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seeing it as a type of initiation in which worthwhile forms of thought and awareness are conveyed from teachers to their students. This is based on the idea that both teachers and students participate in the shared experience of a common world. The teachers are more familiar with this world and try to guide the students by passing on their knowledge and understanding. Ideally, this process is motivated by curiosity and excitement on the part of the students to discover what there is and what it is like so that they may one day themselves become authorities on the subject. This conception can be used for answering questions about the contents of the
294:. Thin definitions aim to provide a value-neutral description of what education is, independent of whether and to whom it is useful. Thick definitions, on the other hand, include various evaluative and normative components in their characterization, for example, the claim that education implies that the person educated has changed for the better. Otherwise, the process would not deserve the label "education". However, different thick definitions of education may still disagree with each other on what kind of values are involved and in which sense the change in question is an improvement. A closely related distinction is that between
213:. On this view, there may be various language games or contexts in which the term "education" is used, in each one with a slightly different meaning. Following this line of thought, it has been suggested that definitions of education should limit themselves to a specific context without claiming to be true for all possible uses of the term. The most paradigmatic form of education takes place in schools. Many researchers have specifically this type of education in mind and some define it explicitly as the discipline investigating the methods of teaching and learning in a
266:, "ducation is the deliberate, systematic, and sustained effort to transmit, provoke or acquire knowledge, values, attitudes, skills or sensibilities as well as any learning that results from the effort". Another definition sees education as "a serious and sustained programme of learning, for the benefit of people qua people rather than only qua role-fillers or functionaries, above the level of what people might pick up for themselves in their daily lives'". The English word "education" has its
318:, which are sometimes used by individual researchers as shortcuts for what they mean when they use the term without claiming that these are the essential features commonly associated with all forms of education. Thick and prescriptive conceptions are closely related to the aims of education in the sense that they understand education as a process aimed at a certain valuable goal that constitutes an improvement of the learner. Such improvements are often understood in terms of
367:. Some theorists try to provide a wide overarching framework. The various specific goals are then seen as aims of education to the extent that they serve this overarching purpose. When this purpose is understood in relation to society, education may be defined as the process of transmitting, from one generation to the next, the accumulated knowledge and skills needed to function as a regular citizen in a specific society. In this regard, education is equivalent to
194:
wide agreement that many forms of education fall under these three criteria, opponents have rejected that they are true for all of them by providing various counterexamples. For example, in regard to the third criterion, it may be sometimes necessary to educate children about certain facts even though they are not interested in learning about these facts. And regarding the second criterion, not everyone agrees that education is always
334:, i.e. in relation to the purpose that the process of education tries to realize. The transmission of knowledge has a central role in this regard, but most accounts include other aims as well, such as fostering the student's values, attitudes, skills, and sensibilities. However, it has been argued that picking up certain skills and know-how without the corresponding knowledge and
198:. Because of the various difficulties and counterexamples with this and other precise definitions, some theorists have argued that there is no one true definition of education. In this regard, the different forms of education may be seen as a group of loosely connected topics and "different groups within a society may have differing legitimate conceptions of education".
205:. This is to say that there is no one precise set of features shared by all and only by forms of education. Instead, there is a group of many features characteristic of education. Some of these features apply to one form of education while slightly different ones are exemplified by another form of education. In this sense, any two forms of education are
242:
the fact that education initially seems to be a straightforward and common-sense concept that people usually use outside the academic discourse without much controversy. This impression hides various conceptual confusions and disagreements that only come to light in the attempt to make explicit the common pre-understanding associated with the term.
375:. More liberal or person-centered definitions, on the other hand, see the overarching purpose in relation to the individual learner instead: education is to help them develop their potential in order to lead a good life or the life they wish to lead, independently of the social ramifications of this process.
168:
Many definitions see education as a task or a process. In this regard, the conception of education is based on what happens during events like schooling, training, instructing, teaching, and learning. This process may in turn be understood either from the perspective of the teacher or with a focus on
445:
Other theories aim to provide a more encompassing perspective that takes both the teacher's and the student's point of view into account. Peters, in response to the criticism of his initially proposed definition, has changed his conception of education by giving a wider and less precise definition,
441:
to direct the course of subsequent experience". This way, the student's future experience is enriched and the student thereby undergoes a form of growth. Opponents of this conception have criticized its lack of a normative component. For example, the increase of undesirable abilities, like learning
156:
of education. Many general characteristics have been ascribed to education. However, there are several disagreements concerning its exact definition and a great variety of definitions have been proposed by theorists belonging to diverse fields. There is wide agreement that education is a purposeful
424:
Most conceptions of education either explicitly or implicitly hold that education involves the relation between teacher and student. Some theorists give their characterization mainly from the teacher's perspective, usually emphasizing the act of transmitting knowledge or other skills, while others
241:
education is like, one has to already assume some idea of what education is to decide what constitutes a good instance. It is also central for questions about how to achieve and measure the results of educational processes. The importance of providing an explicit definition is further increased by
193:
of education: (1) it is concerned with the transmission of knowledge and understanding; (2) this transmission is worthwhile and (3) done in a morally appropriate manner in tune with the student's interests. This definition has received a lot of criticism in the academic literature. While there is
173:, and character traits exemplified by educated persons. In this regard, being educated implies having an encompassing familiarity with various topics. So one does not become an educated person just by undergoing specialized training in one specific field. Besides these two meanings, the term "
351:. Examples of epistemic goods are truth, knowledge, and understanding. Skill-based accounts, on the other hand, hold that the goal of education is to develop skills like rationality and critical thinking. For character-based accounts, its main purpose is to foster certain character traits or
469:. It is the role of the teacher to deposit knowledge into the passive students, thereby shaping their character and outlook on the world. Instead, Freire favors a libertarian conception of education. On this view, teachers and students work together in a common activity of posing and
415:
has developed sufficiently to assess and evaluate reasons for and against particular claims and thus employ critical thinking. In this regard, critical thinking may still be an important aim of education but not an essential feature characterizing all forms of education.
180:
Education is usually understood as a very general term that has a wide family of diverse instances. Nonetheless, some attempts have been made to give a precise definition of the essential features shared by all forms of education. An influential early attempt was made by
477:, not by consuming ideas created by others but by producing and acting upon one's own ideas. Students and teachers are co-investigators of reality and the role of the teacher is to guide this process by representing the universe instead of merely lecturing about it.
228:
Clarity about the nature of education is important for various concerns. In a general sense, it is needed to identify and coherently talk about education. In this regard, all the subsequent academic discourse on topics like the aims of education, the
54:
by having overlapping features but there is no set of features shared by all forms. Clarity about the nature of education is central for various issues, for example, to coherently talk about the subject and to determine how to achieve and measure it.
429:. In it, he considers education to be the transmission of knowledge and skills while emphasizing that teachers should achieve this in a morally appropriate manner that reflects the student's interests. A student-centered definition is given by
338:
does not constitute education, strictly speaking. But the same limitation may also be true for pure knowledge that is not accompanied by positive practical effects on the individual's life. The various specific aims are sometimes divided into
169:
the student's experience instead. However, other theorists focus mainly on education as an achievement, a state, or a product that results as a consequence of the process of being educated. Such approaches are usually based on the features,
140:, for example, based on how education transforms and enriches their subsequent experience. Some conceptions take both the teacher's and the student's point of view into account by focusing on their shared experience of a common world.
410:
status or fostering the ability to question those beliefs. But not all researchers accept this hard distinction. A few hold that, at least in the early stages of education, some forms of indoctrination are necessary until the child's
124:
or helping the learner lead a good life. The more specific aims can then be understood as means to achieve this overarching purpose. Various researchers emphasize the role of critical thinking to distinguish education from
34:. But there are deep disagreements about its exact nature and characteristics. Some definitions see education as a process exemplified in events like schooling, teaching, and learning. Others understand it not as a
253:
revised his earlier definitions and understands education in his later philosophy as a form of initiation in which teachers share the experience of a common world with their students and convey worthwhile forms of
425:
focus more on the learning experience of the student. The teacher-centered perspective on education is often seen as the traditional position. An influential example is found in the early philosophy of
442:
how to become an expert burglar, should not be understood as a form of education even though it is a reorganization of experience that directs the course of subsequent experience.
132:
Traditional accounts of education characterize it mainly from the teacher's perspective, usually by describing it as a process in which they transmit knowledge and skills to their
306:. Descriptive definitions aim to provide a description of how the term "education" is actually used. They contrast with prescriptive definitions, which stipulate what education
161:. But it is often pointed out that this factor alone is not sufficient and needs to be accompanied by other factors, such as the acquisition of practical skills or instilling
46:. The failure of such attempts, often in the form of being unable to account for various counter examples, has led many theorists to adopt less precise conceptions based on
177:" may also refer to the academic field studying the methods and processes involved in teaching and learning or to social institutions employing these processes.
286:
aspects should already be included in the definition of education and, if so, what roles they play. An important distinction in this regard is between
70:
include evaluative and normative components, for example, by holding that education implies that the person educated has changed for the better.
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30:. A great variety of definitions has been proposed. There is wide agreement that education involves, among other things, the transmission of
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and clarity. Many theorists hold that fostering this disposition distinguishes education from indoctrination, which only tries to instill
209:
and their characteristic features overlap without being identical. This is closely related to the idea that words are like tools used in
190:
43:
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of such processes, i.e. as what characterizes educated persons. Various attempts have been made to give precise definitions listing its
249:, education involves the transmission of habits, ideals, hopes, expectations, standards, and opinions from one generation to the next.
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Cotter, Richard (February 2013). "Peters' Concept of 'Education as
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Many conceptions of education, in particular thick and prescriptive accounts, base their characterizations on the
458:
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or what should be taught: whatever the students need most for discovering and participating in the common world.
461:, he rejects teacher-centered definitions, many of which characterize education using what he refers to as the
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51:
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Peters, Richard S.; Woods, John; Dray, William H. (1973). "Aims of
Education: A Conceptual Inquiry".
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activity directed at achieving certain aims. In this sense, education involves the transmission of
567:
Curtis, Will; Ward, Stephen; Sharp, John; Hankin, Les (6 December 2013). "1. What is education?".
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used by competent speakers. Prescriptive conceptions, on the other hand, stipulate what education
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394:, reflective, careful, and focused on determining what to believe or how to act. It includes the
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1600:"John Dewey's conception of education: Finding common ground with R. S. Peters and Paulo Freire"
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1253:"Forms of education: Rethinking educational experience against and outside the humanist legacy"
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1160:"What is Education For? On Good Education, Teacher Judgement, and Educational Professionalism"
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217:, like schools. But in its widest sense, it encompasses many other forms as well, including
214:
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1019:"Bridging In-school and Out-of-school Learning: Formal, Non-Formal, and Informal Education"
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aspects are already part of the definition of education and, if so, what roles they play.
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root in the Latin word "educare", which means "to train", "to mold", or "to lead out".
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component of monitoring and assessing its achievements in regard to the standards of
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465:. According to the banking model, students are seen as empty vessels in analogy to
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Thick and prescriptive conceptions often characterize education in relation to the
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120:. Some theorists define education in relation to an overarching purpose, like
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136:. Student-centered definitions, on the other hand, emphasize the student's
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Many concrete definitions of education have been proposed. According to
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Some theorists have responded to this by defining education in terms of
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511:"The Meaning of the Concept of Education: Searching for the Lost Arc"
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237:, depends on this issue. For example, when trying to determine what
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An important discussion in the academic literature is about whether
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473:. The goal of this process is to discover a shared and interactive
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education. Some theorists also include an additional category for
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which adds to the meaning of experience, and which increases the
433:, who sees education as the "reconstruction or reorganization of
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886:"Ludwig Wittgenstein: 3.4 Language-games and Family Resemblance"
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in the student's mind without being interested in their
189:", where he suggests three criteria that constitute the
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General characteristics, disagreements, and importance
659:. Springer International Publishing. pp. 13–21.
754:"The American Heritage Dictionary entry: education"
1672:Peters, R. S. (2007). "Education as Initiation".
50:. On this view, different forms of education are
1570:. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University
1375:. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University
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892:. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University
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1023:Journal of Science Education and Technology
74:try to capture how the term "education" is
808:"R.s. Peters and the Concept of Education"
570:Education Studies: An Issue Based Approach
233:of education, or the role of education in
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843:Ethics and Education (Routledge Revivals)
603:(4 ed.). Routledge. pp. 15–32.
600:An Introduction to the Study of Education
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378:Various conceptions emphasize the aim of
93:. These goals are sometimes divided into
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806:Beckett, Kelvin Stewart (June 2011).
322:fostered by the educational process.
7:
1475:Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy
1300:"Education and "Thick" Epistemology"
1069:"The Concept of Education Revisited"
884:Biletzki, Anat; Matar, Anat (2021).
100:, like knowledge and understanding,
1756:Freire, Paulo (1970). "Chapter 2".
970:La Belle, Thomas J. (1 June 1982).
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44:necessary and sufficient conditions
1726:Journal of Philosophy of Education
1073:Journal of Philosophy of Education
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1691:Educational Philosophy and Theory
1604:Educational Philosophy and Theory
1598:Beckett, Kelvin (21 March 2018).
1251:Smith, Sharon (1 November 2020).
976:International Review of Education
713:"What is an Educational Process?"
386:. Critical thinking is a form of
16:Proposed definitions of education
1738:10.1111/J.1467-9752.2010.00764.X
1316:10.1111/j.1741-5446.2011.00420.x
824:10.1111/j.1741-5446.2011.00402.x
1225:. University of Chicago Press.
1195:. University of Chicago Press.
1121:"The Epistemology of Education"
1678:. Blackwell. pp. 192–205.
1067:Wilson, John (February 2003).
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1419:"Education and the Good Life"
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1017:Eshach, Haim (1 April 2007).
917:Grazer Philosophische Studien
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1298:Kotzee, Ben (October 2011).
420:Teacher- or student-centered
310:be like or what constitutes
82:be like or what constitutes
1158:Biesta, Gert (March 2015).
1119:Watson, Lani (March 2016).
870:The Philosophy of Education
665:10.1007/978-3-030-83925-3_3
509:Marshall, James D. (2006).
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1759:Pedagogy of the Oppressed
1562:Hitchcock, David (2020).
1435:10.1017/S0031819100050282
1369:"Philosophy of Education"
1334:"Philosophy of education"
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1035:10.1007/s10956-006-9027-1
459:Pedagogy of the Oppressed
717:The Concept of Education
715:. In Peters, R.S (ed.).
304:programmatic conceptions
91:goals it aims to realize
66:are value-neutral while
20:Definitions of education
1808:Philosophy of education
1651:. Courier Corporation.
1648:Democracy and Education
1539:10.1057/9781137378057_1
1501:10.1057/9781137378057_2
609:10.4324/9780203105450-8
316:stipulative definitions
72:Descriptive conceptions
711:Peters, R. S. (1967).
1765:. Herder and Herder.
1417:Haack, Robin (1981).
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457:. In his influential
152:try to determine the
913:"Family Resemblance"
911:Sluga, Hans (2006).
758:www.ahdictionary.com
573:. Learning Matters.
223:non-formal education
187:Ethics and Education
22:aim to describe the
1564:"Critical Thinking"
1338:www.britannica.com
1304:Educational Theory
1222:What Is Education?
1192:What Is Education?
1176:10.1111/ejed.12109
1137:10.1111/phc3.12316
1125:Philosophy Compass
988:10.1007/BF00598444
812:Educational Theory
515:Journal of Thought
203:family resemblance
154:essential features
48:family resemblance
24:essential features
1803:Education studies
1772:978-0-14-080331-0
1658:978-0-486-43399-8
1548:978-1-137-37805-7
1510:978-1-137-37805-7
1232:978-0-226-38939-4
1202:978-0-226-38939-4
853:978-1-317-49478-2
734:978-0-203-86107-3
674:978-3-030-83925-3
618:978-0-203-10545-0
580:978-1-4462-9693-6
380:critical thinking
336:conceptual scheme
332:aims of education
292:thick definitions
110:critical thinking
68:thick definitions
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467:piggy banks
400:rationality
296:descriptive
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1787:Categories
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1423:Philosophy
950:Britannica
481:References
448:curriculum
435:experience
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408:evidential
392:reasonable
280:evaluative
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231:psychology
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