 2415: 2411: 2407: 2403: 2399: 2395: 2391: 2384: 2381: 2376: 2372: 2367: 2362: 2358: 2354: 2350: 2346: 2342: 2338: 2334: 2327: 2324: 2312: 2308: 2304: 2300: 2293: 2290: 2285: 2281: 2277: 2273: 2269: 2265: 2261: 2257: 2254:(1): 57–106. 2253: 2249: 2245: 2238: 2235: 2222: 2218: 2214: 2207: 2205: 2201: 2196: 2192: 2188: 2184: 2180: 2176: 2169: 2167: 2165: 2163: 2161: 2159: 2157: 2155: 2153: 2151: 2149: 2147: 2143: 2130: 2126: 2122: 2115: 2112: 2099: 2095: 2091: 2084: 2082: 2080: 2078: 2076: 2074: 2072: 2070: 2066: 2061: 2057: 2052: 2047: 2043: 2039: 2035: 2031: 2027: 2023: 2019: 2012: 2010: 2006: 2001: 1997: 1992: 1987: 1983: 1979: 1975: 1971: 1967: 1960: 1957: 1952: 1948: 1944: 1940: 1936: 1932: 1928: 1924: 1921:(1): 57–106. 1920: 1916: 1909: 1907: 1903: 1890: 1886: 1885:MedPage Today 1882: 1875: 1873: 1869: 1864: 1860: 1856: 1852: 1848: 1844: 1837: 1834: 1821: 1817: 1813: 1806: 1803: 1798: 1794: 1790: 1786: 1782: 1778: 1774: 1770: 1763: 1760: 1756: 1741: 1737: 1733: 1726: 1719: 1716: 1704: 1700: 1694: 1691: 1686: 1682: 1678: 1674: 1670: 1666: 1662: 1658: 1651: 1648: 1643: 1639: 1635: 1631: 1627: 1623: 1616: 1613: 1608: 1604: 1600: 1596: 1592: 1588: 1584: 1580: 1573: 1570: 1565: 1561: 1557: 1553: 1546: 1543: 1538: 1534: 1529: 1524: 1520: 1516: 1512: 1505: 1502: 1497: 1493: 1489: 1485: 1481: 1477: 1473: 1469: 1462: 1459: 1455: 1451: 1447: 1443: 1439: 1435: 1431: 1424: 1421: 1408: 1404: 1397: 1394: 1381: 1377: 1373: 1366: 1363: 1359: 1356: 1350: 1347: 1334: 1330: 1324: 1321: 1318: 1314: 1310: 1306: 1303: 1298: 1295: 1291: 1288: 1282: 1279: 1274: 1267: 1265: 1263: 1261: 1259: 1257: 1255: 1253: 1251: 1249: 1247: 1245: 1243: 1241: 1239: 1237: 1235: 1233: 1229: 1225: 1213: 1209: 1203: 1200: 1197: 1193: 1189: 1186: 1181: 1178: 1172: 1168: 1165: 1163: 1160: 1158: 1155: 1153: 1150: 1148: 1145: 1144: 1140: 1138: 1134: 1126: 1120: 1119:Lake Titicaca 1113: 1108: 1104: 1097: 1092: 1088: 1082: 1077: 1075: 1073: 1072:Mesoamericans 1068: 1066: 1060: 1058: 1050: 1045: 1038: 1036: 1033: 1029: 1024: 1016: 1009: 1007: 1005: 1001: 997: 993: 989: 985: 980: 977: 973: 972: 971:Homo ergaster 967: 961: 956: 949: 947: 945: 941: 937: 933: 932:Papuan people 925: 921: 916: 909: 907: 904: 899: 896: 892: 888: 882: 878: 874: 871:Dark-skinned 869: 862: 860: 858: 853: 851: 844: 839: 832: 830: 827: 821: 818: 814: 810: 806: 802: 797: 794: 790: 789:South America 786: 782: 778: 774: 770: 765: 761: 757: 749: 747: 745: 740: 738: 734: 730: 726: 722: 718: 717:immune system 714: 710: 706: 702: 698: 694: 689: 687: 682: 680: 676: 668: 664: 657: 655: 653: 649: 645: 640: 631: 629: 627: 623: 619: 614: 606: 604: 602: 598: 594: 590: 586: 582: 577: 573: 569: 565: 564: 559: 555: 554: 549: 548: 543: 542: 537: 536: 531: 530: 524: 521: 516: 515: 509: 507: 503: 499: 495: 490: 488: 482: 480: 474: 471: 467: 463: 459: 455: 451: 450:free radicals 445: 442: 436: 434: 430: 426: 422: 418: 414: 411: 407: 398: 391: 389: 387: 383: 379: 378:physisorption 373: 371: 366: 363: 359: 355: 350: 348: 339: 337: 335: 331: 326: 324: 320: 315: 311: 306: 304: 300: 296: 292: 288: 284: 279: 277: 271: 267: 265: 261: 257: 253: 245: 241: 237: 233: 229: 227: 226: 221: 216: 212: 208: 204: 200: 192: 190: 187: 186:out of Africa 183: 179: 175: 171: 167: 163: 159: 155: 151: 147: 141: 139: 135: 132: 127: 125: 121: 117: 112: 110: 109: 104: 100: 99:embryogenesis 96: 92: 88: 84: 80: 77:to the sunny 76: 72: 68: 67:light-skinned 64: 59: 57: 53: 50: 46: 43:is a type of 42: 34: 30: 19: 5612: 5538: 5518:. Retrieved 5498: 5476: 5425: 5421: 5414: 5369: 5365: 5354: 5342:. Retrieved 5322: 5315: 5290: 5286: 5280: 5271: 5246:(3): 265–9. 5243: 5239: 5232: 5215: 5211: 5169: 5165: 5159: 5151:the original 5146: 5137: 5129:the original 5119: 5084: 5080: 5070: 5058:. Retrieved 5043: 5033: 5025: 5013:. Retrieved 5002: 4992: 4967: 4963: 4957: 4920: 4916: 4906: 4896:25 September 4894:. Retrieved 4874: 4864:25 September 4862:. Retrieved 4853: 4844: 4834:25 September 4832:. Retrieved 4823: 4814: 4804:25 September 4802:. Retrieved 4782: 4770:. Retrieved 4761: 4751: 4735:(2): 83–88. 4732: 4728: 4718: 4710:the original 4700: 4691: 4684:. Retrieved 4675: 4665: 4653:. Retrieved 4639: 4627:. Retrieved 4623:the original 4612: 4602:25 September 4600:. Retrieved 4596:the original 4591: 4582: 4572:25 September 4570:. Retrieved 4561: 4551: 4539:. Retrieved 4535:the original 4525: 4492: 4488: 4482: 4449: 4443: 4410: 4406: 4399: 4364: 4360: 4350: 4315: 4309: 4274: 4270: 4260: 4225: 4221: 4211: 4202: 4196: 4171: 4167: 4161: 4120: 4116: 4110: 4091: 4087: 4077: 4065:. Retrieved 4050: 4040:25 September 4038:. Retrieved 4029: 4020: 3995: 3991: 3985: 3973:. Retrieved 3967:. CBC News. 3959: 3927:(1): 83–96. 3924: 3920: 3910: 3898:. Retrieved 3884: 3872:. Retrieved 3858: 3825: 3821: 3815: 3774: 3770: 3764: 3752:. Retrieved 3737: 3727:25 September 3725:. Retrieved 3716: 3707: 3664: 3660: 3650: 3640:25 September 3638:. Retrieved 3624:"Skin Color" 3618: 3599: 3593: 3552: 3548: 3542: 3515: 3511: 3501: 3474: 3470: 3424: 3420: 3414: 3379: 3375: 3365: 3346: 3342: 3332: 3289: 3285: 3275: 3242: 3238: 3232: 3197: 3193: 3183: 3148: 3142: 3115: 3111: 3101: 3066: 3062: 3052: 3040:. Retrieved 3007: 3003: 2993: 2960: 2956: 2950: 2917: 2913: 2907: 2882: 2878: 2871: 2844: 2840: 2830: 2818:. Retrieved 2804: 2786:Living Color 2785: 2721: 2717: 2707: 2695:. Retrieved 2691:the original 2680: 2653: 2649: 2611: 2607: 2565: 2561: 2555: 2528: 2524: 2514: 2505: 2501: 2495: 2474: 2466: 2454:. Retrieved 2449: 2440: 2397: 2393: 2383: 2340: 2336: 2326: 2314:. Retrieved 2302: 2292: 2251: 2247: 2237: 2225:. Retrieved 2216: 2178: 2174: 2133:. Retrieved 2129:the original 2124: 2114: 2102:. Retrieved 2098:the original 2093: 2025: 2021: 1973: 1969: 1959: 1918: 1914: 1893:. Retrieved 1884: 1846: 1842: 1836: 1824:. Retrieved 1815: 1805: 1772: 1768: 1762: 1754: 1747:. Retrieved 1735: 1731: 1718: 1706:. Retrieved 1702: 1693: 1660: 1656: 1650: 1625: 1621: 1615: 1582: 1578: 1572: 1555: 1551: 1545: 1518: 1514: 1504: 1474:(1): 12–16. 1471: 1467: 1461: 1453: 1433: 1429: 1423: 1411:. Retrieved 1406: 1396: 1384:. Retrieved 1375: 1365: 1354: 1349: 1337:. Retrieved 1333:the original 1323: 1316: 1312: 1297: 1286: 1281: 1272: 1223: 1216:. Retrieved 1202: 1195: 1180: 1152:Black people 1136: 1069: 1064: 1061: 1054: 1025: 1021: 981: 976:Homo erectus 975: 969: 964: 929: 900: 885: 854: 848: 822: 813:Chopi people 805:Bougainville 798: 756:UV radiation 753: 741: 725:hypertension 690: 683: 672: 635: 610: 597:Central Asia 585:North Africa 575: 567: 561: 557: 551: 545: 539: 533: 527: 525: 519: 512: 510: 491: 483: 475: 446: 437: 403: 374: 367: 351: 343: 327: 307: 291:spina bifida 280: 272: 268: 249: 223: 207:Evolutionary 196: 142: 128: 118:(especially 113: 108:Homo sapiens 106: 83:perspiration 60: 56:black people 40: 39: 29: 18:Dark-skinned 5609:(III–IV–V.) 5599:Beige/Olive 5595:(I–II–III.) 5030:Dupree, L. 4880:"Papua Web" 4541:31 December 3975:10 December 3754:11 December 3006:. 133–152. 2847:(1): 2–13. 2820:10 December 2697:14 December 2227:10 December 2181:: 585–623. 2135:10 December 2104:10 December 1826:10 December 1812:"Vitamin D" 1732:AnthroNotes 1515:Spinal Cord 1436:: 585–623. 1386:10 December 1339:10 December 960:South Sudan 958:Women from 799:Natives of 737:memory loss 644:skin cancer 441:Keratocytes 433:melanosomes 425:melanocytes 358:melanocytes 354:pheomelanin 287:anencephaly 276:skin cancer 205:depletion. 199:ultraviolet 124:melanosomes 5344:5 November 5060:5 November 3992:Teratology 3900:10 October 3874:10 October 2841:BioFactors 2456:13 January 2316:13 January 2121:"Overview" 1657:Pediatrics 1579:BioFactors 1413:13 January 1407:www.cbc.ca 1218:24 January 1173:References 1167:Light skin 1162:Olive skin 1087:Indigenous 1010:South Asia 936:New Guinea 910:New Guinea 817:Mozambique 785:South Asia 744:atmosphere 650:, such as 601:South Asia 487:photoaging 452:, such as 410:amino acid 314:light skin 252:chimpanzee 180:, and the 170:South Asia 166:New Guinea 134:deficiency 91:DNA damage 75:rainforest 5520:8 October 5452:1520-6300 5398:0022-202X 5194:224795768 5186:0011-3204 4686:3 January 4655:1 January 4629:1 January 4562:USA Today 4427:1879-1913 4067:1 January 4059:. Care2. 3681:0016-6731 3398:0893-5785 2568:: 50–63. 2414:0962-8452 2357:1755-1471 2311:0362-4331 2276:0047-2484 2042:2095-5138 1378:. Trove. 992:Armenians 988:Ethiopian 887:Melanesia 881:Melanesia 875:boy from 863:Melanesia 833:Australia 826:Sri Lanka 793:Evolution 777:Melanesia 773:Australia 639:serotonin 622:vitamin D 593:West Asia 572:epistasis 502:phenotype 494:polygenic 429:epidermis 417:Eumelanin 347:eumelanin 193:Evolution 178:West Asia 162:Melanesia 158:Australia 131:vitamin D 120:eumelanin 63:evolution 41:Dark skin 5694:Category 5511:Archived 5481:1857900. 5468:51966049 5460:30099804 5406:27866970 5338:Archived 5307:70655900 5268:25627134 5260:11685208 5224:11126724 5111:10441589 5054:Archived 5009:Archived 4984:16374866 4949:15184658 4887:Archived 4858:Archived 4828:Archived 4795:Archived 4766:Archived 4693:related. 4680:Archived 4649:Archived 4566:Archived 4509:17996959 4474:19993730 4466:15225838 4435:19026311 4391:17254541 4342:18348444 4301:18755215 4252:16380576 4188:19425101 4153:41681581 4061:Archived 4034:Archived 4030:CBC News 3969:Archived 3951:22726845 3894:Archived 3868:Archived 3850:43290419 3842:17446367 3799:16357253 3748:Archived 3721:Archived 3699:10101176 3661:Genetics 3631:Archived 3534:11511313 3493:15955111 3449:43355316 3441:14510981 3406:15892711 3324:17272716 3267:11348959 3259:12661961 3224:10115842 3216:11897551 3175:10907532 3134:15140229 3093:18435612 3036:Archived 3032:15748644 2985:15748635 2942:15748643 2899:15556744 2863:17250543 2814:Archived 2748:22552074 2672:11333289 2628:18410798 2590:30402725 2582:13870200 2547:16117782 2432:24573849 2375:19508412 2284:10896812 2221:Archived 2195:53481281 2060:35371514 2000:10733465 1951:38445385 1943:10896812 1889:Archived 1863:24256384 1820:Archived 1797:16388960 1740:Archived 1685:12765407 1677:16140696 1642:11001804 1607:20128738 1599:10609896 1496:45104826 1450:53481281 1380:Archived 1305:Archived 1212:Archived 1188:Archived 1141:See also 1039:Americas 733:diabetes 697:prostate 618:clothing 413:tyrosine 386:Tibetans 362:melanoma 295:foetuses 236:Savannas 211:hominids 182:Americas 150:tropical 79:savannas 52:pigments 5642:Caboclo 5615:(V–VI.) 5102:1377989 5042:(ed.). 4678:. PBS. 4517:8107153 4382:2698590 4292:2613446 4243:1470481 4145:6028915 4125:Bibcode 4117:Science 4012:7871483 3942:3397267 3822:Science 3807:2245002 3779:Bibcode 3771:Science 3690:1460552 3585:4223552 3577:5787098 3557:Bibcode 3315:2792699 3294:Bibcode 3286:Science 3084:2671032 3042:12 July 3012:Bibcode 2965:Bibcode 2922:Bibcode 2726:Bibcode 2423:3953838 2366:2843517 2256:Bibcode 2219:. PBS. 2051:8970429 1991:1288200 1923:Bibcode 1895:19 June 1777:Bibcode 1749:20 July 1537:8856852 1488:1554510 1358:"black" 1290:"black" 1185:skinned 1127:Culture 1103:Bolivia 891:Oceania 877:Vanuatu 857:culture 760:equator 709:cancers 705:ovarian 686:rickets 667:Rickets 576:SLC24A5 568:SLC24A4 553:SLC24A5 547:SLC45A2 406:melanin 319:rickets 244:hominid 138:rickets 116:melanin 71:hominid 49:melanin 5656:Bronze 5587:Albino 5466: 5458: 5450: 5404: 5396: 5330: 5305: 5266: 5258: 5222: 5192: 5184: 5109: 5099: 4982: 4947: 4940:428491 4937: 4772:4 July 4515: 4507: 4472: 4464: 4433: 4425: 4389: 4379: 4340: 4330: 4299: 4289: 4250: 4240: 4186: 4151: 4143: 4010: 3949: 3939: 3848: 3840: 3805: 3797: 3697: 3687: 3679: 3606: 3583: 3575: 3549:Nature 3532: 3491: 3447: 3439: 3404: 3396: 3322: 3312: 3265: 3257: 3222: 3214: 3173: 3163: 3132: 3091: 3081: 3030: 2983: 2940: 2897: 2861: 2792: 2746: 2718:Nature 2670: 2626: 2588: 2580: 2545: 2508:: 1–7. 2483: 2430: 2420: 2412: 2373: 2363: 2355: 2309: 2282: 2274: 2193: 2058: 2048: 2040: 1998: 1988: 1949: 1941: 1861: 1795: 1708:10 May 1683: 1675: 1640: 1605: 1597: 1535: 1494: 1486: 1448: 1065:Ala111 1032:Dalits 1000:Somali 895:people 769:Africa 693:breast 624:-poor 587:, the 581:Europe 468:. The 323:cancer 310:Africa 283:folate 240:Africa 203:folate 154:Africa 87:folate 69:early 5666:Olive 5661:Black 5651:Pardo 5647:Brown 5637:White 5607:Pardo 5603:Brown 5514:(PDF) 5507:(PDF) 5464:S2CID 5303:S2CID 5264:S2CID 5190:S2CID 5038:. In 5015:3 May 4890:(PDF) 4883:(PDF) 4798:(PDF) 4791:(PDF) 4513:S2CID 4470:S2CID 4149:S2CID 3846:S2CID 3803:S2CID 3634:(PDF) 3627:(PDF) 3581:S2CID 3445:S2CID 3263:S2CID 3220:S2CID 2586:S2CID 2191:S2CID 1947:S2CID 1743:(PDF) 1738:(1). 1728:(PDF) 1681:S2CID 1603:S2CID 1492:S2CID 1446:S2CID 1057:Inuit 1049:Wayuu 996:Bantu 944:Sahul 903:blond 873:blond 701:colon 563:KITLG 535:TYRP1 498:genes 382:Inuit 256:human 5589:(I.) 5522:2020 5456:PMID 5448:ISSN 5402:PMID 5394:ISSN 5346:2020 5328:ISBN 5256:PMID 5220:PMID 5182:ISSN 5107:PMID 5062:2011 5017:2012 4980:PMID 4945:PMID 4898:2018 4866:2018 4836:2018 4806:2018 4774:2013 4688:2013 4657:2013 4631:2013 4604:2018 4574:2018 4543:2012 4505:PMID 4462:PMID 4431:PMID 4423:ISSN 4387:PMID 4338:PMID 4328:ISBN 4297:PMID 4248:PMID 4184:PMID 4141:PMID 4069:2013 4042:2018 4008:PMID 3977:2012 3947:PMID 3902:2012 3876:2012 3838:PMID 3795:PMID 3756:2012 3729:2018 3695:PMID 3677:ISSN 3642:2018 3604:ISBN 3573:PMID 3530:PMID 3489:PMID 3437:PMID 3402:PMID 3394:ISSN 3320:PMID 3255:PMID 3212:PMID 3171:PMID 3161:ISBN 3130:PMID 3089:PMID 3044:2019 3028:PMID 2981:PMID 2938:PMID 2895:PMID 2859:PMID 2822:2012 2790:ISBN 2744:PMID 2699:2012 2668:PMID 2624:PMID 2578:PMID 2543:PMID 2481:ISBN 2458:2024 2428:PMID 2410:ISSN 2371:PMID 2353:ISSN 2318:2024 2307:ISSN 2280:PMID 2272:ISSN 2229:2012 2137:2012 2106:2012 2056:PMID 2038:ISSN 1996:PMID 1939:PMID 1897:2014 1859:PMID 1828:2012 1793:PMID 1751:2013 1710:2024 1673:PMID 1638:PMID 1595:PMID 1533:PMID 1484:PMID 1415:2024 1388:2012 1341:2012 1315:21.a 1311:3.a 1220:2017 1004:Arab 974:and 803:and 801:Buka 783:and 626:diet 620:and 599:and 566:and 558:MC1R 541:OCA2 520:MC1R 514:MC1R 289:and 225:Homo 101:and 61:The 5438:hdl 5430:doi 5384:hdl 5374:doi 5370:137 5295:doi 5248:doi 5174:doi 5097:PMC 5089:doi 5032:"Af 4972:doi 4968:130 4935:PMC 4925:doi 4921:101 4762:NPR 4737:doi 4497:doi 4493:187 4454:doi 4415:doi 4411:102 4377:PMC 4369:doi 4365:460 4320:doi 4287:PMC 4279:doi 4238:PMC 4230:doi 4176:doi 4172:139 4133:doi 4121:157 4096:doi 4000:doi 3937:PMC 3929:doi 3830:doi 3826:316 3787:doi 3775:310 3685:PMC 3669:doi 3665:151 3565:doi 3553:222 3520:doi 3516:117 3479:doi 3475:124 3429:doi 3425:149 3384:doi 3351:doi 3310:PMC 3302:doi 3290:315 3247:doi 3202:doi 3153:doi 3120:doi 3116:122 3079:PMC 3071:doi 3020:doi 3008:571 2973:doi 2961:571 2930:doi 2918:571 2887:doi 2849:doi 2734:doi 2722:485 2658:doi 2616:doi 2570:doi 2533:doi 2529:125 2418:PMC 2402:doi 2398:281 2361:PMC 2345:doi 2264:doi 2183:doi 2046:PMC 2030:doi 1986:PMC 1978:doi 1931:doi 1851:doi 1847:369 1785:doi 1665:doi 1661:116 1630:doi 1587:doi 1560:doi 1523:doi 1476:doi 1438:doi 934:of 841:An 815:of 529:TYR 462:UVB 421:DNA 384:or 336:). 238:in 215:fur 5696:: 5509:. 5486:^ 5462:. 5454:. 5446:. 5436:. 5426:30 5424:. 5400:. 5392:. 5382:. 5368:. 5364:. 5336:. 5301:. 5291:16 5289:. 5270:. 5262:. 5254:. 5244:29 5242:. 5216:72 5214:. 5202:^ 5188:. 5180:. 5170:45 5168:. 5145:. 5105:. 5095:. 5085:65 5083:. 5079:. 5052:. 5034:gh 5007:. 5001:. 4978:. 4966:. 4943:. 4933:. 4919:. 4915:. 4885:. 4856:. 4852:. 4822:. 4793:. 4764:. 4760:. 4733:16 4731:. 4727:. 4690:. 4674:. 4590:. 4564:. 4560:. 4511:. 4503:. 4491:. 4468:. 4460:. 4429:. 4421:. 4409:. 4385:. 4375:. 4363:. 4359:. 4336:. 4326:. 4295:. 4285:. 4275:29 4273:. 4269:. 4246:. 4236:. 4226:96 4224:. 4220:. 4182:. 4170:. 4147:. 4139:. 4131:. 4119:. 4092:36 4090:. 4086:. 4032:. 4028:. 4006:. 3996:50 3994:. 3945:. 3935:. 3925:91 3923:. 3919:. 3844:. 3836:. 3824:. 3801:. 3793:. 3785:. 3773:. 3719:. 3715:. 3693:. 3683:. 3675:. 3663:. 3659:. 3629:. 3579:. 3571:. 3563:. 3551:. 3528:. 3514:. 3510:. 3487:. 3473:. 3469:. 3457:^ 3443:. 3435:. 3423:. 3400:. 3392:. 3380:18 3378:. 3374:. 3347:39 3345:. 3341:. 3318:. 3308:. 3300:. 3288:. 3284:. 3261:. 3253:. 3241:. 3218:. 3210:. 3196:. 3192:. 3169:. 3159:. 3128:. 3114:. 3110:. 3087:. 3077:. 3067:84 3065:. 3061:. 3034:. 3026:. 3018:. 3002:. 2979:. 2971:. 2959:. 2936:. 2928:. 2916:. 2893:. 2883:27 2881:. 2857:. 2845:20 2843:. 2839:. 2812:. 2756:^ 2742:. 2732:. 2720:. 2716:. 2666:. 2654:93 2652:. 2648:. 2636:^ 2622:. 2612:58 2610:. 2598:^ 2584:. 2576:. 2566:36 2564:. 2541:. 2527:. 2523:. 2506:17 2504:. 2448:. 2426:. 2416:. 2408:. 2396:. 2392:. 2369:. 2359:. 2351:. 2341:22 2339:. 2335:. 2305:. 2301:. 2278:. 2270:. 2262:. 2252:39 2250:. 2246:. 2215:. 2203:^ 2189:. 2179:33 2177:. 2145:^ 2123:. 2092:. 2068:^ 2054:. 2044:. 2036:. 2024:. 2020:. 2008:^ 1994:. 1984:. 1974:66 1972:. 1968:. 1945:. 1937:. 1929:. 1919:39 1917:. 1905:^ 1887:. 1883:. 1871:^ 1857:. 1845:. 1814:. 1791:. 1783:. 1773:82 1771:. 1753:. 1736:32 1734:. 1730:. 1701:. 1679:. 1671:. 1659:. 1636:. 1626:71 1624:. 1601:. 1593:. 1583:10 1581:. 1554:. 1531:. 1519:34 1517:. 1513:. 1490:. 1482:. 1472:28 1470:. 1452:. 1444:. 1434:33 1432:. 1405:. 1374:. 1231:^ 1222:. 1067:. 922:, 879:, 787:, 779:, 775:, 771:, 739:. 731:, 727:, 723:, 703:, 699:, 695:, 654:. 628:. 603:. 595:, 591:, 560:, 556:, 550:, 544:, 538:, 532:, 489:. 415:. 349:. 325:. 176:, 172:, 168:, 164:, 160:, 156:, 5649:/ 5605:/ 5601:- 5568:e 5561:t 5554:v 5524:. 5470:. 5440:: 5432:: 5408:. 5386:: 5376:: 5348:. 5309:. 5297:: 5250:: 5226:. 5196:. 5176:: 5113:. 5091:: 5064:. 5019:. 4986:. 4974:: 4951:. 4927:: 4900:. 4868:. 4808:. 4776:. 4745:. 4739:: 4659:. 4633:. 4606:. 4576:. 4545:. 4519:. 4499:: 4476:. 4456:: 4437:. 4417:: 4393:. 4371:: 4344:. 4322:: 4303:. 4281:: 4254:. 4232:: 4190:. 4178:: 4155:. 4135:: 4127:: 4104:. 4098:: 4071:. 4044:. 4014:. 4002:: 3979:. 3953:. 3931:: 3904:. 3878:. 3852:. 3832:: 3809:. 3789:: 3781:: 3758:. 3731:. 3701:. 3671:: 3644:. 3612:. 3587:. 3567:: 3559:: 3536:. 3522:: 3495:. 3481:: 3451:. 3431:: 3408:. 3386:: 3359:. 3353:: 3326:. 3304:: 3296:: 3269:. 3249:: 3243:1 3226:. 3204:: 3198:7 3177:. 3155:: 3136:. 3122:: 3095:. 3073:: 3046:. 3022:: 3014:: 2987:. 2975:: 2967:: 2944:. 2932:: 2924:: 2901:. 2889:: 2865:. 2851:: 2824:. 2798:. 2750:. 2736:: 2728:: 2701:. 2674:. 2660:: 2630:. 2618:: 2592:. 2572:: 2549:. 2535:: 2489:. 2460:. 2434:. 2404:: 2377:. 2347:: 2320:. 2286:. 2266:: 2258:: 2231:. 2197:. 2185:: 2139:. 2108:. 2062:. 2032:: 2026:9 2002:. 1980:: 1953:. 1933:: 1925:: 1899:. 1865:. 1853:: 1830:. 1799:. 1787:: 1779:: 1712:. 1687:. 1667:: 1644:. 1632:: 1609:. 1589:: 1566:. 1562:: 1556:4 1539:. 1525:: 1498:. 1478:: 1440:: 1417:. 1390:. 1343:. 1121:. 1105:. 460:( 376:( 20:)

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.

Index