Decline and modernization of the Ottoman Empire

2815:(despotism). His reign struggled with the culmination of 75 years of change throughout the empire and an opposing reaction to that change. He was particularly concerned with the centralization of the empire. His efforts to centralize the Sublime Porte were not unheard of among other sultans. The Ottoman Empire’s local provinces had more control over their areas than the central government. Abdul Hamid II's foreign relations came from a “policy of non-commitment." The sultan understood the fragility of the Ottoman military, and the Empire’s weaknesses of its domestic control. Pan-Islamism became Abdülhamid’s solution to the empire’s loss of identity and power. His efforts to promote Pan-Islamism were for the most part unsuccessful because of the large non-Muslim population, and the European influence onto the empire. His policies essentially isolated the Empire, which further aided in its decline. Several of the elite who sought a new constitution and reform for the empire were forced to flee to Europe. New groups of radicals began to threaten the power of the Ottoman Empire. 2141: 2897: 1759: 3096:(example Persian Cossack Brigade) and were firstly tasked to patrol the Russo-Ottoman frontier and secondly, to reduce the potential of Kurdish-Armenian cooperation. The Hamidiye Cavalry was in no way a cross-tribal force, despite their military appearance, organization, and potential. Hamidiye quickly find out that they could only be tried through a military court martial They became immune to civil administration. Realizing their immunity, they turned their tribes into “legalized robber brigades” as they steal grain, reap fields not of their possession, drive off herds, and openly steal from shopkeepers. Some argue that the creation of the Hamidiye “further antagonized the Armenian population” and it worsened the very conflict they were created to prevent. 162: 2129: 1988:. The Christian population of the empire, owing to their higher educational levels, started to pull ahead of the Muslim majority, leading to much resentment on the part of the latter. In 1861, there were 571 primary and 94 secondary schools for Ottoman Christians with 140,000 pupils in total, a figure that vastly exceeded the number of Muslim children in school at the same time, who were further hindered by the amount of time spent learning Arabic and Islamic theology. In turn, the higher educational levels of the Christians allowed them to play a large role in the economy. In 1911, of the 654 wholesale companies in Istanbul, 528 were owned by ethnic Greeks. 3123: 3345: 2153: 3186:

their autonomy and power. The Abdulhamid made little attempt to alter the traditional power structure of “segmented, agrarian Kurdish societies” – agha, shayk, and tribal chief. Because of their geographical position at the southern and eastern fringe of the empire and mountainous topography, and limited transportation and communication system. The state had little access to these provinces and were forced to make informal agreements with tribal chiefs, for instance, the Ottoman qadi and mufti did not have jurisdiction over religious law which bolstered Kurdish authority and autonomy.

3333: 2500: 2761:", was humiliated and significantly weakened, rendering it more liable to domestic unrest and more vulnerable to attack. Although Russia had been victorious in the war that occasioned the conference, it was humiliated at Berlin, and resented its treatment. Austria gained a great deal of territory, which angered the South Slavs, and led to decades of tensions in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Bismarck became the target of hatred of Russian nationalists and Pan-Slavists and found that he had tied Germany too closely to Austria in the Balkans. 2253:

Pounds (equivalent to £26,142,463,918 in 2023). But the entire income of the Empire had been a mere 21.7 million British pounds (equivalent to £2,644,715,464 in 2023), a ratio of 10.3. For comparison, the modern debt to income ratio of the United States was around 7.8 in 2022. The default on the Ottoman debt was met by outrage in European nations, to whom the debts were owed. The concerted efforts of the United Kingdom and France, whose citizens were the chief bondholders on the Ottoman debt, would lead to the creation of the

2921: 3357: 847: 1929: 2420: 562: 2909: 2791: 2621: 5838: 1378: 5862: 5826: 2637: 5874: 4716: 1174:, that he was forming a new army, organized and trained along modern European lines. As predicted, they mutinied, advancing on the sultan's palace. In the ensuing fight, the Janissary barracks were set in flames by artillery fire resulting in 4,000 Janissary fatalities. The survivors were either exiled or executed, and their possessions were confiscated by the Sultan. This event is now called 3232: 2278: 2179: 2018: 1868: 1570: 1270: 994: 789: 501: 38: 748: 4414:

July), p. 89; Great Britain, Turkey No. 1 (1890), op. cit., no. 4. Sir W. White to the Marquis of Salisbury-(Received 9 August), p. 4; ibid., Inclosure 1 in no. 4, Colonel Chermside to Sir W. White, p. 4; ibid., Inclosure 2 in no. 4. Vice-Consul Devey to Colonel Chermside, pp. 4–7; ibid., Inclosure 3 in no. 4. M. Patiguian to M. Koulaksizian, pp. 7–9; ibid., Inclosure 4 in no.

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the provinces and smaller administrative districts. They recorded births and deaths periodically and compared lists indicating the population in each district. These records were not a total count of the population. Rather, they were based on what is known as “head of household”. Only the ages, occupation, and property of the male family members only were counted.

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of ‘national awakening‘ evolve among them - greatly delayed, compared to the Greeks and the Serbs. The 1877–1878 Russo-Turkish War dealt a decisive blow to Ottoman power in the Balkan Peninsula. The Albanians' fear that the lands they inhabited would be partitioned among Montenegro, Serbia, Bulgaria, and Greece fueled the rise of Albanian nationalism.

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ignorant," said Sultan Mahmud II in this document, "that I am bound to afford support to all my subjects against vexatious proceedings; to endeavor unceasingly to lighten, instead of increasing their burdens, and to ensure peace and tranquility. Therefore, those acts of oppression are at once contrary to the will of God, and to my imperial orders."

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perspective, Romania, Serbia, and Montenegro and the autonomy of Bulgaria were achieved. That alarmed the Great Powers. After the Congress of Berlin, the Russian expansion was controlled by stopping the expansion of Bulgaria. The Russian public felt that at the end of Congress of Berlin thousands of Russian soldiers had died for nothing.

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reflected in newspapers, (Eastern Express, Oriental Advertiser, Saadet, and Tarik) and the responses were on the Armenian papers. In some Armenian circles, this event was considered martyrdom and brought other armed conflicts. The Bashkaleh Resistance was on the Persian border, which the Armenakans were in communication with

2388:(1876–1909), was invited to assume power on the condition that he would declare a constitutional monarchy, which he did on 23 November 1876. The parliament survived for only two years before the sultan suspended it. When forced to reconvene it, he abolished the representative body instead. This ended the effectiveness of the 1350:, or capitation tax, though moderate and exempting those who paid it from military service, had long been made an engine of gross tyranny through the insolence and misconduct of government collectors. The Firman of 1834 abolished the old mode of levying it and ordained that it should be raised by a commission composed of the 2714:, but the Ottoman government contested this move and maintained its troops in both provinces. The stalemate lasted for 30 years (Austrian and Ottoman forces coexisted in Bosnia and Novi Pazar for three decades) until 1908, when the Austrians took advantage of the political turmoil in the Ottoman Empire that stemmed from the 1965:, 1864); among others. 1876 the first international mailing network between Istanbul and the lands beyond the vast Ottoman Empire was established. In 1901 the first money transfers were made through the post offices and the first cargo services became operational. In 1868 homosexuality was decriminalised 721:. The issue during the decline and modernization of the Ottoman Empire (1828–1908) was to create a military (a security apparatus) that could win wars and bring security to its subjects. That goal took multiple Sultans with multiple reorganizations during this period. At the end of this period, with the 3217:

threatening to level the entire building itself. However, intervention on part of the European diplomats in the city managed to persuade the men to give, assigning safe passage to the survivors to France. Despite the level of violence, the incident had wrought, the takeover was reported positively in

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Kurdish chieftains also taxed the population of the region in sustaining these units, which Armenians perceived as exploitation. When Armenian spokesmen confronted the Kurdish chieftain (issue of double taxation), it brought about the enmity between both populations. The Hamidiye cavalry harassed and

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of the Ottoman Empire. The event was important, as it was reflected on main Armenian newspapers as the recovered documents on the Armenakans showed an extensive plot for a national movement. Ottoman officials believed that the men were members of a large revolutionary apparatus and the discussion was

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depressed the economy, and poor harvests followed. Palace intrigues diverted political attention from the debt crisis. Finally, on October 6, 1875, the Empire suspended interest payments on its loans, and formally defaulted on October 30. The amount defaulted on was estimated at 224.5 million British

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rose dramatically. Uprisings in Ottoman territory had many far-reaching consequences during the 19th century and determined much of the Ottoman policy during the early 20th century. Much of the Ottoman ruling elite questioned whether the policies of the state were to blame: some felt that the sources

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Darbinian, op. cit., p. 123; Adjemian, op. cit., p. 7; Varandian, Dashnaktsuthian Patmuthiun, I, 30; Great Britain, Turkey No. 1 (1889), op. cit., Inclosure in no. 95. Extract from the "Eastern Express" of 25 June 1889, pp. 83–84; ibid., no. 102. Sir W. White to the Marquis of Salisbury-(Received 15

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In 1908, after the overthrow of the Sultan, the Hamidiye Cavalry was disbanded as an organized force, but as they were “tribal forces” before official recognition, they stayed as “tribal forces” after dismemberment. The Hamidiye Cavalry is described as a military disappointment and a failure because

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to found an "independent Kurd principality" around the Ottoman-Persian border (including the Van Vilayet) where Armenian population was significant. Shaykh Ubayd Allah of Nihri gathered 20,000 fighters. Lacking discipline, his man left the ranks after pillaging and acquiring riches from the villages

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In the long run, tensions between Russia and Austria-Hungary intensified, as did the nationality question in the Balkans. The Congress succeeded in keeping Istanbul in Ottoman hands. It effectively disavowed Russia's victory. The Congress of Berlin returned to the Ottoman Empire territories that the

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Because of the religious ties of the Albanian majority of the population with the ruling Ottomans and the lack of an Albanian state in past, nationalism was less developed among Albanians in the 19th century than among other southeast European nations. Only from the 1870s and onwards did a movement

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In 1871 the Ministry of Post and the Telegraph Administration were merged, becoming the Ministry of Post and Telegraph. In July 1881 the first telephone circuit in Istanbul was established between the Ministry of Post and Telegraph in the Soğukçeşme quarter and the Postahane-i Amire in the Yenicami

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developed in the early 1860s. The factors contributing to its emergence made the movement similar to that of the Balkan nations, especially the Greeks. The Armenian élite and various militant groups sought to improve and defend the mostly rural Armenian population of the eastern Ottoman Empire from

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While the Ottoman Empire had population records prior to the 1830s, it was only in 1831 that the Office of Population Registers fund (Ceride-i Nüfus Nezareti) was founded. The Office decentralized in 1839 to draw more accurate data. Registrars, inspectors, and population officials were appointed to

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Mahmud understood the growing problems of the state and the approaching overthrow of the monarchy and began to deal with the problems as he saw them. For example, he closed the Court of Confiscations, and took away much of the power of the Pashas. He personally set an example of reform by regularly

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The first official census (1881–93) took 10 years to finish. In 1893, the results were compiled and presented. This census is the first modern, general, and standardized census accomplished not for taxation nor for military purposes, but to acquire demographic data. The population was divided into

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The Russian extension in this century developed with the main theme of supporting the independence of the Ottomans' former provinces, and then bringing all of the Slav peoples of the Balkans under Bulgaria or using Armenians in the east to set the stage. At the end of the century, from the Russian

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quote: "Muslims had been the majority in Anatolia, the Crimea, the Balkans and the Caucasus and a plurality in southern Russia and sections of Romania. Most of these lands were within or contiguous with the Ottoman Empire. By 1923, only Anatolia, eastern Thrace, and a section of the south-eastern

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In this area, something resembling a civil war between Armenians and Muslims (involving Hamidiye (cavalry)) raged for months before being brought to an end through mediation by the Great Powers. However, instead of Armenian autonomy in these regions, Kurds (Kurdish tribal chiefs) retained much of

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In 1892, first time a trained and organized Kurdish force encouraged by the Sultan Abdul Hamid II. There are several reasons advanced as to why the Hamidiye light cavalry was created. The establishment of the Hamidiye was in one part a response to the Russian threat, but scholars believe that the

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During 1880 - 1881, while the Armenian national liberation movement was in its early stage; lack of outside support and inability to maintain a trained, organized Kurdish force diminished Kurdish aspirations. However, two prominent Kurdish families (tribes) mounted opposition to the empire, based

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There has been free trade in Turkey, and what has it produced? It has destroyed some of the finest manufactures in the world. As late as 1812 these manufactures existed, but they have been destroyed. That was the consequence of competition in Turkey, and its effects have been as pernicious as the

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in 1881. It would function as an independent arm of the Ottoman Bureaucracy, whose goal was to secure tax revenue to send back home to its citizen bondholders. Other represented nations were Germany, Italy, Austria, the Netherlands, as well as internal Ottoman bondholders. The Ottoman debt would

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with Russia, England, and France, and military problems arising from mutinous Janissaries and factious Ulemas. He also faced numerous internal conflicts with Egyptians, Wahabbis, Serbians, Albanians, Greeks, and Syrians, and had administrative problems from rebellious Pashas, who would fain have

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in which the Turks were defeated and lost nearly all of Europe. As the Ottoman Empire gradually shrank in size, military power, and wealth, many Balkan Muslims migrated to the empire's remaining territory in Balkans or to the heartland in Anatolia. Muslims had been the majority in some parts of

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of 22 February 1834 abolished the vexatious charges which public functionaries when traversing the provinces, had long been accustomed to taking from the inhabitants. By the same edict all collection of money, except for the two regular half-yearly periods, was denounced as an abuse. "No one is

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depressed the economy, and was followed by poor harvests. The Ottomans found themselves unable to repay the loans, and so defaulted on their debt in 1875. The Ottomans owed their loans to various European countries and their citizens, who were deeply upset at the failure of their investment and

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under a general definition. By the time the Ottoman Empire came to an end in 1922, half of the urban population of Turkey was descended from Muslim refugees from Russia. Crimean Tatar refugees in the late 19th century played an especially notable role in seeking to modernize Turkish education.

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in each district. Many other financial improvements were affected. By another important series of measures, the administrative government was simplified and strengthened, and a large number of sinecure offices were abolished. Sultan Mahmud II gave a valuable personal example of good sense and

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took charge of drawing population tables, increasing the precision of population records. They introduced new measures of recording population counts in 1874. This led to the establishment of a General Population Administration, attached to the Ministry of Interior in 1881-1882.

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Ottoman Empire such as the Crimea, the Balkans, and the Caucasus as well as a plurality in southern Russia and also in some parts of Romania. Most of these lands were lost with time by the Ottoman Empire between the 19th and 20th centuries. By 1923, only Anatolia and eastern

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on non-Muslims, with a regular method of establishing and collecting taxes (1856); non-Muslims were allowed to become soldiers (1856); various provisions for the better administration of the public service and advancement of commerce; the establishment of the first

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In his time the financial situation of the Empire was dire, and certain social classes had long been oppressed by burdensome taxes. In dealing with the complicated questions that arose, Mahmud II is considered to have demonstrated the best spirit of the best of the

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faced threats on numerous frontiers from multiple industrialised European powers. In response, the empire initiated a period of internal reform, attempting to bring itself into competition with the expanding West. The period of these reforms is known as the

3213:. The seizure of the bank lasted 14 hours, resulting in the deaths of 10 of the Armenian men and Ottoman soldiers. The Ottoman reaction to the takeover saw further massacres and pogroms of the several thousand Armenians living in Constantinople and Sultan 1169:

reforms in 1839. By 1826, the sultan was ready to move against the Janissary in favor of a more modern military. Mahmud II incited them to revolt on purpose, describing it as the sultan's "coup against the Janissaries". The sultan informed them, through a

3047:. It is significant that this massacre, in which 6000 Armenians are said to have perished, was not the result of a general rising of the Muslim population. The Softas took no part in it, and many Armenians found refuge in the Muslim sections of the city. 581:, made nationalistic thought one of the most significant ideas imported to the Ottoman Empire. The empire was forced to deal with nationalism from both within and beyond its borders. The number of revolutionary, secret societies which turned into 1498:(1840) and opening of the first post offices (1840); the reorganization of the finance system according to the French model (1840); the reorganization of the Civil and Criminal Code according to the French model (1840); the establishment of the 3088:. The Armenian revolutionaries posed a threat because they were seen as disruptive, and they could work with the Russians against the Ottoman Empire. The Hamidiye corps or Hamidiye Light Cavalry Regiments were well-armed, irregular, majority 1236:, who was technically Mahmud's vassal. The Sultan had asked for Muhammad Ali's help in suppressing a rebellion in Greece, but had not paid the promised price for his services. In 1831, Muhammad Ali declared war and managed to take control of 2741:; effectively gaining control in both territories (Britain formally annexed the still nominally Ottoman territories of Cyprus and Egypt on 5 November 1914, in response to the Ottoman Empire's decision to enter World War I on the side of the 2114:

of 1876 in several Bulgarian districts in Moesia, Thrace, and Macedonia. The suppression of the uprising and the atrocities committed by Ottoman soldiers against the civilian population increased the Bulgarian desire for independence.

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ethno-religious and gender characteristics. Numbers of both male and female subjects are given in ethno-religious categories including Muslims, Greeks, Armenians, Bulgarians, Catholics, Jews, Protestants, Latins, Syriacs and Gypsies.

1206:. While the reforms in question were mainly implemented to improve the military, the most notable development that arose out of these efforts was a series of schools teaching everything from math to medicine to train new officers. 3039:) tried to assassinate the Patriarch of Istanbul. The goal was to persuade the Armenian clerics to bring their policies into alignment with national politics. They soon forced the patriarch to join the procession heading to the 2437:

After Abdülaziz's dethronement, Murat was enthroned. It was hoped that he would sign the constitution. However, due to health problems, Murat was also dethroned after 93 days; he was the shortest reigning sultan of the Empire.

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more on an ethno-nationalistic standpoint. The Badr Khans were secessionists while the Sayyids of Nihiri were autonomists. The Russo-Turkish War of 1877-78 was followed in 1880 - 1881 by the attempt of Shaykh Ubayd Allah of

472:, especially among the ethnic minorities in its Balkan provinces. Numerous revolts and wars of independence, together with repeated incursions by Russia in the northeast and France (and later Britain) in the North African 1770:(1853–1856) was part of a long-running contest between the major European powers for influence over territories of the declining Ottoman Empire. Britain and France successfully defended the Ottoman Empire against Russia. 2752:

The results were first hailed as a great achievement in peacemaking and stabilization. However, most of the participants were not fully satisfied, and grievances regarding the results festered until they exploded into

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in the area. Both Austria and Russia wanted to increase their spheres of influence and territory at the expense of the Ottoman Empire but were kept in check mostly by Britain, which feared Russian dominance in the

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did not give him time to organize a new army, and the Sultan was forced to use these young and undisciplined recruits in the fight against the veterans of the Tsar. The war was brought to a close by the disastrous

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was reorganized as a modern institution in 1861. Abdülaziz was also the first sultan who traveled outside his empire. His 1867 trip included a visit to the United Kingdom. The Press and Journalism Regulation Code

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The government's series of constitutional reforms led to a fairly modern conscripted army, banking system reforms, the decriminalization of homosexuality, the replacement of religious law with secular law and

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were external and unrelated to issues of governance. While this era was not without some successes, the ability of the Ottoman state to have any effect on ethnic uprisings was seriously called into question.

449:. Despite the Ottoman empire's precarious international position, the central state was significantly strengthened. The process of reforming and modernization in the empire began with the declaration of the 3253: 2299: 2200: 2039: 1889: 1591: 1291: 1015: 806: 761: 522: 55: 1419:, and other officers were enjoined that "they should not presume to inflict, themselves, the punishment of death on any man, whether Raya or Turk, unless authorized by a legal sentence pronounced by the 2672:, who led the Congress, undertook to adjust boundaries to minimize the risks of major war, while recognizing the reduced power of the Ottomans, and balance the distinct interests of the great powers. 465:

in 1856. Over the course of the 19th century, the Ottoman state became increasingly powerful and rationalized, exercising a greater degree of influence over its population than in any previous era.

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later proved that it can function as an independent unit, but the Ottoman example, which was modeled after, never replaced the tribal loyalty to Ottoman Sultan or even to its establishing unit.

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These marked the beginning of modernization and had immediate effects such as introducing European-style clothing, architecture, legislation, institutional organization, and land reform.

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After gaining some amount of autonomy during the early 1800s, Egypt had entered into a period of political turmoil by the 1880s. In April 1882, British and French warships appeared in

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cavalry (minor amounts of other nationalities, such as Turcoman) formations that operated in the eastern provinces of the Ottoman Empire. They were intended to be modeled after the

1847:. By the early 19th century, as many as 45% of the islanders may have been Muslim, who had a great influence in molding the country's fundamental features. These people were called 3599: 2248:

After the taking of its first loans, the Empire had taken further loans out in 1858, 1860, 1862, 1863, 1865, and every year between 1869 and 1874. But economic trouble loomed. The

1066:, and capital with its surrounding areas. The first of these revolts began on 6 March 1821 in the Danubian Principalities which was put down by the Ottomans. On 17 March 1821, the 3988: 767: 602:

The military of the Ottoman Empire remained an effective fighting force until the second half of the 18th century when it suffered a catastrophic defeat against Russia in the

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the Muslims, but the ultimate goal was the creation of an Armenian state in the Armenian-populated areas controlled at the time by the Ottoman Empire and the Russian Empire.

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decided to intervene in the conflict and each nation sent a navy to Greece. Following news that combined Ottoman–Egyptian fleets were going to attack the Greek island of

618:. At first, he allied with the Janissaries to break the power of the provincial governors and then turned on the Janissaries and removed them altogether during the 1826 2952:

with the Tanzimat reforms, the Armenians attempted to demand implementation of Article 61 from the Ottoman government as agreed upon at the Congress of Berlin in 1878.

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occurred at the Armenian quarter of Kum Kapu, the seat of the Armenian Patriarch, was spared through the prompt action of the commandant, Hassan Aga. On 27 July 1890,

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and settled in the Ottoman Empire. During the 19th century, there was an exodus to present-day Turkey by a large portion of Muslim peoples from the Balkans, Caucasus,

1506:(1876); the reorganisation of the army and a regular method of recruiting, levying the army and fixing the duration of military service (1843–44); the adoption of an 1098:

to Greece with an army to suppress the revolt in return for territorial gain. By the end of 1825, most of the Peloponnese was under Egyptian control, and the city of

5912: 1793:. It was one of the first "modern" wars, as it introduced new technologies to warfare, such as the first tactical use of railways and the telegraph. The subsequent 936:, by placing their revenues under state administration. However, he did not venture to apply this vast mass of property to the general purposes of the government. 5381: 5970: 2972:

in the region (indiscriminately, including Armenian villages). Shaykh Ubayd Allah of Nihri was captured by the Ottoman forces in 1882 and this movement ended.

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The green color marks the territories that were ceded to Russia following the wars with Turkey from the 17th century to the first half of the 19th century.

1679:, the Middle East and North Africa. These reforms included guarantees to ensure the Ottoman subjects perfect security for their lives, honor and property; 1363:

economy, organized the imperial household, suppressed all titles without duties, and eliminated all the positions of salaried officials without functions.

416: 5517: 4918: 1407:, the property of all persons banished or condemned to death was forfeited to the Caliph, which kept a motive for acts of cruelty, besides encouraging 81: 6066: 3138:

regiments, particularly during the bloody suppression of Sasun (1894). On July 25, 1897 the Khanasor Expedition was against the Kurdish Mazrik tribe (

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concept. Unquestionably, the concept of nationhood prevalent in the Ottoman Empire was different from the current one as it was centered on religion.

469: 318: 3344: 5315: 2094:, the nationalist movement in Bulgaria did not concentrate initially on armed resistance against the Ottoman Empire. After the establishment of the 5921: 4704: 4053:

Memoirs of Miliutin, "the plan of action decided upon for 1860 was to cleanse the mountain zone of its indigenous population", per Richmond, W.

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the Ottomans were able largely to maintain military parity until taken by surprise both on land and at sea in the Russian war from 1768 to 1774.

2683:, which was restored to the Turks under a special administration; and Macedonia, which was returned outright to the Turks, who promised reform. 2679:

was established as an independent principality inside the Ottoman Empire, but was not allowed to keep all its previous territory. Bulgaria lost

932:, and was considered to be one of the causes of the decline of the Empire. Mahmud II also addressed some of the worst abuses connected with the 5807: 4949: 4896: 3870: 2729:'s advocacy for restoring the Ottoman territories on the Balkan Peninsula during the Congress of Berlin, Britain assumed the administration of 2128: 409: 139: 6261: 4179: 3561: 3511: 3419: 1940: 2352:, which was promulgated on 23 November 1876. It established the freedom of belief and equality of all citizens before the law. The empire's 1660:

promised equality for all Ottoman citizens regardless of their ethnicity and religious confession; which thus widened the scope of the 1839

710:, which grew to become a major and independent arm of the Ottoman bureaucracy, whose sole goal was providing returns to European creditors. 70: 4827: 3028: 2757:

in 1914. Serbia, Bulgaria, and Greece made gains, but far less than they thought they deserved. The Ottoman Empire called at the time the "

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The Armenian People From Ancient to Modern Times, Volume II: Foreign Dominion to Statehood: The Fifteenth Century to the Twentieth Century

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The Armenian People From Ancient to Modern Times, Volume II: Foreign Dominion to Statehood: The Fifteenth Century to the Twentieth Century

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on 28 February 1870, a large-scale armed struggle started to develop as late as the beginning of the 1870s with the establishment of the

5905: 5274: 4989: 4815: 3794: 2099: 1667:. Overall, the Tanzimat reforms had far-reaching effects. Those educated in the schools established during the Tanzimat period included 1244:

by the war's end in 1833. In 1839, Mahmud resumed the war, hoping to recover his losses, but he died at the time news was on its way to

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that ended with a decisive victory for Russia and her Orthodox Christian allies (subjects of the Ottoman Empire before the war) in the

2515: 6218: 5765: 5305: 5295: 3724: 3478: 3332: 3297: 2340: 2254: 1087: 707: 368: 6397: 6291: 2661: 1806: 1451: 1198: 6325: 5310: 5257: 5195: 4883: 4866: 4580: 4130: 3536: 3473: 3279: 3159: 2660:(13 June – 13 July 1878) was a meeting of the leading statesmen of Europe's Great Powers and the Ottoman Empire. In the wake of the 2325: 2226: 2065: 1915: 1617: 1317: 1041: 899: 881: 828: 775: 701:, the Empire took its first loans in 1854. The public debt quickly ballooned, becoming larger than any other European nation's. The 582: 548: 352: 334: 121: 3992: 3167: 2152: 1548:

who personally tested the new invention. Following this successful test, installation works of the first telegraph line (Istanbul-

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Please help improve this article by looking for better, more reliable sources. Unreliable citations may be challenged and removed.

5743: 5428: 5227: 5151: 4939: 3179: 928:, or state council. The practice of the sultan's avoiding the Divan had been introduced two centuries prior, during the reign of 2505: 603: 5423: 4871: 3300:. By the end of the 19th century, the main reason the empire was not overrun by Western powers was their attempt to maintain a 2993: 2939: 1723:(1856); the replacement of guilds with factories; the establishment of the Ottoman Central Bank (originally established as the 360: 276: 6235: 6230: 5866: 3142:) who owned a significant portion of this cavalry. The first notable battle in the Armenian resistance movement took place in 2961: 5898: 5565: 5262: 5217: 5131: 5109: 5022: 4029: 3257: 2945: 2303: 2204: 2079: 2043: 1973: 1956:) were set up in 1864 and a Council of State was established in 1868. Public education was organized on the French model and 1893: 1595: 1295: 1019: 810: 526: 169: 95: 59: 4254:

editors: Matthew J. Gibney, Randall Hansen, Immigration and Asylum: From 1900 to the Present, Vol. 1, ABC-CLIO, 2005, p.437

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also played a significant role in arming the people of the region. The Armenians of Sassoun confronted the Ottoman army and

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was put under siege and fell in April 1826. Ibrahim had succeeded in suppressing most of the revolt in the Peloponnese and

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had to deal with multiple issues inherited from generations past. These issues lasted all through his reign. Shortly, the

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swept through many countries during the 19th century, and it affected territories within the Ottoman Empire. A burgeoning

148: 860: 6306: 6151: 6025: 5738: 5433: 5064: 5044: 2267: 462: 6422: 6181: 6112: 5693: 5320: 5300: 5222: 5146: 4891: 4697: 3605: 1203: 1179: 6213: 3741: 3242: 2288: 2189: 2028: 1878: 1580: 1280: 1004: 855: 511: 3940: 1827:, about 200,000 Crimean Tatars moved to the Ottoman Empire in continuing waves of emigration. Toward the end of the 6186: 5416: 5391: 5269: 5119: 4956: 4944: 4810: 3190: 3085: 1933: 1435: 376: 178: 3914: 3261: 3246: 2307: 2292: 2208: 2193: 2047: 2032: 1897: 1882: 1599: 1584: 1299: 1284: 1023: 1008: 799: 530: 515: 48: 6051: 5594: 5232: 5212: 4859: 1997: 1411:. The second firman removed the ancient rights of Turkish governors to condemn men to instant death at will; the 1134: 977: 722: 344: 6412: 6078: 3638:"'Impossible to provide an accurate estimate': the interested calculation of the Ottoman public debt, 1875–1881" 2460: 2390: 697:

loomed large during this period. The Empire had previously not taken foreign loans. But with the demands of the

6013: 5792: 5458: 5156: 5085: 4854: 3076:

cited among Armenian security concerns) could be brought under military discipline—proved to be "Utopian". The

3004:

to launch an armed expedition across the border into the Ottoman Empire in 1890 in support of local Armenians.

2875: 2766: 2555: 1459: 1156: 929: 3000:, which followed within a couple of months, was an attempt by a small group of Armenian nationalists from the 2499: 1668: 1634:

The first nationwide Ottoman census was in 1844. The first national identity cards which officially named the

1522:, 1857); the abolition of slavery and slave trade (1847); the establishment of the first modern universities ( 1434:, which had been semi-independent for almost six decades. In 1875, the tributary principalities of Serbia and 2472:, on 23 November 1876 until 13 February 1878. The era ended with the suspension of the Ottoman parliament by 6475: 6465: 6407: 6347: 6193: 6020: 6003: 5141: 5114: 5059: 5054: 4906: 4901: 3077: 3056: 3044: 2646: 2455: 2369: 1969: 1507: 1427: 1175: 1143: 1063: 965: 5644: 2722:, but pulled their troops out of Novi Pazar in order to reach a compromise and avoid a war with the Turks. 2554:. After almost half a millennium of Ottoman rule (1396–1878), the Bulgarian state was reestablished as the 1984:

consisted of 150 articles drafted by the Armenian intelligentsia. Another institution was the newly formed

1928: 1750:

In 1855 the Ottoman telegraph network became operational and the Telegraph Administration was established.

1483:

The Ottoman Ministry of Post was established in Istanbul on 23 October 1840. The first post office was the

1332: 680:, who cited the Ottoman Empire as "an instance of the injury done by unrestrained competition" in the 1846 6266: 6203: 5986: 5649: 5589: 5577: 5470: 5327: 4820: 4743: 4690: 4122: 4037: 3008: 2920: 2583: 1794: 1431: 1381: 1253: 1115: 1095: 1071: 957: 846: 718: 398: 201: 6208: 3893: 3843: 2668:, the urgent need was to stabilize and reorganize the Balkans, and set up new nations. German Chancellor 1070:

declared war which was the start of revolutionary actions from other controlled states. In October 1821,

6352: 6030: 5940: 5797: 5582: 5572: 5539: 5279: 5102: 4105:

Tehmina Kazi (7 Oct 2011). "The Ottoman empire's secular history undermines sharia claims". UK Guardian.

3306: 3218:

the European press, praising the men for their courage and the objectives they attempted to accomplish.

3155: 2715: 2627: 2419: 1488: 1439: 1233: 666: 658: 615: 610:

came to the throne with an ambitious effort for military reforms in 1789. He failed and was replaced by

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prove to be a heavy weight on the Empire and only added to the other crises that emerged in the 1870s.

665:

to 3% for imports and exports. The liberal Ottoman policies were praised by British economists such as

561: 6357: 6276: 6271: 5991: 5733: 5728: 5713: 5659: 5604: 5488: 5347: 5332: 5180: 5097: 4911: 4470:

Power in the Periphery: The Hamidiye Light Cavalry and the Struggle over Ottoman Kurdistan, 1890-1914

4288:

Dr. Bayram Kodaman, The Hamidiye Light Cavalry Regiments (Abdulhamid II and Eastern Anatolian Tribes)

3819: 3527:

Quataert, Donald (1994). "The Age of Reforms, 1812-1914". In İnalcık, Halil; Donald Quataert (eds.).

3093: 2711: 1656: 3874: 250: 6337: 6146: 6100: 6071: 5609: 5560: 5493: 5443: 5342: 5252: 5200: 5013: 4994: 4780: 3293: 3020: 2997: 2976: 2848:

and restored stability, which was especially beneficial to British and French financial interests.

2676: 2095: 1957: 1813: 1455: 1385: 1162: 1091: 726: 694: 650: 634: 619: 480: 458: 193: 5825: 4441:

Astourian, Stepan (2011). "The Silence of the Land: Agrarian Relations, Ethnicity, and Power," in

3040: 1462:); its volunteers had participated in the Russo-Turkish War on the side of the rebelling nations. 1178:. The last of the Janissaries were then put to death by decapitation in what was later called the 1058:

was founded with the aim of liberating Greece. The Filiki Eteria planned to launch revolts in the

6470: 6437: 6402: 6281: 6198: 6176: 6156: 6122: 5854: 5780: 5723: 5703: 5616: 5505: 5448: 5244: 5166: 4832: 4753: 4748: 4446: 3675: 3455: 3391: 3131: 3113: 3064: 2926:

Map of the Ottoman Empire in 1900, with the names of the Ottoman provinces between 1878 and 1908.

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Influenced by the Age of Enlightenment and the rise of nationalism under the Ottoman Empire, the

1694:

which operated the first steam-powered commuter ferries (1851); the first European style courts (

1672: 1514:(1844); the institution of a Council of Public Instruction (1845) and the Ministry of Education ( 1123: 1119: 1090:. Tensions soon developed among different Greek factions, leading to two consecutive civil wars. 1083: 972:

country to achieve its independence from the Ottoman Empire. It was officially recognized by the

953: 945: 657:, dating back to the first commercial treaties signed with France in 1536 and taken further with 578: 446: 266: 224: 2908: 6457: 6442: 6318: 6286: 6240: 5878: 5787: 5750: 5636: 5621: 5438: 5376: 5363: 5337: 5205: 5136: 5080: 4999: 4792: 4767: 4728: 4610:(in Armenian). Athens, Greece: Hradaragoutioun Azkayin Ousoumnagan Khorhourti. pp. 42–44. 4576: 4185: 4175: 4126: 3720: 3667: 3659: 3557: 3532: 3507: 3415: 3073: 3060: 2726: 2692: 2669: 2083: 1774: 1541: 677: 3798: 17: 6452: 6332: 6127: 6061: 6008: 5950: 5708: 5676: 5498: 5453: 5396: 5049: 4972: 4787: 4465: 4345: 4114: 3649: 3447: 3383: 3163: 2790: 2774: 2563: 2473: 2385: 2384:. However, Murad V was mentally ill and was deposed within a few months. His heir-apparent, 1849: 1824: 1798: 1127: 916: 662: 4171:

Foreign investment in the Ottoman Empire : international trade and relations 1854-1914

3175: 2968: 6432: 6427: 6095: 5955: 5935: 5842: 5775: 5755: 5686: 5681: 5626: 5599: 5510: 5483: 5161: 5126: 4033: 3897: 3847: 3826: 3777: 3403: 3374:

Karpat, Kemal H. (May 1978). "Ottoman Population Records and the Census of 1881/82–1893".

3151: 3069:

The Kurdish (force, rebels, bandits) sacked neighboring towns and villages with impunity.

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began which resulted in the destruction of the Ottoman–Egyptian fleet. With the help of a

1075: 591: 188: 3438:

Shaw, Standford J. (August 1978). "The Ottoman Census System and Population, 1831–1914".

1545: 476:, resulted in a steady loss of territories throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries. 3320: 6376: 6223: 6105: 6090: 5998: 5960: 5698: 5478: 5401: 5034: 4802: 4763: 4639: 4450: 4096:

edited by Mark & Ljubica Erickson, Weidenfeld & Nicolson: London, 2004 page 95.

3214: 3089: 2859: 2808: 2742: 2719: 2707: 2551: 2531: 2519: 2469: 2451: 2361: 2349: 2111: 1828: 1820: 1686:, 1850); the Commerce and Trade Code (1850); establishment of the Academy of Sciences ( 1245: 1107: 638: 437: 302: 153: 5890: 2620: 6499: 6369: 6364: 6035: 5945: 5830: 5770: 5671: 5411: 5406: 5039: 4984: 4775: 4627: 4481: 3679: 3459: 3408: 3395: 3170:, which between the years 1891 and 1895, Hunchak activists toured various regions of 2824: 2373: 2365: 2249: 1977: 1661: 1544:

was built in 1861–1865 on the same location) in Istanbul, which was issued by Sultan

1392: 1137:

saw the beginning of the spread of the Western notion of nationalism, stimulated the

1055: 973: 702: 642: 450: 3717:

History Of The Ottoman Turks: From The Beginning Of Their Empire To The Present Time

3692:

L. S. Stavrianos, The Balkans since 1453 (London: Hurst and Co., 2000), pp. 248–250.

1952:

Abdülaziz continued the Tanzimat and Islahat reforms. New administrative districts (

1377: 5802: 5760: 5386: 4837: 3595: 3206: 3139: 3117: 2845: 2738: 2107: 1533: 1511: 1215: 1183: 626: 394: 4366:

Hovannisian, Richard G. "The Armenian Question in the Ottoman Empire, 1876–1914".

4022: 2377: 4672:

Stoianovich, Traian. "Factors in the Decline of Ottoman Society in the Balkans,"

4255: 3770: 2773:, thus setting up a strong revanchist demand in Bulgaria that in 1912 led to the 6484: 6447: 6417: 6381: 6312: 6297: 6141: 5666: 4977: 3231: 3036: 2837:

and prevent the country from falling into the hands of anti-European nationals.

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and following the political movement attempting to free Balkan nations from the

2523: 2277: 2178: 2017: 1867: 1832: 1767: 1569: 1269: 1165:

in 1826, the establishment of a modern Ottoman army, and the preparation of the

1099: 1059: 993: 788: 698: 622:. Efforts for a new system (1826–1858) began following the Auspicious Incident. 574: 500: 37: 6117: 6083: 3654: 3637: 3451: 3387: 2988: 2984: 2830: 2696: 2688: 2595: 2543: 2357: 1786: 1739:, 1857); permission for private sector publishers and printing firms with the 1549: 961: 630: 4189: 3663: 6132: 4443:

A Question of Genocide: Armenians and Turks at the End of the Ottoman Empire

3851: 3024: 2754: 2527: 2465: 2345: 1802: 1790: 1716: 1537: 1495: 1443: 912: 681: 611: 607: 454: 3671: 2737:

in 1882 with the pretext of helping the Ottoman government to put down the

2407: 483:

along the lines of Western European armies. The period was followed by the

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and Forced Migration from Nineteenth-Century Russia to the Ottoman Empire"

3719:(First American ed.). New York: Henry Holt and Company. p. 530. 2518:

had its origins in a rise in nationalism in the Balkans as well as in the

1777:

to gain control of the Black Sea. There were smaller campaigns in western

1743:(1857); establishment of the School of Economical and Political Sciences ( 1450:, unilaterally declared their independence from the empire. Following the 1403:, meaning "organisation") (1839–76), period. Previous to the first of the 5532: 5522: 4849: 3944: 3210: 3202: 3198: 2862:

of World War I. Great Britain officially annexed these two provinces and

2567: 1836: 1782: 1778: 1553: 1447: 1396: 1372: 1346: 1166: 956:. By 1817, when the revolution ended, Serbia was raised to the status of 442: 310: 468:

Despite these attempts at revitalisation, the empire could not stem the

4677: 3918: 3571:

Woodhead, Christine (2008). "New Views on Ottoman History, 1453-1839".

3194: 3171: 3147: 2854: 2834: 2795: 2746: 2684: 2665: 2535: 2381: 2001: 1720: 1676: 1408: 1221: 1067: 949: 813: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 565:

The decline of the Ottoman Empire in the 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries

473: 4630:. The Kurds and the State. (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 2005) 2372:

would give an answer to the empire's growing social unrest. Through a

5527: 4720: 4715: 2863: 2779: 2730: 2591: 2559: 2550:

sovereignty for some time, formally proclaimed independence from the

2539: 2159: 2091: 2087: 1840: 1404: 1336: 1241: 1103: 969: 2699:

finally gained complete independence, but with smaller territories.

1454:, the empire granted independence to all three belligerent nations. 1420: 653:

policy, open to foreign imports. This policy had its origins in the

4510:

Safrastian, Arshak. 1948 Kurds and Kurdistan. Harvill Press, pg 66.

4068:

Death and Exile: The Ethnic Cleansing of Ottoman Muslims, 1821–2000

1773:

Most of the fighting took place when the allies landed on Russia's

4309:

M.Sükrü Hanioglu, A Brief History of the Late Ottoman Empire, 130.

4300:

M.Sükrü Hanioglu, A Brief History of the Late Ottoman Empire, 129.

3143: 3126:

Surviving members of the takeover after they arrived in Marseille.

3121: 2841: 2789: 2734: 2571: 1927: 1844: 1816:

on 4 August 1854, shortly after the beginning of the Crimean War.

1757: 1711: 1467: 1376: 1249: 1237: 1229: 1225: 1171: 1079: 933: 925: 646: 560: 3941:"Istanbul Stock Exchange: History of the Istanbul Stock Exchange" 3166:

at Sassoun, succumbing to superior numbers. This was followed by

2522:

goal of recovering territorial losses it had suffered during the

1426:

The Tanzimat reforms did not halt the rise of nationalism in the

1118:, the allied fleet intercepted the Ottoman–Egyptian fleet in the 4644:

The Burning Tigris: The Armenian Genocide and America's Response

2599: 1220:

Later in his reign, Mahmud became involved in disputes with the

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Stone, Norman "Turkey in the Russian Mirror" pages 86–100 from

3529:

An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire, 1300-1914

3504:

A history of the modern Middle East: rulers, rebels, and rogues

1702:, 1853); establishment of the modern Municipality of Istanbul ( 706:

lobbied their governments to intervene. This effort became the

4488:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977, vol. 2, p. 246. 4461: 4459: 3890: 3840: 3410:

The Ottoman Centuries: The Rise and Fall of the Turkish Empire

3225: 3072:

The central assumption of the Hamidiye system—Kurdish tribes (

2338:

The reformist period peaked with the Constitution, called the

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in both organizations. The struggle reached its peak with the

2011: 1861: 1563: 1263: 987: 840: 782: 741: 494: 31: 3178:

to encourage resistance, and established new branches of the

673:(1834), but later criticized by British politicians such as 4660:

Osman's Dream: The Story of the Ottoman Empire, 1300-1923.

2675:

As a result, Ottoman holdings in Europe declined sharply;

1130:

proceeded to the captured part of Central Greece by 1828.

457:

and was punctuated by several reform decrees, such as the

3296:

to European banks, which caused the establishment of the

2794:

Map of the Ottoman Empire in 1900, with the names of the

2687:

achieved full independence, but had to turn over part of

920:

founded new kingdoms on the ruins of the House of Osman.

4013:

Douglas Arthur Howard: "The History of Turkey", page 71.

3531:. Vol. 2. Cambridge University Press. p. 762. 3292:

Economically, the empire had difficulty in repaying the

2983:

and the Ottoman Empire in May 1889. Its name comes from

2844:

on the pretext of bringing order. The British supported

4346:"Map of Europe and the Ottoman Empire in the year 1900" 4230:

The dark side of democracy: explaining ethnic cleansing

727:

Ottoman military became modernized and professionalized

715:

stagnation and reform of the Ottoman Empire (1683–1827)

481:

Ottoman military became modernized and professionalized

2360:

proved influential. A group of reformers known as the

3742:"The Tanzimat: Secular reforms in the Ottoman Empire" 1141:, and eventually caused the breakdown of the Ottoman 4453:. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 58-61, 63-67. 3298:

Council of Administration of the Ottoman Public Debt

1823:. From the total Tatar population of 300,000 in the 6390: 6254: 6167: 6044: 5979: 5928: 5635: 5553: 5469: 5362: 5288: 5243: 5188: 5179: 5073: 5021: 5012: 4965: 4932: 4882: 4801: 4762: 4736: 4727: 3506:. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press. 2840:In August 1882 British forces invaded and occupied 1540:in 1847, at the old Beylerbeyi Palace (the present 1216:

Egypt Eyalet § War with the Sultan (1831–1841)

62:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 4117:. "The Eastern Question and the Tanzimat Era", in 3915:"Ottoman Bank Museum: History of the Ottoman Bank" 3407: 2649:(included "Article 61" which was the "Article 16") 1671:and other progressive leaders and thinkers of the 1161:Mahmud II's most notable achievements include the 4560:Social Relations in Ottoman Diyarbekir, 1870-1975 4271:Social Relations in Ottoman Diyarbekir, 1870-1915 3865: 3863: 3861: 2468:" in Ottoman Turkish), written by members of the 2348:" in Ottoman Turkish), written by members of the 71:"Decline and modernization of the Ottoman Empire" 4368:The Armenian People from Ancient to Modern Times 4055:The Northwest Caucasus: Past, Present and Future 3601:Economics and World History: Myths and Paradoxes 3193:was perpetrated by an Armenian group armed with 3146:, where nationalist ideals were proliferated by 2534:. As a result of the war, the principalities of 4486:History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey 4383: 4381: 2858:until 1914, when the Ottoman Empire joined the 2706:unilaterally occupied the Ottoman provinces of 1996:with a 50 line capacity entered service in the 1675:and of many other former Ottoman states in the 1526:, 1848), academies (1848) and teacher schools ( 1252:by an Egyptian army led by Muhammad Ali's son, 686: 4575:. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1997, p. 217. 3642:The British Journal for the History of Science 3086:Armenian socialist/nationalist revolutionaries 3043:to demand implementation of Article 61 of the 2570:which was given to Romania) and the region of 5906: 4698: 4558:Janet Klein, Joost Jongerden, Jelle Verheij, 4296: 4294: 4284: 4282: 4280: 4204:The Struggle for Mastery in Europe: 1848–1918 4088: 4086: 4084: 4082: 4080: 4078: 4076: 2158:Distribution Clothing to Turkish refugees in 1682:Establishment of the Ministry of Healthcare ( 417: 8: 4125:(ed.) New York: St. Martin's Press, p. 198. 3836: 3834: 3440:International Journal of Middle East Studies 3376:International Journal of Middle East Studies 2594:, while the Russian Empire annexed Southern 2574:, which became the new state's capital. The 1494:The introduction of the first Ottoman paper 1248:that the Empire's army had been defeated at 1139:rise of nationalism under the Ottoman Empire 614:in 1808 who established martial law through 485:defeat and dissolution of the Ottoman Empire 4144:"U.S. National Debt Clock : Real Time" 3886: 3884: 3554:Ottoman Wars, 1700-1860: An Empire Besieged 3260:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 2306:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 2207:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 2046:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 1896:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 1598:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 1458:also achieved virtual independence (as the 1298:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 1022:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 776:Learn how and when to remove these messages 689:effects of the contrary principle in Spain. 529:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 5913: 5899: 5891: 5632: 5185: 5018: 4733: 4705: 4691: 4683: 4667:The Decline and Fall of the Ottoman Empire 3134:of 1894-96 has been often ascribed to the 1992:quarter. On 23 May 1909, the first manual 1054:In 1814, a secret organization called the 424: 410: 133: 4623: 4621: 4619: 4617: 3653: 3556:. Pearson Education Ltd. pp. 130–5. 3280:Learn how and when to remove this message 2326:Learn how and when to remove this message 2227:Learn how and when to remove this message 2104:Bulgarian Revolutionary Central Committee 2066:Learn how and when to remove this message 1916:Learn how and when to remove this message 1731:in 1863) and the Ottoman Stock Exchange ( 1618:Learn how and when to remove this message 1318:Learn how and when to remove this message 1042:Learn how and when to remove this message 900:Learn how and when to remove this message 882:Learn how and when to remove this message 829:Learn how and when to remove this message 549:Learn how and when to remove this message 122:Learn how and when to remove this message 4646:. New York: Perennial, 2003. pp. 107–108 4593: 4546: 4533: 4520: 4498: 4388: 3023:interrupted the Armenian mass to read a 1835:were exiled from their homelands in the 4269:Joost Jongerden; Jelle Verheij (2012). 3855:issue of July 2011. p. 49. (in Turkish) 3795:"History of the Turkish Postal Service" 3789: 3787: 3785: 3702: 3494: 3316: 2425:Draft version, with the personal notes. 2106:, as well as the active involvement of 1805:basin. That lasted until defeat in the 1735:, established in 1866); the Land Code ( 1706:, 1854) and the City Planning Council ( 1698:, 1853) and supreme judiciary council ( 1536:received his first ever patent for the 453:(New Order) during the reign of Sultan 147: 136: 4424: 4422: 4420: 4319: 4259:Caucasus remained to the Muslim land." 3991:. Gberis.e-monsite.com. Archived from 3902:"Sultan Abdülmecid: İlklerin Padişahı" 3900:history magazine, issue of July 2011. 3820:Istanbul City Guide: Beylerbeyi Palace 3766: 3764: 3762: 3760: 3758: 1727:in 1856, and later reorganised as the 1560:Identity Card and Ottoman Census, 1844 1502:(1841) which was the prototype of the 1423:, and regularly signed by the judge." 4070:, Princeton, N.J: Darwin Press, c1995 3104:of its contribution to tribal feuds. 3027:and denounce the indifference of the 2979:was the bloody encounter between the 2725:In return for British Prime Minister 2380:(1861–1876) to abdicate in favour of 1941:Armenian national liberation movement 7: 5861: 5849: 4332: 4232:, Cambridge University Press, p. 118 3989:"History of the Ottoman public debt" 3841:Sultan Abdülmecid: İlklerin Padişahı 3631: 3629: 3627: 3258:adding citations to reliable sources 2492:Multiple Fronts of Russo-Turkish War 2304:adding citations to reliable sources 2205:adding citations to reliable sources 2044:adding citations to reliable sources 1894:adding citations to reliable sources 1596:adding citations to reliable sources 1296:adding citations to reliable sources 1122:. Following a week-long standoff, a 1020:adding citations to reliable sources 948:against Ottoman rule erupted in the 811:adding citations to reliable sources 527:adding citations to reliable sources 60:adding citations to reliable sources 5922:International relations (1814–1919) 4174:. London: Tauris Academic Studies. 2442:First Constitutional Era, 1876–1878 2356:, was short-lived. But the idea of 2100:Internal Revolutionary Organisation 655:capitulations of the Ottoman Empire 577:, together with a growing sense of 6506:19th century in the Ottoman Empire 4402:Hai Heghapokhakani Me Hishataknere 3636:Stolz, Daniel A. (December 2022). 3479:Abolition of the Ottoman sultanate 3035:. Harutiun Jangülian (member from 2255:Ottoman Public Debt Administration 1972:gained privileges, such as in the 708:Ottoman Public Debt Administration 25: 4404:(Los Angeles, 1952), II, 268–269. 4245:, Oxford University Press, p. 175 3474:Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire 3160:Armenian Revolutionary Federation 2765:previous treaty had given to the 2745:.) France, on its part, occupied 2733:in 1878 and later sent troops to 1797:secured Ottoman control over the 1384:, the principal architect of the 757:This section has multiple issues. 5872: 5860: 5848: 5837: 5836: 5824: 5228:Court of Jurisdictional Disputes 4714: 3608:. pp. 31–32. Archived from 3579:. Oxford University Press: 983. 3355: 3343: 3331: 3319: 3230: 3205:and hand-held bombs against the 3180:Social Democrat Hunchakian Party 2919: 2907: 2895: 2811:was pejoratively referred to as 2635: 2619: 2558:, covering the land between the 2498: 2418: 2406: 2276: 2177: 2151: 2139: 2127: 2016: 1866: 1819:The war caused an exodus of the 1568: 1354:, the Muslim governors, and the 1268: 1163:abolition of the Janissary corps 992: 845: 787: 746: 729:in the form of European Armies. 717:ended with the dismemberment of 661:in 1673 and 1740, which lowered 499: 160: 36: 5873: 4094:Russia War, Peace and Diplomacy 3084:central reason was to suppress 2994:Armenians in the Persian Empire 2940:Armenians in the Ottoman Empire 2889:Geographic and Demographic maps 2526:, reestablishing itself in the 1638:identity papers, or informally 1518:, 1847, which later became the 1078:, followed by other revolts in 952:, running in parallel with the 798:needs additional citations for 765:or discuss these issues on the 47:needs additional citations for 4608:Hayots Badmoutioun, Volume III 2914:1893-96, Armenian distribution 2852:remained as Ottoman provinces 2516:Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878 2368:universities, believed that a 2134:Turkish refugees from Bulgaria 2080:national awakening of Bulgaria 1974:Armenian National Constitution 1807:Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878 1710:, 1855); the abolition of the 1690:, 1851); establishment of the 1199:Russo-Turkish War of 1828–1829 976:in 1829, after the end of the 436:In the late 18th century, the 1: 6292:Kronstadt–Toulon naval visits 6246:1917 Franco-Russian agreement 6236:Japan–Korea Annexation Treaty 4217:The European World: A History 3943:. Imkb.gov.tr. Archived from 3917:. Obarsiv.com. Archived from 3573:The English Historical Review 3484:History of the Ottoman Empire 3431:A Modern History of the Kurds 2782:remained as the Muslim land. 2662:Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878) 2458:from the promulgation of the 1741:Serbesti-i Kürşad Nizamnamesi 1452:Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878) 1151:The Auspicious Incident, 1826 18:Decline of the Ottoman Empire 6152:Second Industrial Revolution 6026:League of the Three Emperors 5719:Intangible cultural heritage 5065:Southeastern Anatolia Region 4897:Proclamation of the republic 4606:Kurdoghlian, Mihran (1996). 4168:Geyikdağı, V. Necla (2011). 3797:. Ptt.gov.tr. Archived from 3168:Zeitun Rebellion (1895–1896) 2376:in 1876, they forced Sultan 2268:Ottoman constitution of 1876 1812:The Ottoman Empire took its 1789:, the Pacific Ocean and the 445:, and led to the end of the 29:Period of the Ottoman empire 6182:Treaty of Versailles (1871) 4990:Ancient peoples of Anatolia 3776:September 13, 2008, at the 3606:University of Chicago Press 3502:Anderson, Betty S. (2016). 3094:Caucasian Cossack Regiments 2944:Although granted their own 2506:Russo-Turkish War (1877–78) 2485:Russo-Turkish War 1877–1878 2400:Kanûn-u Esâsî, Constitution 649:, the Ottoman Empire had a 293:Decline & Modernization 6522: 6231:Japan–Korea Treaty of 1905 4821:Conquest of Constantinople 3967:The Crimean War: A History 3191:1896 Ottoman Bank takeover 3111: 3054: 3033:Armenian National Assembly 2962:Armenian–Kurdish relations 2959: 2937: 2822: 2720:annexed Bosnia-Herzegovina 2265: 2262:Ottoman Constitution, 1876 2146:1878-Refugees in Aya Sofya 1986:Armenian National Assembly 1934:Armenian national movement 1733:Dersaadet Tahvilat Borsası 1556:) began on 9 August 1847. 1516:Mekatib-i Umumiye Nezareti 1487:near the courtyard of the 1395:proclamation launched the 1370: 1213: 1154: 1128:French expeditionary force 470:rising tide of nationalism 377:Abolition of the Caliphate 369:Abolition of the Sultanate 306:(late 18th and early 19th) 6052:European balance of power 5820: 5328:The constitutional system 4860:Second Constitutional Era 4845:Decline and modernization 4428:Creasy, Edward Shepherd. 4044:, 41/1, 2000, pp. 79–108. 3825:October 10, 2007, at the 3655:10.1017/S0007087421000637 3452:10.1017/S0020743800033602 3388:10.1017/S0020743800000088 2902:Ottoman Census of 1893-96 1719:networks (1847–1855) and 1708:İntizam-ı Şehir Komisyonu 1500:Meclis-i Maarif-i Umumiye 1358:, or municipal chiefs of 1135:Greek War of Independence 978:Greek War of Independence 723:Second Constitutional Era 491:Main issues of the period 6343:Venezuela Naval Blockade 6014:Anglo-Russian Convention 5311:Ministry of the Interior 5296:Administrative divisions 4855:First Constitutional Era 4449:, Fatma Müge Göçek, and 4241:Todorova, Maria (2009), 3904:, pages 46–50. (Turkish) 3846:12 February 2013 at the 3552:Aksan, Virginia (2007). 3429:McDowall, David (2004). 2803:1878–1908 Abdul Hamid II 2767:Principality of Bulgaria 2606:Congress of Berlin, 1878 2556:Principality of Bulgaria 2480:1876–1878 Abdul Hamid II 2448:First Constitutional Era 2364:, primarily educated in 2354:First Constitutional era 1700:Meclis-i Ali-yi Tanzimat 1504:First Ottoman Parliament 1460:Principality of Bulgaria 1157:Ottoman military reforms 6348:Alaska boundary dispute 6021:Anglo-Japanese Alliance 6004:Franco-Russian Alliance 5258:Parliamentary elections 5060:Eastern Anatolia Region 5055:Central Anatolia Region 4737:Ancient and Middle Ages 4676:(1962) 21#4 pp 623–632 4215:Jerome L. Blum, et al. 3871:"Türk Telekom: History" 3715:Creasy, Edward (1877). 3078:Persian Cossack Brigade 3057:Armenian reform program 2786:İstibdat Era, 1878–1908 2647:Treaty of Berlin (1878) 2630:(included "Article 16") 2456:constitutional monarchy 2370:constitutional monarchy 2000:(Grand Post Office) in 1696:Meclis-i Ahkam-ı Adliye 1508:Ottoman national anthem 1470:with modern factories. 1428:Danubian Principalities 1176:the Auspicious Incident 1094:agreed to send his son 1064:Danubian Principalities 966:First Hellenic Republic 958:self-governing monarchy 854:Some of this article's 733:Modernization 1808–1839 459:Hatt-ı Şerif of Gülhane 6267:Unification of Germany 6214:Taft–Katsura agreement 5429:Science and technology 5263:Presidential elections 4744:Prehistory of Anatolia 4228:Mann, Michael (2005), 4123:Richard G. Hovannisian 4042:Cahiers du Monde russe 4032:June 11, 2007, at the 3127: 3009:Kum Kapu demonstration 2870:1893–96 Ottoman Census 2799: 2613:Political negotiations 2584:Bosnia and Herzegovina 1980:-approved form of the 1936: 1795:Treaty of Paris (1856) 1763: 1754:Crimean War, 1853–1856 1729:Bank-ı Osmanî-i Şahane 1712:capitation (Jizya) tax 1474:1839–1861 Abdülmecit I 1432:Principality of Serbia 1388: 1367:Tanzimat Era 1839–1876 1072:Theodoros Kolokotronis 960:under nominal Ottoman 719:Ottoman Classical Army 691: 671:Dictionary of Commerce 575:national consciousness 566: 345:2nd Constitutional Era 319:1st Constitutional Era 202:Fall of Constantinople 6353:First Moroccan Crisis 6067:Spread of nationalism 6031:Eight-Nation Alliance 5424:Free trade agreements 5306:Intelligence Services 5103:North Anatolian Fault 4571:Hovannisian, Richard 4484:and Ezel Kural Shaw, 4400:Ter-Minasian, Ruben. 4273:. Brill. p. 200. 4243:Imagining the Balkans 3877:on 28 September 2007. 3414:. London: Perennial. 3307:Eastern Mediterranean 3156:Hampartsoum Boyadjian 3125: 3100:assaulted Armenians. 2793: 2716:Young Turk Revolution 2628:San Stefano Agreement 1931: 1761: 1669:Mustafa Kemal Atatürk 1512:Ottoman national flag 1440:United Principalities 1380: 667:John Ramsay McCulloch 645:of China, Japan, and 641:. In contrast to the 616:Alemdar Mustafa Pasha 564: 6358:Algeciras Conference 6338:Annexation of Hawaii 6277:Great Eastern Crisis 6272:Unification of Italy 6262:Formation of Romania 6079:French–German enmity 5808:World heritage sites 5333:Turkish Armed Forces 5218:Constitutional Court 5132:Flora and vegetation 5110:Environmental issues 5098:East Anatolian Fault 5045:Mediterranean Region 4038:Bryan Glynn Williams 3254:improve this section 3130:A major role in the 2546:, each of which had 2300:improve this section 2201:improve this section 2040:improve this section 1890:improve this section 1592:improve this section 1399:(from Arabic: تنظيم 1292:improve this section 1204:Treaty of Adrianople 1016:improve this section 807:improve this article 523:improve this section 56:improve this article 6423:Philippine–American 6408:First Sino-Japanese 6241:Racconigi agreement 6187:Treaty of Frankfurt 6147:Great Rapprochement 6101:Scramble for Africa 5377:Banking and Finance 4995:History of Anatolia 4892:War of Independence 4884:Republic of Türkiye 4781:Battle of Manzikert 4335:, pp. 323–338) 4322:, pp. 237–274) 4148:www.usdebtclock.org 3995:on 25 November 2010 3947:on 25 February 2012 3294:Ottoman public debt 3150:activists, such as 3021:Hambartsum Boyajian 2998:Gugunian Expedition 2987:, a border town of 2096:Bulgarian Exarchate 1982:Code of Regulations 1963:Matbuat Nizamnamesi 1958:Istanbul University 1948:1861–1876 Abdülaziz 1814:first foreign loans 1382:Mustafa Reşid Pasha 1092:Mehmet Ali of Egypt 954:Napoleonic invasion 738:1808–1839 Mahmud II 695:Ottoman public debt 635:deindustrialization 625:Economic historian 620:Auspicious Incident 571:rise of nationalism 6282:Congress of Berlin 6199:Reinsurance Treaty 6177:Congress of Vienna 6157:Industrial warfare 6123:Scramble for China 5434:Telecommunications 5223:Court of Cassation 4924:Multi-party period 4833:Ottoman Old Regime 4754:Byzantine Anatolia 4749:Classical Anatolia 4658:Finkel, Caroline. 4447:Ronald Grigor Suny 4057:. Routledge. 2008. 3896:2013-02-12 at the 3164:Kurdish irregulars 3132:Hamidian massacres 3128: 3114:Hamidian massacres 3065:Hamidiye (cavalry) 3029:Armenian patriarch 3013:Harutiun Jangülian 2800: 2759:Sick man of Europe 2708:Bosnia-Herzegovina 2658:Congress of Berlin 2643:Congress of Berlin 2576:Congress of Berlin 2454:was the period of 1994:telephone exchange 1937: 1764: 1673:Republic of Turkey 1389: 1120:battle of Navarino 1106:had been retaken. 946:Serbian Revolution 579:ethnic nationalism 567: 225:Sultanate of Women 6493: 6492: 6462:Albanian Revolts 6319:German Naval Laws 6303:Naval arms races 6287:Berlin Conference 6219:Hague Conventions 5888: 5887: 5816: 5815: 5358: 5357: 5301:Foreign relations 5275:Political parties 5175: 5174: 5008: 5007: 5000:History of Thrace 4902:Atatürk's reforms 4793:Anatolian beyliks 4549:, pp. 61–62) 4523:, pp. 59–60) 4482:Shaw, Stanford J. 4391:, pp. 42–47) 4202:A. J. P. Taylor, 4181:978-0-85771-943-0 4115:Barsoumian, Hagop 4066:Justin McCarthy, 3740:Ishtiaq Hussain. 3563:978-0-582-30807-7 3513:978-0-8047-8324-8 3421:978-0-688-08093-8 3290: 3289: 3282: 3158:, and Hrayr. The 3074:Kurdish chiefdoms 3061:Kurdish chiefdoms 2950:national assembly 2876:Council of States 2796:Ottoman provinces 2727:Benjamin Disraeli 2670:Otto von Bismarck 2626:Negotiations for 2566:(except Northern 2336: 2335: 2328: 2237: 2236: 2229: 2086:movement. Unlike 2084:Bulgarian revival 2076: 2075: 2068: 1926: 1925: 1918: 1775:Crimean Peninsula 1737:Arazi Kanunnamesi 1628: 1627: 1620: 1542:Beylerbeyi Palace 1485:Postahane-i Amire 1328: 1327: 1320: 1193:Russia, 1828–1829 1052: 1051: 1044: 968:became the first 910: 909: 902: 892: 891: 884: 839: 838: 831: 780: 678:Benjamin Disraeli 583:political parties 559: 558: 551: 447:Old Regime period 434: 433: 364:(1918–1922) 356:(1914–1918) 348:(1908–1920) 338:(1908–1922) 322:(1876–1878) 314:(1839–1876) 296:(1789–1908) 280:(1718–1730) 270:(1703–1789) 254:(1656–1703) 244:(1566–1703) 228:(1533–1656) 218:(1453–1566) 197:(1402–1413) 182:(1299–1453) 132: 131: 124: 106: 16:(Redirected from 6513: 6413:Spanish–American 6333:Fashoda Incident 6209:Treaty of Björkö 6194:Treaty of Berlin 6128:Open Door Policy 6062:Eastern question 6009:Entente Cordiale 5915: 5908: 5901: 5892: 5876: 5875: 5864: 5863: 5852: 5851: 5840: 5839: 5828: 5633: 5518:Cities and towns 5499:Turkish language 5454:Turkish Airlines 5270:Electoral system 5233:Council of State 5186: 5120:Waste management 5050:Black Sea Region 5028: 5019: 4973:Turkic migration 4919:One-party period 4788:Sultanate of Rum 4734: 4719: 4718: 4707: 4700: 4693: 4684: 4647: 4637: 4631: 4625: 4612: 4611: 4603: 4597: 4590: 4584: 4569: 4563: 4556: 4550: 4543: 4537: 4530: 4524: 4517: 4511: 4508: 4502: 4495: 4489: 4479: 4473: 4463: 4454: 4439: 4433: 4426: 4415: 4411: 4405: 4398: 4392: 4385: 4376: 4375: 4363: 4357: 4356: 4354: 4352: 4342: 4336: 4329: 4323: 4316: 4310: 4307: 4301: 4298: 4289: 4286: 4275: 4274: 4266: 4260: 4252: 4246: 4239: 4233: 4226: 4220: 4213: 4207: 4206:(1954) pp 228–54 4200: 4194: 4193: 4165: 4159: 4158: 4156: 4154: 4140: 4134: 4112: 4106: 4103: 4097: 4090: 4071: 4064: 4058: 4051: 4045: 4020: 4014: 4011: 4005: 4004: 4002: 4000: 3985: 3979: 3976: 3970: 3963: 3957: 3956: 3954: 3952: 3937: 3931: 3930: 3928: 3926: 3911: 3905: 3888: 3879: 3878: 3873:. Archived from 3867: 3856: 3838: 3829: 3817: 3811: 3810: 3808: 3806: 3791: 3780: 3768: 3753: 3752: 3746: 3737: 3731: 3730: 3712: 3706: 3699: 3693: 3690: 3684: 3683: 3657: 3633: 3622: 3621: 3619: 3617: 3592: 3586: 3583: 3567: 3549: 3543: 3542: 3524: 3518: 3517: 3499: 3463: 3434: 3425: 3413: 3404:Kinross, Patrick 3399: 3359: 3347: 3335: 3323: 3302:balance of power 3285: 3278: 3274: 3271: 3265: 3234: 3226: 3045:Treaty of Berlin 2934:Armenians, 1890s 2923: 2911: 2899: 2775:First Balkan War 2666:Balkan Peninsula 2639: 2623: 2564:Balkan Mountains 2502: 2422: 2410: 2331: 2324: 2320: 2317: 2311: 2280: 2272: 2232: 2225: 2221: 2218: 2212: 2181: 2173: 2169:Albanians, 1870s 2155: 2143: 2131: 2071: 2064: 2060: 2057: 2051: 2020: 2012: 1921: 1914: 1910: 1907: 1901: 1870: 1862: 1858:Armenians, 1860s 1825:Tauride Province 1799:Balkan Peninsula 1745:Mekteb-i Mülkiye 1692:Şirket-i Hayriye 1684:Tıbbiye Nezareti 1623: 1616: 1612: 1609: 1603: 1572: 1564: 1386:Edict of Gülhane 1323: 1316: 1312: 1309: 1303: 1272: 1264: 1047: 1040: 1036: 1033: 1027: 996: 988: 917:Eastern Question 905: 898: 887: 880: 876: 873: 867: 849: 841: 834: 827: 823: 820: 814: 791: 783: 772: 750: 749: 742: 554: 547: 543: 540: 534: 503: 495: 461:in 1839 and the 426: 419: 412: 381: 373: 365: 357: 349: 339: 323: 315: 307: 297: 281: 271: 255: 245: 229: 219: 198: 183: 164: 134: 127: 120: 116: 113: 107: 105: 64: 40: 32: 21: 6521: 6520: 6516: 6515: 6514: 6512: 6511: 6510: 6496: 6495: 6494: 6489: 6428:Boxer Rebellion 6386: 6250: 6204:Treaty of Paris 6169: 6163: 6096:New Imperialism 6057:Ottoman decline 6040: 5987:Triple Alliance 5975: 5936:Austria-Hungary 5924: 5919: 5889: 5884: 5812: 5631: 5627:Women in Turkey 5595:Law enforcement 5549: 5545:Life expectancy 5511:Islam in Turkey 5465: 5354: 5316:National Police 5284: 5239: 5171: 5162:Turkish Riviera 5069: 5026: 5025: 5004: 4961: 4928: 4907:Language reform 4878: 4797: 4758: 4723: 4713: 4711: 4655: 4653:Further reading 4650: 4640:Balakian, Peter 4638: 4634: 4626: 4615: 4605: 4604: 4600: 4591: 4587: 4570: 4566: 4557: 4553: 4544: 4540: 4531: 4527: 4518: 4514: 4509: 4505: 4496: 4492: 4480: 4476: 4464: 4457: 4440: 4436: 4427: 4418: 4412: 4408: 4399: 4395: 4386: 4379: 4365: 4364: 4360: 4350: 4348: 4344: 4343: 4339: 4330: 4326: 4317: 4313: 4308: 4304: 4299: 4292: 4287: 4278: 4268: 4267: 4263: 4253: 4249: 4240: 4236: 4227: 4223: 4214: 4210: 4201: 4197: 4182: 4167: 4166: 4162: 4152: 4150: 4142: 4141: 4137: 4113: 4109: 4104: 4100: 4091: 4074: 4065: 4061: 4052: 4048: 4034:Wayback Machine 4021: 4017: 4012: 4008: 3998: 3996: 3987: 3986: 3982: 3978:Royle. Preface. 3977: 3973: 3965:Orlando Figes, 3964: 3960: 3950: 3948: 3939: 3938: 3934: 3924: 3922: 3921:on 14 June 2012 3913: 3912: 3908: 3898:Wayback Machine 3889: 3882: 3869: 3868: 3859: 3848:Wayback Machine 3839: 3832: 3827:Wayback Machine 3818: 3814: 3804: 3802: 3801:on 1 April 2013 3793: 3792: 3783: 3778:Wayback Machine 3769: 3756: 3744: 3739: 3738: 3734: 3727: 3714: 3713: 3709: 3705:, pp. 457) 3700: 3696: 3691: 3687: 3635: 3634: 3625: 3615: 3613: 3594: 3593: 3589: 3570: 3564: 3551: 3550: 3546: 3539: 3526: 3525: 3521: 3514: 3501: 3500: 3496: 3492: 3470: 3437: 3428: 3422: 3402: 3373: 3370: 3363: 3360: 3351: 3348: 3339: 3336: 3327: 3324: 3315: 3286: 3275: 3269: 3266: 3251: 3235: 3224: 3152:Mihran Damadian 3120: 3110: 3067: 3053: 3017:Mihran Damadian 3002:Russian Armenia 2981:Armenakan Party 2977:Bashkaleh clash 2964: 2958: 2942: 2936: 2931: 2930: 2929: 2928: 2927: 2924: 2916: 2915: 2912: 2904: 2903: 2900: 2891: 2890: 2872: 2850:Egypt and Sudan 2833:to support the 2827: 2821: 2805: 2788: 2769:, most notably 2704:Austria-Hungary 2681:Eastern Rumelia 2654: 2653: 2652: 2651: 2650: 2640: 2632: 2631: 2624: 2615: 2614: 2608: 2580:Austria-Hungary 2512: 2511: 2510: 2509: 2508: 2503: 2494: 2493: 2487: 2482: 2444: 2435: 2430: 2429: 2428: 2427: 2426: 2423: 2415: 2414: 2411: 2402: 2401: 2332: 2321: 2315: 2312: 2297: 2281: 2270: 2264: 2246: 2233: 2222: 2216: 2213: 2198: 2182: 2171: 2166: 2165: 2164: 2163: 2162: 2156: 2148: 2147: 2144: 2136: 2135: 2132: 2123: 2122: 2072: 2061: 2055: 2052: 2037: 2021: 2010: 2008:Bulgaria, 1870s 1950: 1922: 1911: 1905: 1902: 1887: 1871: 1860: 1756: 1688:Encümen-i Daniş 1652: 1624: 1613: 1607: 1604: 1589: 1573: 1562: 1520:Maarif Nezareti 1481: 1476: 1375: 1369: 1343: 1324: 1313: 1307: 1304: 1289: 1273: 1262: 1218: 1212: 1195: 1159: 1153: 1048: 1037: 1031: 1028: 1013: 997: 986: 942: 906: 895: 894: 893: 888: 877: 871: 868: 865: 850: 835: 824: 818: 815: 804: 792: 751: 747: 740: 735: 633:contributed to 592:ethnic conflict 555: 544: 538: 535: 520: 504: 493: 430: 385: 384: 379: 371: 363: 355: 347: 340: 337: 327: 326: 321: 313: 305: 298: 295: 285: 284: 279: 272: 269: 259: 258: 253: 246: 243: 233: 232: 227: 220: 217: 207: 206: 196: 189:Beylik of Osman 184: 181: 152: 143: 128: 117: 111: 108: 65: 63: 53: 41: 30: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 6519: 6517: 6509: 6508: 6498: 6497: 6491: 6490: 6488: 6487: 6482: 6481: 6480: 6479: 6478: 6473: 6468: 6460: 6455: 6445: 6440: 6438:Russo-Japanese 6435: 6430: 6425: 6420: 6415: 6410: 6405: 6403:Anglo-Egyptian 6400: 6394: 6392: 6388: 6387: 6385: 6384: 6379: 6377:Bosnian Crisis 6374: 6373: 6372: 6362: 6361: 6360: 6350: 6345: 6340: 6335: 6330: 6329: 6328: 6326:Austro-Italian 6323: 6322: 6321: 6316: 6301: 6294: 6289: 6284: 6279: 6274: 6269: 6264: 6258: 6256: 6252: 6251: 6249: 6248: 6243: 6238: 6233: 6228: 6227: 6226: 6224:Martens Clause 6216: 6211: 6206: 6201: 6196: 6191: 6190: 6189: 6179: 6173: 6171: 6165: 6164: 6162: 6161: 6160: 6159: 6149: 6144: 6139: 6138: 6137: 6136: 6135: 6130: 6125: 6120: 6110: 6109: 6108: 6106:Egyptian Lever 6093: 6091:Pax Britannica 6088: 6087: 6086: 6076: 6075: 6074: 6072:Sovereign debt 6069: 6064: 6054: 6048: 6046: 6042: 6041: 6039: 6038: 6033: 6028: 6023: 6018: 6017: 6016: 6011: 6006: 5999:Triple Entente 5996: 5995: 5994: 5983: 5981: 5977: 5976: 5974: 5973: 5968: 5966:United Kingdom 5963: 5958: 5953: 5948: 5943: 5938: 5932: 5930: 5926: 5925: 5920: 5918: 5917: 5910: 5903: 5895: 5886: 5885: 5883: 5882: 5870: 5858: 5846: 5834: 5821: 5818: 5817: 5814: 5813: 5811: 5810: 5805: 5800: 5795: 5790: 5785: 5784: 5783: 5773: 5768: 5763: 5758: 5753: 5748: 5747: 5746: 5744:Radio stations 5741: 5736: 5726: 5721: 5716: 5711: 5706: 5701: 5696: 5691: 5690: 5689: 5679: 5674: 5669: 5664: 5663: 5662: 5657: 5647: 5641: 5639: 5630: 5629: 5624: 5619: 5614: 5613: 5612: 5607: 5602: 5592: 5587: 5586: 5585: 5575: 5570: 5569: 5568: 5557: 5555: 5551: 5550: 5548: 5547: 5542: 5537: 5536: 5535: 5530: 5525: 5515: 5514: 5513: 5503: 5502: 5501: 5491: 5486: 5481: 5479:Turkish people 5475: 5473: 5467: 5466: 5464: 5463: 5462: 5461: 5456: 5451: 5444:Transportation 5441: 5436: 5431: 5426: 5421: 5420: 5419: 5414: 5409: 5404: 5394: 5389: 5384: 5379: 5374: 5368: 5366: 5360: 5359: 5356: 5355: 5353: 5352: 5351: 5350: 5345: 5340: 5330: 5325: 5324: 5323: 5318: 5308: 5303: 5298: 5292: 5290: 5286: 5285: 5283: 5282: 5277: 5272: 5267: 5266: 5265: 5260: 5249: 5247: 5241: 5240: 5238: 5237: 5236: 5235: 5230: 5225: 5220: 5210: 5209: 5208: 5198: 5192: 5190: 5183: 5177: 5176: 5173: 5172: 5170: 5169: 5164: 5159: 5154: 5152:National parks 5149: 5144: 5139: 5134: 5129: 5124: 5123: 5122: 5117: 5107: 5106: 5105: 5100: 5090: 5089: 5088: 5086:Climate change 5077: 5075: 5071: 5070: 5068: 5067: 5062: 5057: 5052: 5047: 5042: 5037: 5035:Marmara Region 5031: 5029: 5027:(west to east) 5016: 5010: 5009: 5006: 5005: 5003: 5002: 4997: 4992: 4987: 4982: 4981: 4980: 4969: 4967: 4963: 4962: 4960: 4959: 4954: 4953: 4952: 4942: 4940:Constitutional 4936: 4934: 4930: 4929: 4927: 4926: 4921: 4916: 4915: 4914: 4909: 4899: 4894: 4888: 4886: 4880: 4879: 4877: 4876: 4875: 4874: 4864: 4863: 4862: 4857: 4852: 4842: 4841: 4840: 4830: 4828:Transformation 4825: 4824: 4823: 4813: 4807: 4805: 4803:Ottoman Empire 4799: 4798: 4796: 4795: 4790: 4785: 4784: 4783: 4772: 4770: 4760: 4759: 4757: 4756: 4751: 4746: 4740: 4738: 4731: 4725: 4724: 4712: 4710: 4709: 4702: 4695: 4687: 4681: 4680: 4670: 4665:Palmer, Alan. 4663: 4654: 4651: 4649: 4648: 4632: 4613: 4598: 4596:, pp. 61) 4585: 4564: 4551: 4538: 4536:, pp. 60) 4525: 4512: 4503: 4501:, pp. 59) 4490: 4474: 4468:Janet Klein’s 4455: 4451:Norman Naimark 4434: 4416: 4406: 4393: 4377: 4358: 4337: 4324: 4311: 4302: 4290: 4276: 4261: 4247: 4234: 4221: 4208: 4195: 4180: 4160: 4135: 4107: 4098: 4072: 4059: 4046: 4015: 4006: 3980: 3971: 3958: 3932: 3906: 3880: 3857: 3830: 3812: 3781: 3771:PTT Chronology 3754: 3732: 3726:978-1345960501 3725: 3707: 3694: 3685: 3648:(4): 477–493. 3623: 3612:on 14 May 2019 3587: 3585: 3584: 3562: 3544: 3537: 3519: 3512: 3493: 3491: 3488: 3487: 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I.B. Tauris. 3426: 3420: 3400: 3382:(2): 237–274. 3369: 3366: 3365: 3364: 3361: 3354: 3352: 3349: 3342: 3340: 3337: 3330: 3328: 3325: 3318: 3314: 3311: 3288: 3287: 3238: 3236: 3229: 3223: 3220: 3215:Abdul Hamid II 3109: 3106: 3052: 3051:Reform program 3049: 2957: 2954: 2935: 2932: 2925: 2918: 2917: 2913: 2906: 2905: 2901: 2894: 2893: 2892: 2888: 2887: 2886: 2885: 2871: 2868: 2860:Central Powers 2846:Khedive Tewfiq 2820: 2817: 2809:Abdul Hamid II 2804: 2801: 2787: 2784: 2743:Central Powers 2641: 2634: 2633: 2625: 2618: 2617: 2616: 2612: 2611: 2610: 2609: 2607: 2604: 2562:River and the 2552:Ottoman Empire 2532:Ottoman Empire 2504: 2497: 2496: 2495: 2491: 2490: 2489: 2488: 2486: 2483: 2481: 2478: 2470:Young Ottomans 2452:Ottoman Empire 2443: 2440: 2434: 2431: 2424: 2417: 2416: 2412: 2405: 2404: 2403: 2399: 2398: 2397: 2396: 2362:Young Ottomans 2350:Young Ottomans 2334: 2333: 2316:September 2016 2284: 2282: 2275: 2263: 2260: 2245: 2242: 2235: 2234: 2185: 2183: 2176: 2170: 2167: 2157: 2150: 2149: 2145: 2138: 2137: 2133: 2126: 2125: 2124: 2120: 2119: 2118: 2117: 2112:April Uprising 2074: 2073: 2024: 2022: 2015: 2009: 2006: 1976:of 1863. This 1968:The Christian 1949: 1946: 1924: 1923: 1874: 1872: 1865: 1859: 1856: 1829:Caucasian Wars 1821:Crimean Tatars 1755: 1752: 1657:Hatt-ı Hümayun 1651: 1648: 1626: 1625: 1576: 1574: 1567: 1561: 1558: 1528:darülmuallimin 1480: 1477: 1475: 1472: 1368: 1365: 1326: 1325: 1308:September 2016 1276: 1274: 1267: 1261: 1258: 1246:Constantinople 1211: 1208: 1194: 1191: 1152: 1149: 1110:, Britain and 1088:Central Greece 1050: 1049: 1032:September 2016 1000: 998: 991: 985: 982: 964:. In 1821 the 941: 938: 924:attending the 908: 907: 890: 889: 872:September 2016 856:listed sources 853: 851: 844: 837: 836: 819:September 2016 795: 793: 786: 781: 755: 754: 752: 745: 739: 736: 734: 731: 675:Prime Minister 639:Ottoman Empire 557: 556: 539:September 2016 507: 505: 498: 492: 489: 463:Hatt-ı Hümayun 438:Ottoman Empire 432: 431: 429: 428: 421: 414: 406: 403: 402: 391:Historiography 387: 386: 383: 382: 374: 366: 358: 350: 341: 333: 332: 329: 328: 325: 324: 316: 308: 303:Nizam-i Djedid 299: 291: 290: 287: 286: 283: 282: 273: 265: 264: 261: 260: 257: 256: 247: 241:Transformation 239: 238: 235: 234: 231: 230: 221: 213: 212: 209: 208: 205: 204: 199: 191: 185: 177: 176: 173: 172: 166: 165: 157: 156: 154:Ottoman Empire 145: 144: 137: 130: 129: 112:September 2016 44: 42: 35: 28: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6518: 6507: 6504: 6503: 6501: 6486: 6483: 6477: 6474: 6472: 6469: 6467: 6464: 6463: 6461: 6459: 6456: 6454: 6451: 6450: 6449: 6446: 6444: 6443:Italo-Turkish 6441: 6439: 6436: 6434: 6431: 6429: 6426: 6424: 6421: 6419: 6416: 6414: 6411: 6409: 6406: 6404: 6401: 6399: 6398:Russo-Turkish 6396: 6395: 6393: 6389: 6383: 6380: 6378: 6375: 6371: 6370:Treaty of Fes 6368: 6367: 6366: 6365:Agadir Crisis 6363: 6359: 6356: 6355: 6354: 6351: 6349: 6346: 6344: 6341: 6339: 6336: 6334: 6331: 6327: 6324: 6320: 6317: 6315: 6314: 6310: 6309: 6308: 6305: 6304: 6302: 6300: 6299: 6295: 6293: 6290: 6288: 6285: 6283: 6280: 6278: 6275: 6273: 6270: 6268: 6265: 6263: 6260: 6259: 6257: 6253: 6247: 6244: 6242: 6239: 6237: 6234: 6232: 6229: 6225: 6222: 6221: 6220: 6217: 6215: 6212: 6210: 6207: 6205: 6202: 6200: 6197: 6195: 6192: 6188: 6185: 6184: 6183: 6180: 6178: 6175: 6174: 6172: 6166: 6158: 6155: 6154: 6153: 6150: 6148: 6145: 6143: 6140: 6134: 6131: 6129: 6126: 6124: 6121: 6119: 6116: 6115: 6114: 6111: 6107: 6104: 6103: 6102: 6099: 6098: 6097: 6094: 6092: 6089: 6085: 6082: 6081: 6080: 6077: 6073: 6070: 6068: 6065: 6063: 6060: 6059: 6058: 6055: 6053: 6050: 6049: 6047: 6043: 6037: 6036:Balkan League 6034: 6032: 6029: 6027: 6024: 6022: 6019: 6015: 6012: 6010: 6007: 6005: 6002: 6001: 6000: 5997: 5993: 5992:Dual Alliance 5990: 5989: 5988: 5985: 5984: 5982: 5978: 5972: 5971:United States 5969: 5967: 5964: 5962: 5959: 5957: 5954: 5952: 5949: 5947: 5944: 5942: 5939: 5937: 5934: 5933: 5931: 5927: 5923: 5916: 5911: 5909: 5904: 5902: 5897: 5896: 5893: 5881: 5880: 5871: 5869: 5868: 5859: 5857: 5856: 5847: 5845: 5844: 5835: 5833: 5832: 5827: 5823: 5822: 5819: 5809: 5806: 5804: 5801: 5799: 5796: 5794: 5791: 5789: 5786: 5782: 5779: 5778: 5777: 5774: 5772: 5769: 5767: 5764: 5762: 5759: 5757: 5754: 5752: 5749: 5745: 5742: 5740: 5737: 5735: 5732: 5731: 5730: 5727: 5725: 5722: 5720: 5717: 5715: 5712: 5710: 5707: 5705: 5702: 5700: 5697: 5695: 5692: 5688: 5685: 5684: 5683: 5680: 5678: 5675: 5673: 5670: 5668: 5665: 5661: 5658: 5656: 5653: 5652: 5651: 5648: 5646: 5643: 5642: 5640: 5638: 5634: 5628: 5625: 5623: 5620: 5618: 5615: 5611: 5608: 5606: 5603: 5601: 5598: 5597: 5596: 5593: 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5153: 5150: 5148: 5145: 5143: 5140: 5138: 5135: 5133: 5130: 5128: 5125: 5121: 5118: 5116: 5115:Air pollution 5113: 5112: 5111: 5108: 5104: 5101: 5099: 5096: 5095: 5094: 5091: 5087: 5084: 5083: 5082: 5079: 5078: 5076: 5072: 5066: 5063: 5061: 5058: 5056: 5053: 5051: 5048: 5046: 5043: 5041: 5040:Aegean Region 5038: 5036: 5033: 5032: 5030: 5024: 5020: 5017: 5015: 5011: 5001: 4998: 4996: 4993: 4991: 4988: 4986: 4985:Turkification 4983: 4979: 4976: 4975: 4974: 4971: 4970: 4968: 4964: 4958: 4955: 4951: 4948: 4947: 4946: 4943: 4941: 4938: 4937: 4935: 4931: 4925: 4922: 4920: 4917: 4913: 4910: 4908: 4905: 4904: 4903: 4900: 4898: 4895: 4893: 4890: 4889: 4887: 4885: 4881: 4873: 4870: 4869: 4868: 4865: 4861: 4858: 4856: 4853: 4851: 4848: 4847: 4846: 4843: 4839: 4836: 4835: 4834: 4831: 4829: 4826: 4822: 4819: 4818: 4817: 4816:Classical Age 4814: 4812: 4809: 4808: 4806: 4804: 4800: 4794: 4791: 4789: 4786: 4782: 4779: 4778: 4777: 4776:Seljuk Empire 4774: 4773: 4771: 4769: 4765: 4761: 4755: 4752: 4750: 4747: 4745: 4742: 4741: 4739: 4735: 4732: 4730: 4726: 4722: 4717: 4708: 4703: 4701: 4696: 4694: 4689: 4688: 4685: 4679: 4675: 4674:Slavic Review 4671: 4668: 4664: 4661: 4657: 4656: 4652: 4645: 4641: 4636: 4633: 4629: 4628:Denise Natali 4624: 4622: 4620: 4618: 4614: 4609: 4602: 4599: 4595: 4594:McDowall 2004 4589: 4586: 4582: 4581:0-312-10168-6 4578: 4574: 4568: 4565: 4561: 4555: 4552: 4548: 4547:McDowall 2004 4542: 4539: 4535: 4534:McDowall 2004 4529: 4526: 4522: 4521:McDowall 2004 4516: 4513: 4507: 4504: 4500: 4499:McDowall 2004 4494: 4491: 4487: 4483: 4478: 4475: 4471: 4467: 4462: 4460: 4456: 4452: 4448: 4444: 4438: 4435: 4431: 4425: 4423: 4421: 4417: 4410: 4407: 4403: 4397: 4394: 4390: 4389:McDowall 2004 4384: 4382: 4378: 4373: 4369: 4362: 4359: 4347: 4341: 4338: 4334: 4328: 4325: 4321: 4315: 4312: 4306: 4303: 4297: 4295: 4291: 4285: 4283: 4281: 4277: 4272: 4265: 4262: 4257: 4251: 4248: 4244: 4238: 4235: 4231: 4225: 4222: 4218: 4212: 4209: 4205: 4199: 4196: 4191: 4187: 4183: 4177: 4173: 4172: 4164: 4161: 4149: 4145: 4139: 4136: 4132: 4131:0-312-10168-6 4128: 4124: 4120: 4116: 4111: 4108: 4102: 4099: 4095: 4089: 4087: 4085: 4083: 4081: 4079: 4077: 4073: 4069: 4063: 4060: 4056: 4050: 4047: 4043: 4039: 4035: 4031: 4028: 4026: 4019: 4016: 4010: 4007: 3994: 3990: 3984: 3981: 3975: 3972: 3968: 3962: 3959: 3946: 3942: 3936: 3933: 3920: 3916: 3910: 3907: 3903: 3899: 3895: 3892: 3887: 3885: 3881: 3876: 3872: 3866: 3864: 3862: 3858: 3854: 3853: 3849: 3845: 3842: 3837: 3835: 3831: 3828: 3824: 3821: 3816: 3813: 3800: 3796: 3790: 3788: 3786: 3782: 3779: 3775: 3772: 3767: 3765: 3763: 3761: 3759: 3755: 3751:. p. 10. 3750: 3749:Faith Matters 3743: 3736: 3733: 3728: 3722: 3718: 3711: 3708: 3704: 3698: 3695: 3689: 3686: 3681: 3677: 3673: 3669: 3665: 3661: 3656: 3651: 3647: 3643: 3639: 3632: 3630: 3628: 3624: 3611: 3607: 3603: 3602: 3597: 3591: 3588: 3582: 3578: 3574: 3569: 3568: 3565: 3559: 3555: 3548: 3545: 3540: 3538:0-521-57456-0 3534: 3530: 3523: 3520: 3515: 3509: 3505: 3498: 3495: 3489: 3485: 3482: 3480: 3477: 3475: 3472: 3471: 3467: 3461: 3457: 3453: 3449: 3445: 3441: 3436: 3432: 3427: 3423: 3417: 3412: 3411: 3405: 3401: 3397: 3393: 3389: 3385: 3381: 3377: 3372: 3371: 3367: 3358: 3353: 3346: 3341: 3334: 3329: 3322: 3317: 3313:Image gallery 3312: 3310: 3308: 3303: 3299: 3295: 3284: 3281: 3273: 3263: 3259: 3255: 3249: 3248: 3244: 3239:This section 3237: 3233: 3228: 3227: 3221: 3219: 3216: 3212: 3208: 3204: 3200: 3196: 3192: 3187: 3183: 3181: 3177: 3173: 3169: 3165: 3161: 3157: 3153: 3149: 3145: 3141: 3137: 3133: 3124: 3119: 3115: 3107: 3105: 3101: 3097: 3095: 3091: 3087: 3081: 3079: 3075: 3070: 3066: 3062: 3058: 3050: 3048: 3046: 3042: 3041:Yıldız Palace 3038: 3034: 3030: 3026: 3022: 3018: 3014: 3010: 3005: 3003: 2999: 2995: 2990: 2986: 2982: 2978: 2973: 2970: 2963: 2955: 2953: 2951: 2947: 2941: 2933: 2922: 2910: 2898: 2884: 2880: 2877: 2874:In 1867, the 2869: 2867: 2866:in response. 2865: 2861: 2857: 2856: 2851: 2847: 2843: 2838: 2836: 2832: 2826: 2825:Ottoman Egypt 2818: 2816: 2814: 2810: 2807:The reign of 2802: 2797: 2792: 2785: 2783: 2781: 2776: 2772: 2768: 2762: 2760: 2756: 2750: 2748: 2744: 2740: 2736: 2732: 2728: 2723: 2721: 2717: 2713: 2709: 2705: 2700: 2698: 2694: 2690: 2686: 2682: 2678: 2673: 2671: 2667: 2663: 2659: 2648: 2644: 2638: 2629: 2622: 2605: 2603: 2601: 2597: 2593: 2590:to take over 2589: 2588:Great Britain 2585: 2581: 2578:also allowed 2577: 2573: 2569: 2565: 2561: 2557: 2553: 2549: 2545: 2541: 2537: 2533: 2529: 2525: 2521: 2517: 2507: 2501: 2484: 2479: 2477: 2475: 2474:Abdülhamid II 2471: 2467: 2463: 2462: 2461:Kanûn-ı Esâsî 2457: 2453: 2449: 2441: 2439: 2432: 2421: 2409: 2395: 2393: 2392: 2391:Kanûn-ı Esâsî 2387: 2386:Abdülhamid II 2383: 2379: 2375: 2374:military coup 2371: 2367: 2363: 2359: 2355: 2351: 2347: 2343: 2342: 2341:Kanûn-u Esâsî 2330: 2327: 2319: 2309: 2305: 2301: 2295: 2294: 2290: 2285:This section 2283: 2279: 2274: 2273: 2269: 2261: 2259: 2256: 2251: 2250:Panic of 1873 2243: 2241: 2231: 2228: 2220: 2210: 2206: 2202: 2196: 2195: 2191: 2186:This section 2184: 2180: 2175: 2174: 2168: 2161: 2154: 2142: 2130: 2116: 2113: 2109: 2105: 2101: 2097: 2093: 2089: 2085: 2081: 2070: 2067: 2059: 2049: 2045: 2041: 2035: 2034: 2030: 2025:This section 2023: 2019: 2014: 2013: 2007: 2005: 2003: 1999: 1998:Büyük Postane 1995: 1989: 1987: 1983: 1979: 1975: 1971: 1966: 1964: 1959: 1955: 1947: 1945: 1942: 1935: 1930: 1920: 1917: 1909: 1899: 1895: 1891: 1885: 1884: 1880: 1875:This section 1873: 1869: 1864: 1863: 1857: 1855: 1852: 1851: 1846: 1842: 1838: 1834: 1831:, 90% of the 1830: 1826: 1822: 1817: 1815: 1810: 1808: 1804: 1800: 1796: 1792: 1788: 1784: 1780: 1776: 1771: 1769: 1760: 1753: 1751: 1748: 1746: 1742: 1738: 1734: 1730: 1726: 1725:Bank-ı Osmanî 1722: 1718: 1713: 1709: 1705: 1701: 1697: 1693: 1689: 1685: 1680: 1678: 1674: 1670: 1666: 1664: 1659: 1658: 1654:In 1856, the 1649: 1647: 1646:) documents. 1645: 1641: 1637: 1632: 1622: 1619: 1611: 1601: 1597: 1593: 1587: 1586: 1582: 1577:This section 1575: 1571: 1566: 1565: 1559: 1557: 1555: 1551: 1547: 1543: 1539: 1535: 1531: 1529: 1525: 1521: 1517: 1513: 1509: 1505: 1501: 1497: 1492: 1490: 1486: 1478: 1473: 1471: 1469: 1463: 1461: 1457: 1453: 1449: 1445: 1441: 1437: 1433: 1429: 1424: 1422: 1418: 1414: 1410: 1406: 1402: 1398: 1394: 1393:Hatt-i Sharif 1391:In 1839, the 1387: 1383: 1379: 1374: 1366: 1364: 1361: 1357: 1353: 1349: 1348: 1341: 1338: 1334: 1322: 1319: 1311: 1301: 1297: 1293: 1287: 1286: 1282: 1277:This section 1275: 1271: 1266: 1265: 1259: 1257: 1255: 1254:Ibrahim Pasha 1251: 1247: 1243: 1239: 1235: 1231: 1227: 1223: 1217: 1209: 1207: 1205: 1200: 1192: 1190: 1187: 1185: 1181: 1177: 1173: 1168: 1164: 1158: 1150: 1148: 1146: 1145: 1140: 1136: 1131: 1129: 1125: 1121: 1117: 1113: 1109: 1105: 1101: 1097: 1096:Ibrahim Pasha 1093: 1089: 1085: 1081: 1077: 1074:had captured 1073: 1069: 1065: 1061: 1057: 1056:Filiki Eteria 1046: 1043: 1035: 1025: 1021: 1017: 1011: 1010: 1006: 1001:This section 999: 995: 990: 989: 984:Greeks, 1820s 983: 981: 979: 975: 971: 967: 963: 959: 955: 951: 947: 939: 937: 935: 931: 927: 921: 918: 914: 904: 901: 886: 883: 875: 863: 862: 857: 852: 848: 843: 842: 833: 830: 822: 812: 808: 802: 801: 796:This section 794: 790: 785: 784: 779: 777: 770: 769: 764: 763: 758: 753: 744: 743: 737: 732: 730: 728: 724: 720: 716: 711: 709: 704: 703:Panic of 1873 700: 696: 690: 685: 683: 679: 676: 672: 668: 664: 660: 659:capitulations 656: 652: 651:liberal trade 648: 644: 643:protectionism 640: 636: 632: 628: 623: 621: 617: 613: 609: 605: 600: 596: 593: 588: 584: 580: 576: 572: 563: 553: 550: 542: 532: 528: 524: 518: 517: 513: 508:This section 506: 502: 497: 496: 490: 488: 487:(1908–1922). 486: 482: 479:By 1908, the 477: 475: 471: 466: 464: 460: 456: 452: 451:Nizam-I Cedid 448: 444: 439: 427: 422: 420: 415: 413: 408: 407: 405: 404: 400: 396: 392: 389: 388: 378: 375: 370: 367: 362: 359: 354: 351: 346: 343: 342: 336: 331: 330: 320: 317: 312: 309: 304: 301: 300: 294: 289: 288: 278: 275: 274: 268: 263: 262: 252: 249: 248: 242: 237: 236: 226: 223: 222: 216: 215:Classical Age 211: 210: 203: 200: 195: 192: 190: 187: 186: 180: 175: 174: 171: 168: 167: 163: 159: 158: 155: 150: 146: 141: 135: 126: 123: 115: 104: 101: 97: 94: 90: 87: 83: 80: 76: 73: – 72: 68: 67:Find sources: 61: 57: 51: 50: 45:This article 43: 39: 34: 33: 27: 19: 6311: 6307:Anglo-German 6296: 6168:Treaties and 6056: 5929:Great powers 5877: 5865: 5853: 5841: 5829: 5714:Illumination 5650:Architecture 5578:Human rights 5566:Universities 5484:Ethnic Kurds 5471:Demographics 5382:Construction 4844: 4673: 4666: 4659: 4643: 4635: 4607: 4601: 4588: 4572: 4567: 4559: 4554: 4541: 4528: 4515: 4506: 4493: 4485: 4477: 4469: 4442: 4437: 4429: 4409: 4401: 4396: 4371: 4367: 4361: 4349:. Retrieved 4340: 4327: 4314: 4305: 4270: 4264: 4250: 4242: 4237: 4229: 4224: 4219:(1970) p 841 4216: 4211: 4203: 4198: 4170: 4163: 4151:. Retrieved 4147: 4138: 4118: 4110: 4101: 4093: 4067: 4062: 4054: 4049: 4041: 4024: 4018: 4009: 3997:. Retrieved 3993:the original 3983: 3974: 3966: 3961: 3949:. Retrieved 3945:the original 3935: 3923:. Retrieved 3919:the original 3909: 3901: 3875:the original 3850: 3815: 3803:. Retrieved 3799:the original 3748: 3735: 3716: 3710: 3703:Kinross 1977 3697: 3688: 3645: 3641: 3614:. Retrieved 3610:the original 3600: 3596:Paul Bairoch 3590: 3580: 3576: 3572: 3553: 3547: 3528: 3522: 3503: 3497: 3443: 3439: 3430: 3409: 3379: 3375: 3368:Bibliography 3291: 3276: 3270:October 2016 3267: 3252:Please help 3240: 3207:Ottoman Bank 3188: 3184: 3140:Muzuri Kurds 3135: 3129: 3118:Muzuri Kurds 3102: 3098: 3082: 3071: 3068: 3006: 2974: 2965: 2946:constitution 2943: 2881: 2873: 2853: 2839: 2828: 2812: 2806: 2763: 2751: 2739:Urabi Revolt 2724: 2701: 2674: 2655: 2547: 2513: 2459: 2445: 2436: 2433:1876 Murat V 2389: 2339: 2337: 2322: 2313: 2298:Please help 2286: 2247: 2244:Debt default 2238: 2223: 2217:October 2016 2214: 2199:Please help 2187: 2108:Vasil Levski 2078:The rise of 2077: 2062: 2056:October 2016 2053: 2038:Please help 2026: 1990: 1981: 1967: 1962: 1953: 1951: 1938: 1912: 1906:October 2016 1903: 1888:Please help 1876: 1848: 1818: 1811: 1772: 1765: 1749: 1744: 1740: 1736: 1732: 1728: 1724: 1707: 1703: 1699: 1695: 1691: 1687: 1683: 1681: 1663:Hatt-ı Şerif 1662: 1655: 1653: 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Knowledge (XXG)

Decline and modernization of the Ottoman Empire

Index