248:: Distributed generation, also distributed energy, on-site generation (OSG) or district/decentralized energy is electrical generation and storage performed by a variety of small, grid-connected devices referred to as distributed energy resources (DER). Conventional power stations, such as coal-fired, gas and nuclear powered plants, as well as hydroelectric dams and large-scale solar power stations, are centralized and often require electric energy to be transmitted over long distances. By contrast, DER systems are decentralized, modular and more flexible technologies, that are located close to the load they serve, albeit having capacities of only 10 megawatts (MW) or less. These systems can comprise multiple generation and storage components; in this instance they are referred to as hybrid power systems. DER systems typically use renewable energy sources, including small hydro, biomass,
252:, solar power, wind power, and geothermal power, and increasingly play an important role for the electric power distribution system. A grid-connected device for electricity storage can also be classified as a DER system, and is often called a distributed energy storage system (DESS). By means of an interface, DER systems can be managed and coordinated within a smart grid. Distributed generation and storage enables collection of energy from many sources and may lower environmental impacts and improve security of supply.
227:. Demand response includes all intentional modifications to consumption patterns of electricity of end user customers that are intended to alter the timing, level of instantaneous demand, or the total electricity consumption. Demand response refers to a wide range of actions which can be taken at the customer side of the electricity meter in response to particular conditions within the electricity system (such as peak period network congestion or high prices), including the aforementioned IDSM.
279:
electricity (50 or 60 Hz) to switch on or off devices. In more service-based economies, such as
Australia, electricity network peak demand often occurs in the late afternoon to early evening (4pm to 8pm). Residential and commercial demand is the most significant part of these types of peak demand. Therefore, it makes great sense for utilities (electricity network distributors) to manage residential storage water heaters, pool pumps, and air conditioners.
1965:
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223:: Any reactive or preventative method to reduce, flatten or shift demand. Historically, demand response programs have focused on peak reduction to defer the high cost of constructing generation capacity. However, demand response programs are now being looked to assist with changing the net load shape as well, load minus solar and wind generation, to help with integration of
242:
few seconds, it would be unnoticeable to the end user. In the United States, in 1982, a (now-lapsed) patent for this idea was issued to power systems engineer Fred
Schweppe. This type of dynamic demand control is frequently used for air-conditioners. One example of this is through the SmartAC program in California.
152:
by less efficient ("peaking") sources. Unfortunately, the instantaneous financial and environmental cost of using these "peaking" sources is not necessarily reflected in the retail pricing system. In addition, the ability or willingness of electricity consumers to adjust to price signals by altering demand (
160:
automatically sends signals to end-use systems to shed load depending on system conditions. This allows for very precise tuning of demand to ensure that it matches supply at all times, reduces capital expenditures for the utility. Critical system conditions could be peak times, or in areas with levels of
241:
of the power grid, as well as their own control parameters, individual, intermittent loads would switch on or off at optimal moments to balance the overall system load with generation, reducing critical power mismatches. As this switching would only advance or delay the appliance operating cycle by a
151:
Electricity use can vary dramatically on short and medium time frames, depending on current weather patterns. Generally the wholesale electricity system adjusts to changing demand by dispatching additional or less generation. However, during peak periods, the additional generation is usually supplied
398:
The reduction of peak consumption can benefit the efficiency of the electric systems, like the
Brazilian system, in various ways: as deferring new investments in distribution and transmission networks, and reducing the necessity of complementary thermal power operation during peak periods, which can
318:
The utility companies in the state of
Queensland, Australia have devices fitted onto certain household appliances such as air conditioners or into household meters to control water heater, pool pumps etc. These devices would allow energy companies to remotely cycle the use of these items during peak
386:
significantly more than hydroelectric plants. The power generated to meet the peak demand has higher costs—both investment and operating costs—and the pollution has a significant environmental cost and potentially, financial and social liability for its use. Thus, the expansion and the operation of
295:
Managing energy, peak demand and bills in community level may be more feasible and viable, because of the collective purchasing power, the bargaining power, more options in energy efficiency or storage, more flexibility and diversity in generating and consuming energy at different times, e.g. using
159:
Energy demand management activities attempt to bring the electricity demand and supply closer to a perceived optimum, and help give electricity end users benefits for reducing their demand. In the modern system, the integrated approach to demand-side management is becoming increasingly common. IDSM
1166:
Liu, L., Miller, W., & Ledwich, G. (2016). Community centre improvement to reduce air conditioning peak demand. Paper presented at the
Healthy Housing 2016: Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Energy and Environment of Residential Buildings, Queensland University of Technology,
377:
In Brazil, the consumer pays for all the investment to provide energy, even if a plant sits idle. For most fossil-fuel thermal plants, the consumers pay for the "fuels" and other operation costs only when these plants generate energy. The energy, per unit generated, is more expensive from thermal
278:
During peak demand time, utilities are able to control storage water heaters, pool pumps and air conditioners in large areas to reduce peak demand, e.g. Australia and
Switzerland. One of the common technologies is ripple control: high frequency signal (e.g. 1000 Hz) is superimposed to normal
330:
In 2008, Toronto Hydro, the monopoly energy distributor of
Ontario, had over 40,000 people signed up to have remote devices attached to air conditioners which energy companies use to offset spikes in demand. Spokeswoman Tanya Bruckmueller says that this program can reduce demand by 40 megawatts
147:
and alternative energy sources. This act forced utilities to obtain the cheapest possible power from independent power producers, which in turn promoted renewables and encouraged the utility to reduce the amount of power they need, hence pushing forward agendas for energy efficiency and demand
193:
and technology, the expectation for the future is the opposite. Previously, it was not unreasonable to promote energy use as more copious and cheaper energy sources could be anticipated in the future or the supplier had installed excess capacity that would be made more profitable by increased
304:
In areas of
Australia, more than 30% (2016) of households have rooftop photo-voltaic systems. It is useful for them to use free energy from the sun to reduce energy import from the grid. Further, demand side management can be helpful when a systematic approach is considered: the operation of
287:
Other names can be neighborhood, precinct, or district. Community central heating systems have been existing for many decades in regions of cold winters. Similarly, peak demand in summer peak regions need to be managed, e.g. Texas & Florida in the U.S., Queensland and New South Wales in
204:
Contrary to the historical situation, energy prices and availability are expected to deteriorate. Governments and other public actors, if not the energy suppliers themselves, are tending to employ energy demand measures that will increase the efficiency of energy consumption.
895:
Sila
Kiliccote; Pamela Sporborg; Imran Sheikh; Erich Huffaker; and Mary Ann Piette; "Integrating Renewable Resources in California and the Role of Automated Demand Response," Lawrence Berkeley National Lab (Environmental Energy Technologies Division), Nov.
414:
One of the main goals of demand side management is to be able to charge the consumer based on the true price of the utilities at that time. If consumers could be charged less for using electricity during off-peak hours, and more during peak hours, then
188:
Reducing energy demand is contrary to what both energy suppliers and governments have been doing during most of the modern industrial history. Whereas real prices of various energy forms have been decreasing during most of the industrial era, due to
1391:
994:
269:
Energy efficiency improvement is one of the most important demand side management strategies. Efficiency improvements can be implemented nationally through legislation and standards in housing, building, appliances, transport, machines, etc.
167:
In general, adjustments to demand can occur in various ways: through responses to price signals, such as permanent differential rates for evening and day times or occasional highly priced usage days, behavioral changes achieved through
319:
hours. Their plan also includes improving the efficiency of energy-using items and giving financial incentives to consumers who use electricity during off-peak hours, when it is less expensive for energy companies to produce.
156:) may be low, particularly over short time frames. In many markets, consumers (particularly retail customers) do not face real-time pricing at all, but pay rates based on average annual costs or other constructed prices.
394:
is generated and consumed almost instantaneously, all the facilities, as transmission lines and distribution nets, are built for peak consumption. During the non-peak periods their full capacity is not utilized.
87:
does not coincide with the renewable generation. Generators brought on line during peak demand periods are often fossil fuel units. Minimizing their use reduces emissions of carbon dioxide and other pollutants.
531:
184:
and taxation). Energy demand management implies actions that influence demand for energy. DSM was originally adopted in electricity, but today it is applied widely to utilities including water and gas as well.
1109:
L. Liu, M. Shafiei, G. Ledwich, W. Miller, and G. Nourbakhsh, "Correlation Study of
Residential Community Demand with High PV Penetration," 2017 Australasian Universities Power Engineering Conference (AUPEC)
1398:
1583:
339:
The Alcoa Warrick Operation is participating in MISO as a qualified demand response resource, which means it is providing demand response in terms of energy, spinning reserve, and regulation service.
217:: Using less power to perform the same tasks. This involves a permanent reduction of demand by using more efficient load-intensive appliances such as water heaters, refrigerators, or washing machines.
374:. Peak generation is supplied by the use of fossil-fuel power plants. In 2008, Brazilian consumers paid more than U$ 1 billion for complementary thermoelectric generation not previously programmed.
1317:
1638:
387:
the current system is not as efficient as it could be using demand side management. The consequence of this inefficiency is an increase in energy tariffs that is passed on to the consumers.
1461:
1016:
370:
corresponds to more than 80% of the total, to achieve a practical balance in the generation system, the energy generated by hydroelectric plants supplies the consumption below the
1221:
1180:
Miller, Wendy; Liu, Lei Aaron; Amin, Zakaria; Gray, Matthew (2018). "Involving occupants in net-zero-energy solar housing retrofits: An Australian sub-tropical case study".
539:
411:
Some people argue that demand-side management has been ineffective because it has often resulted in higher utility costs for consumers and less profit for utilities.
1816:
1594:
2489:
322:
Another example is that with demand side management, Southeast Queensland households can use electricity from rooftop photo-voltaic system to heat up water.
1120:
76:
plants for meeting peak demands. An example is the use of energy storage units to store energy during off-peak hours and discharge them during peak hours.
1649:
1214:
L. Liu, W. Miller, and G. Ledwich. (2017) Solutions for reducing electricity costs for communal facilities. Australian Ageing Agenda. 39-40. Available:
261:
Broadly, demand side management can be classified into four categories: national scale, utility scale, community scale, and individual household scale.
288:
Australia. Demand side management can be implemented in community scale to reduce peak demand for heating or cooling. Another aspect is to achieve Net
120:
100:
1472:
399:
diminish both the payment for investment in new power plants to supply only during the peak period and the environmental impact associated with
1276:
1008:
201:
subsidizing energy was one of the main economic development tools. Subsidies to the energy supply industry are still common in some countries.
140:
1616:"Demand-Side Management: Government Planning, Not Market Conservation (Testimony of Dan Simmons Before the Georgia Public Service Commission)"
419:
would theoretically encourage the consumer to use less electricity during peak hours, thus achieving the main goal of demand side management.
1436:
1340:
1143:
923:
871:
846:
796:
658:
172:, automated controls such as with remotely controlled air-conditioners, or with permanent load adjustments with energy efficient appliances.
779:
Murthy Balijepalli, V. S. K; Pradhan, Vedanta; Khaparde, S. A; Shereef, R. M (2011). "Review of demand response under smart grid paradigm".
2573:
2547:
305:
photovoltaic, air conditioner, battery energy storage systems, storage water heaters, building performance and energy efficiency measures.
135:
The American electric power industry originally relied heavily on foreign energy imports, whether in the form of consumable electricity or
2386:
606:
1761:
Torriti, Jacopo (2012). "Demand Side Management for the European Supergrid: Occupancy variances of European single-person households".
2494:
1964:
1809:
1218:
2114:
1615:
1237:
Wang, Dongxiao; Wu, Runji; Li, Xuecong; Lai, Chun Sing; Wu, Xueqing; Wei, Jinxiao; Xu, Yi; Wu, Wanli; Lai, Loi Lei (December 2019).
763:
116:
1392:"Providing Reliability Services through Demand Response: A Preliminary Evaluation of the Demand Response Capabilities of Alcoa Inc"
1038:
Palensky, Peter; Dietrich, Dietmar (2011). "Demand Side Management: Demand Response, Intelligent Energy Systems, and Smart Loads".
1750:
1365:
139:
that were then used to produce electricity. During the time of the energy crises in the 1970s, the federal government passed the
836:," in IEEE Journal on Selected Areas in Communications, vol. 31, no. 7, pp. 1247-1257, July 2013, doi: 10.1109/JSAC.2013.130708.
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2073:
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455:
230:
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1802:
1704:
Moura, Pedro S; De Almeida, Aníbal T (2010). "The role of demand-side management in the grid integration of wind power".
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1839:
245:
99:. Governments of many countries mandated performance of various programs for demand management. An early example is the
2529:
2524:
2242:
2217:
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2183:
2178:
1884:
1745:
480:
69:
1318:"Single household domestic water heater design and control utilising PV energy: The untapped energy storage solution"
636:
Wei-Yu Chiu; Hongjian Sun; H.V. Poor (November 2012). "Demand-side energy storage system management in smart grid".
164:, during times when demand must be adjusted upward to avoid over-generation or downward to help with ramping needs.
2583:
2444:
2162:
2132:
1909:
1558:
561:
Chiu, Wei-Yu; Sun, Hongjian; Poor, H. Vincent (2013). "Energy Imbalance Management Using a Robust Pricing Scheme".
367:
2578:
2499:
1988:
1949:
1519:
Loughran, David S; Kulick, Jonathan (2004). "Demand-Side Management and Energy Efficiency in the United States".
224:
161:
80:
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68:
to off-peak times such as nighttime and weekends. Peak demand management does not necessarily decrease total
2568:
2413:
2403:
2393:
2334:
2197:
1980:
1869:
1419:(2015). "Bidding strategy in energy and spinning reserve markets for aluminum smelters' demand response".
1047:
73:
1670:"Optimal energy efficiency policies and regulatory demand-side management tests: How well do they match?"
347:
Demand-side management can apply to electricity system based on thermal power plants or to systems where
2469:
2237:
2232:
2212:
694:
948:
119:(EPRI) in the 1980s. Nowadays, DSM technologies become increasingly feasible due to the integration of
723:"Review of energy system flexibility measures to enable high levels of variable renewable electricity"
684:"California's Energy Future: Portraits of Energy Systems for Meeting Greenhouse Gas Reduction Targets"
2063:
1825:
1770:
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963:
289:
214:
153:
144:
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1859:
1219:
https://www.australianageingagenda.com.au/2017/10/27/solutions-reducing-facility-electricity-costs/
992:, Schweppe, Fred C., "Frequency adaptive, power-energy re-scheduler", issued 1982-02-23
486:
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929:
802:
664:
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570:
190:
96:
92:
1584:"Financing Energy Efficiency in Developing Countries – Lessons Learned and Remaining Challenges"
1541:
1239:"Two-stage optimal scheduling of air conditioning resources with high photovoltaic penetrations"
823:," 2017 Smart Grid Conference (SGC), Tehran, Iran, 2017, pp. 1-7, doi: 10.1109/SGC.2017.8308873.
1639:
Assessment of Long Term, System Wide Potential for Demand-Side and Other Supplemental Resources
2459:
2339:
1944:
1432:
1336:
1139:
919:
906:
Albadi, M. H; El-Saadany, E. F (2007). "Demand Response in Electricity Markets: An Overview".
792:
759:
654:
416:
53:
through various methods such as financial incentives and behavioral change through education.
614:
2408:
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1934:
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1954:
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220:
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1532:
1421:
2015 IEEE Power & Energy Society Innovative Smart Grid Technologies Conference (ISGT)
1774:
1755:
1688:
1193:
967:
833:
821:
Optimizing microgrid using demand response and electric vehicles connection to microgrid
820:
378:
plants than from hydroelectric. Only a few of the Brazilian's thermoelectric plants use
2464:
2454:
2252:
1864:
650:
356:
1669:
1648:(Report). Vol. 1 (Final Report ed.). Portland: Quantec. 2006. Archived from
180:
Demand for any commodity can be modified by actions of market players and government (
17:
2562:
2484:
2272:
2157:
2137:
2068:
2058:
2015:
1899:
1854:
1502:
1262:
639:
2012 IEEE Third International Conference on Smart Grid Communications (SmartGridComm)
436:
123:
and the power system, new terms such as integrated demand-side management (IDSM), or
104:
57:
50:
1350:
1153:
1069:
933:
806:
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668:
2504:
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2313:
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1929:
1717:
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1416:
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238:
169:
136:
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1254:
1201:
989:
975:
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2090:
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1998:
1924:
1914:
1844:
1782:
1696:
1332:
379:
371:
61:
1135:
949:"Demand response experience in Europe: Policies, programmes and implementation"
738:
683:
233:: Advance or delay appliance operating cycles by a few seconds to increase the
2292:
2287:
2100:
2083:
1939:
1428:
1238:
465:
426:
181:
124:
108:
84:
72:, but could be expected to reduce the need for investments in networks and/or
65:
1731:(Report) (Rep. no. D06090 ed.). Oakland: Charles River Associates. 2005.
1061:
584:
2008:
2003:
1889:
1849:
915:
491:
430:
383:
112:
56:
Usually, the goal of demand-side management is to encourage the consumer to
1325:
2015 IEEE PES Asia-Pacific Power and Energy Engineering Conference (APPEEC)
1096:
2122:
637:
1566:
2043:
2033:
1794:
721:
Lund, Peter D; Lindgren, Juuso; Mikkola, Jani; Salpakari, Jyri (2015).
2038:
1215:
360:
249:
1168:
1128:
2016 Australasian Universities Power Engineering Conference (AUPEC)
1083:
Kidd, W.L (1975). "Development, design and use of ripple control".
575:
79:
A newer application for DSM is to aid grid operators in balancing
1993:
1798:
1121:"Demand side management with stepped model predictive control"
834:
The Role of Aggregators in Smart Grid Demand Response Markets
296:
PV to compensate day time consumption or for energy storage.
143:, hoping to reduce dependence on foreign oil and to promote
947:
Torriti, Jacopo; Hassan, Mohamed G; Leach, Matthew (2010).
237:
of the set of loads. The concept is that by monitoring the
538:. Government of United Kingdom. 2013-06-17. Archived from
1751:
Energy subsidies in the European Union: A brief overview
1316:
Liu, Aaron Lei; Ledwich, Gerard; Miller, Wendy (2015).
1119:
Liu, Aaron Lei; Ledwich, Gerard; Miller, Wendy (2016).
27:
Modification of consumer energy usage during peak hours
1366:"Volatile energy prices demand new form of management"
1085:
Proceedings of the Institution of Electrical Engineers
689:. California Council on Science and Technology: 46–47.
115:. Demand-side management was introduced publicly by
2513:
2423:
2360:
2322:
2176:
2113:
2024:
1979:
1972:
1832:
908:
2007 IEEE Power Engineering Society General Meeting
91:The term DSM was coined following the time of the
1563:Pacificorp: A Midamerican Energy Holdings Company
832:L. Gkatzikis, I. Koutsopoulos and T. Salonidis, "
613:. Government of Western Australia. Archived from
83:from wind and solar units, particularly when the
1489:Katz, Myron B (1992). "Demand-side management".
682:Jeffery Greenblatt; Jane Long (September 2012).
1756:Managing Energy Demand seminar Bern, nov 4 2009
1582:Sarkar, Ashok & Singh, Jas (October 2009).
1542:"Electric Utility Demand-Side Management 1999"
872:"Public Utility Regulatory Policy Act (PURPA)"
847:"Public Utility Regulatory Policy Act (PURPA)"
141:Public Utility Regulatory Policies Act (PURPA)
1810:
8:
366:In Brazil's case, despite the generation of
1277:"Energy Conservation and Demand Management
1040:IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics
755:Peak energy demand and Demand Side Response
1976:
1817:
1803:
1795:
355:, is predominant but with a complementary
1051:
574:
121:information and communications technology
727:Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews
523:
101:National Energy Conservation Policy Act
1544:. US Energy Information Administration
703:
692:
1462:"Relatório de Informações ao Público"
85:timing and magnitude of energy demand
7:
1533:10.5547/issn0195-6574-ej-vol25-no1-2
1364:Bradbury, Danny (5 November 2007).
819:S. G. Liasi and S. M. T. Bathaee, "
49:), is the modification of consumer
2495:Renewable energy commercialization
1372:. Association of Online Publishers
1216:https://eprints.qut.edu.au/112305/
651:10.1109/SmartGridComm.2012.6485962
25:
1169:http://eprints.qut.edu.au/101161/
117:Electric Power Research Institute
107:, preceded by similar actions in
2543:
2542:
1963:
1743:Demand-Side Management Programme
1726:Primer on Demand-Side Management
1593:. The World Bank. Archived from
1591:United States Energy Association
532:"Electricity system flexibility"
429:
1614:Simmons, Daniel (20 May 2010).
1019:from the original on 2020-11-25
1009:"PG&E Smart AC information"
789:10.1109/ISET-India.2011.6145388
563:IEEE Transactions on Smart Grid
497:List of energy storage projects
456:Dynamic demand (electric power)
1718:10.1016/j.apenergy.2010.03.019
64:hours, or to move the time of
1:
2490:Renewable Energy Certificates
2450:Cost of electricity by source
2372:Arc-fault circuit interrupter
2248:High-voltage shore connection
1540:Dunn, Rodney (23 June 2002).
1255:10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.118407
1243:Journal of Cleaner Production
1202:10.1016/j.solener.2017.10.008
331:during emergency situations.
2505:Spark/Dark/Quark/Bark spread
2303:Transmission system operator
2263:Mains electricity by country
1840:Automatic generation control
1503:10.1016/0165-0572(92)90025-C
976:10.1016/j.energy.2009.05.021
246:Distributed energy resources
2574:Electric power distribution
2530:List of electricity sectors
2525:Electric energy consumption
2243:High-voltage direct current
2218:Electric power transmission
2208:Electric power distribution
1885:Energy return on investment
1783:10.1016/j.enpol.2012.01.039
1697:10.1016/j.enpol.2010.03.007
1668:Brennan, Timothy J (2010).
1333:10.1109/APPEEC.2015.7381047
481:Energy storage as a service
199:centrally planned economies
2600:
2445:Carbon offsets and credits
2163:Three-phase electric power
1136:10.1109/AUPEC.2016.7749301
739:10.1016/j.rser.2015.01.057
2538:
2500:Renewable Energy Payments
1989:Fossil fuel power station
1961:
1429:10.1109/ISGT.2015.7131854
225:variable renewable energy
162:variable renewable energy
2283:Single-wire earth return
2223:Electrical busbar system
1880:Energy demand management
1559:"Demand-Side Management"
1062:10.1109/TII.2011.2158841
752:Torriti, Jacopo (2016).
645:. pp. 73, 78, 5–8.
585:10.1109/TSG.2012.2216554
31:Energy demand management
2414:Residual-current device
2404:Power system protection
2394:Generator interlock kit
1790:UK Demand Side Response
916:10.1109/PES.2007.385728
401:greenhouse gas emission
2198:Distributed generation
1870:Electric power quality
1565:. 2010. Archived from
1097:10.1049/piee.1975.0260
702:Cite journal requires
35:demand-side management
18:Demand side management
2470:Fossil fuel phase-out
2238:Electricity retailing
2233:Electrical substation
2213:Electric power system
1288:Queensland Government
314:Queensland, Australia
1826:Electricity delivery
1655:on 28 September 2011
1491:Resources and Energy
290:zero-energy building
154:elasticity of demand
43:demand-side response
2435:Availability factor
2387:Sulfur hexafluoride
2268:Overhead power line
2168:Virtual power plant
2143:Induction generator
2096:Sustainable biofuel
1905:Home energy storage
1895:Grid energy storage
1860:Droop speed control
1775:2012EnPol..44..199T
1689:2010EnPol..38.3874B
1297:on 19 February 2011
1194:2018SoEn..159..390M
968:2010Ene....35.1575T
783:. pp. 236–43.
607:"Demand Management"
487:Grid energy storage
471:Energy conservation
368:hydroelectric power
359:, for instance, in
176:Logical foundations
81:variable generation
2309:Transmission tower
1920:Nameplate capacity
1569:on 13 October 2010
1521:The Energy Journal
1224:2019-05-20 at the
390:Moreover, because
357:thermal generation
191:economies of scale
170:home area networks
97:1979 energy crisis
93:1973 energy crisis
70:energy consumption
2584:Demand management
2556:
2555:
2460:Environmental tax
2340:Cascading failure
2109:
2108:
1945:Utility frequency
1600:on 13 August 2010
1438:978-1-4799-1785-3
1342:978-1-4673-8132-1
1145:978-1-5090-1405-7
925:978-1-4244-1296-9
798:978-1-4673-0315-6
660:978-1-4673-0910-3
417:supply and demand
215:Energy efficiency
145:energy efficiency
51:demand for energy
16:(Redirected from
2591:
2579:Energy economics
2546:
2545:
2455:Energy subsidies
2409:Protective relay
2350:Rolling blackout
1977:
1967:
1935:Power-flow study
1875:Electrical fault
1819:
1812:
1805:
1796:
1786:
1732:
1730:
1721:
1700:
1674:
1664:
1662:
1660:
1654:
1643:
1627:
1625:
1623:
1618:. MasterResource
1609:
1607:
1605:
1599:
1588:
1578:
1576:
1574:
1553:
1551:
1549:
1536:
1507:
1506:
1497:(1–2): 187–203.
1486:
1480:
1479:
1477:
1471:. Archived from
1466:
1457:
1451:
1450:
1423:. pp. 1–5.
1412:
1406:
1405:
1403:
1397:. Archived from
1396:
1388:
1382:
1381:
1379:
1377:
1361:
1355:
1354:
1327:. pp. 1–5.
1322:
1313:
1307:
1306:
1304:
1302:
1296:
1290:. Archived from
1285:
1273:
1267:
1266:
1234:
1228:
1212:
1206:
1205:
1177:
1171:
1164:
1158:
1157:
1130:. pp. 1–6.
1125:
1116:
1110:
1107:
1101:
1100:
1080:
1074:
1073:
1055:
1035:
1029:
1028:
1026:
1024:
1005:
999:
998:
997:
993:
986:
980:
979:
953:
944:
938:
937:
910:. pp. 1–5.
903:
897:
893:
887:
886:
884:
882:
868:
862:
861:
859:
857:
843:
837:
830:
824:
817:
811:
810:
776:
770:
769:
749:
743:
742:
718:
712:
711:
705:
700:
698:
690:
688:
679:
673:
672:
644:
633:
627:
626:
624:
622:
617:on 20 March 2012
611:Office of Energy
603:
597:
596:
578:
558:
552:
551:
549:
547:
528:
476:Energy intensity
446:Alternative fuel
439:
434:
433:
353:hydroelectricity
349:renewable energy
235:diversity factor
33:, also known as
21:
2599:
2598:
2594:
2593:
2592:
2590:
2589:
2588:
2559:
2558:
2557:
2552:
2534:
2518:
2516:
2509:
2440:Capacity factor
2428:
2426:
2419:
2399:Numerical relay
2377:Circuit breaker
2365:
2363:
2356:
2318:
2258:Load management
2228:Electrical grid
2193:Demand response
2186:
2181:
2172:
2153:Microgeneration
2105:
2020:
1968:
1959:
1955:Vehicle-to-grid
1828:
1823:
1760:
1739:
1728:
1724:
1703:
1672:
1667:
1658:
1656:
1652:
1641:
1637:
1634:
1621:
1619:
1613:
1603:
1601:
1597:
1586:
1581:
1572:
1570:
1557:
1547:
1545:
1539:
1518:
1515:
1510:
1488:
1487:
1483:
1475:
1464:
1459:
1458:
1454:
1439:
1414:
1413:
1409:
1401:
1394:
1390:
1389:
1385:
1375:
1373:
1363:
1362:
1358:
1343:
1320:
1315:
1314:
1310:
1300:
1298:
1294:
1283:
1275:
1274:
1270:
1236:
1235:
1231:
1226:Wayback Machine
1213:
1209:
1179:
1178:
1174:
1167:Brisbane, Qld.
1165:
1161:
1146:
1123:
1118:
1117:
1113:
1108:
1104:
1082:
1081:
1077:
1053:10.1.1.471.5889
1037:
1036:
1032:
1022:
1020:
1007:
1006:
1002:
995:
988:
987:
983:
951:
946:
945:
941:
926:
905:
904:
900:
894:
890:
880:
878:
870:
869:
865:
855:
853:
845:
844:
840:
831:
827:
818:
814:
799:
778:
777:
773:
766:
751:
750:
746:
720:
719:
715:
701:
691:
686:
681:
680:
676:
661:
642:
635:
634:
630:
620:
618:
605:
604:
600:
560:
559:
555:
545:
543:
530:
529:
525:
521:
516:
507:Load management
461:Demand response
451:Battery-to-grid
435:
428:
425:
409:
392:electric energy
345:
337:
328:
326:Toronto, Canada
316:
311:
302:
300:Household scale
285:
283:Community scale
276:
267:
259:
221:Demand response
211:
178:
133:
103:of 1978 in the
58:use less energy
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2597:
2595:
2587:
2586:
2581:
2576:
2571:
2569:Market failure
2561:
2560:
2554:
2553:
2551:
2550:
2539:
2536:
2535:
2533:
2532:
2527:
2521:
2519:
2515:Statistics and
2514:
2511:
2510:
2508:
2507:
2502:
2497:
2492:
2487:
2482:
2477:
2472:
2467:
2465:Feed-in tariff
2462:
2457:
2452:
2447:
2442:
2437:
2431:
2429:
2424:
2421:
2420:
2418:
2417:
2411:
2406:
2401:
2396:
2391:
2390:
2389:
2384:
2374:
2368:
2366:
2361:
2358:
2357:
2355:
2354:
2353:
2352:
2342:
2337:
2332:
2326:
2324:
2320:
2319:
2317:
2316:
2311:
2306:
2300:
2295:
2290:
2285:
2280:
2275:
2270:
2265:
2260:
2255:
2253:Interconnector
2250:
2245:
2240:
2235:
2230:
2225:
2220:
2215:
2210:
2205:
2203:Dynamic demand
2200:
2195:
2189:
2187:
2177:
2174:
2173:
2171:
2170:
2165:
2160:
2155:
2150:
2145:
2140:
2135:
2133:Combined cycle
2130:
2125:
2119:
2117:
2111:
2110:
2107:
2106:
2104:
2103:
2098:
2093:
2088:
2087:
2086:
2081:
2076:
2071:
2066:
2056:
2051:
2046:
2041:
2036:
2030:
2028:
2022:
2021:
2019:
2018:
2013:
2012:
2011:
2006:
2001:
1996:
1985:
1983:
1974:
1970:
1969:
1962:
1960:
1958:
1957:
1952:
1947:
1942:
1937:
1932:
1927:
1922:
1917:
1912:
1910:Load-following
1907:
1902:
1897:
1892:
1887:
1882:
1877:
1872:
1867:
1865:Electric power
1862:
1857:
1852:
1847:
1842:
1836:
1834:
1830:
1829:
1824:
1822:
1821:
1814:
1807:
1799:
1793:
1792:
1787:
1758:
1753:
1748:
1738:
1737:External links
1735:
1734:
1733:
1722:
1706:Applied Energy
1701:
1683:(8): 3874–85.
1665:
1633:
1630:
1629:
1628:
1611:
1579:
1555:
1537:
1514:
1511:
1509:
1508:
1481:
1478:on 2010-12-14.
1452:
1437:
1407:
1404:on 2016-12-29.
1383:
1356:
1341:
1308:
1268:
1229:
1207:
1172:
1159:
1144:
1111:
1102:
1075:
1030:
1000:
981:
962:(4): 1575–83.
939:
924:
898:
888:
863:
838:
825:
812:
797:
781:ISGT2011-India
771:
764:
744:
713:
704:|journal=
674:
659:
628:
598:
569:(2): 896–904.
553:
522:
520:
517:
515:
514:
509:
504:
499:
494:
489:
484:
478:
473:
468:
463:
458:
453:
448:
442:
441:
440:
424:
421:
408:
405:
344:
341:
336:
333:
327:
324:
315:
312:
310:
307:
301:
298:
292:or community.
284:
281:
275:
272:
266:
265:National scale
263:
258:
255:
254:
253:
243:
231:Dynamic demand
228:
218:
210:
207:
177:
174:
132:
129:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2596:
2585:
2582:
2580:
2577:
2575:
2572:
2570:
2567:
2566:
2564:
2549:
2541:
2540:
2537:
2531:
2528:
2526:
2523:
2522:
2520:
2512:
2506:
2503:
2501:
2498:
2496:
2493:
2491:
2488:
2486:
2485:Pigouvian tax
2483:
2481:
2478:
2476:
2473:
2471:
2468:
2466:
2463:
2461:
2458:
2456:
2453:
2451:
2448:
2446:
2443:
2441:
2438:
2436:
2433:
2432:
2430:
2422:
2415:
2412:
2410:
2407:
2405:
2402:
2400:
2397:
2395:
2392:
2388:
2385:
2383:
2382:Earth-leakage
2380:
2379:
2378:
2375:
2373:
2370:
2369:
2367:
2359:
2351:
2348:
2347:
2346:
2343:
2341:
2338:
2336:
2333:
2331:
2328:
2327:
2325:
2323:Failure modes
2321:
2315:
2312:
2310:
2307:
2304:
2301:
2299:
2296:
2294:
2291:
2289:
2286:
2284:
2281:
2279:
2276:
2274:
2273:Power station
2271:
2269:
2266:
2264:
2261:
2259:
2256:
2254:
2251:
2249:
2246:
2244:
2241:
2239:
2236:
2234:
2231:
2229:
2226:
2224:
2221:
2219:
2216:
2214:
2211:
2209:
2206:
2204:
2201:
2199:
2196:
2194:
2191:
2190:
2188:
2185:
2180:
2175:
2169:
2166:
2164:
2161:
2159:
2158:Rankine cycle
2156:
2154:
2151:
2149:
2146:
2144:
2141:
2139:
2138:Cooling tower
2136:
2134:
2131:
2129:
2126:
2124:
2121:
2120:
2118:
2116:
2112:
2102:
2099:
2097:
2094:
2092:
2089:
2085:
2082:
2080:
2077:
2075:
2072:
2070:
2067:
2065:
2062:
2061:
2060:
2057:
2055:
2052:
2050:
2047:
2045:
2042:
2040:
2037:
2035:
2032:
2031:
2029:
2027:
2023:
2017:
2014:
2010:
2007:
2005:
2002:
2000:
1997:
1995:
1992:
1991:
1990:
1987:
1986:
1984:
1982:
1981:Non-renewable
1978:
1975:
1971:
1966:
1956:
1953:
1951:
1948:
1946:
1943:
1941:
1938:
1936:
1933:
1931:
1928:
1926:
1923:
1921:
1918:
1916:
1913:
1911:
1908:
1906:
1903:
1901:
1900:Grid strength
1898:
1896:
1893:
1891:
1888:
1886:
1883:
1881:
1878:
1876:
1873:
1871:
1868:
1866:
1863:
1861:
1858:
1856:
1855:Demand factor
1853:
1851:
1848:
1846:
1843:
1841:
1838:
1837:
1835:
1831:
1827:
1820:
1815:
1813:
1808:
1806:
1801:
1800:
1797:
1791:
1788:
1784:
1780:
1776:
1772:
1768:
1764:
1763:Energy Policy
1759:
1757:
1754:
1752:
1749:
1747:
1744:
1741:
1740:
1736:
1727:
1723:
1719:
1715:
1712:(8): 2581–8.
1711:
1707:
1702:
1698:
1694:
1690:
1686:
1682:
1678:
1677:Energy Policy
1671:
1666:
1651:
1647:
1640:
1636:
1635:
1631:
1617:
1612:
1596:
1592:
1585:
1580:
1568:
1564:
1560:
1556:
1543:
1538:
1534:
1530:
1526:
1522:
1517:
1516:
1512:
1504:
1500:
1496:
1492:
1485:
1482:
1474:
1470:
1469:Análise Anual
1463:
1460:CCEE (2008).
1456:
1453:
1448:
1444:
1440:
1434:
1430:
1426:
1422:
1418:
1417:Hug, Gabriela
1415:Zhang, Xiao;
1411:
1408:
1400:
1393:
1387:
1384:
1371:
1370:businessGreen
1367:
1360:
1357:
1352:
1348:
1344:
1338:
1334:
1330:
1326:
1319:
1312:
1309:
1293:
1289:
1282:
1280:
1272:
1269:
1264:
1260:
1256:
1252:
1248:
1244:
1240:
1233:
1230:
1227:
1223:
1220:
1217:
1211:
1208:
1203:
1199:
1195:
1191:
1187:
1183:
1176:
1173:
1170:
1163:
1160:
1155:
1151:
1147:
1141:
1137:
1133:
1129:
1122:
1115:
1112:
1106:
1103:
1098:
1094:
1090:
1086:
1079:
1076:
1071:
1067:
1063:
1059:
1054:
1049:
1045:
1041:
1034:
1031:
1018:
1014:
1010:
1004:
1001:
991:
985:
982:
977:
973:
969:
965:
961:
957:
950:
943:
940:
935:
931:
927:
921:
917:
913:
909:
902:
899:
892:
889:
877:
873:
867:
864:
852:
848:
842:
839:
835:
829:
826:
822:
816:
813:
808:
804:
800:
794:
790:
786:
782:
775:
772:
767:
765:9781138016255
761:
758:. Routledge.
757:
756:
748:
745:
740:
736:
732:
728:
724:
717:
714:
709:
696:
685:
678:
675:
670:
666:
662:
656:
652:
648:
641:
640:
632:
629:
616:
612:
608:
602:
599:
594:
590:
586:
582:
577:
572:
568:
564:
557:
554:
542:on 2020-06-19
541:
537:
533:
527:
524:
518:
513:
510:
508:
505:
503:
500:
498:
495:
493:
490:
488:
485:
482:
479:
477:
474:
472:
469:
467:
464:
462:
459:
457:
454:
452:
449:
447:
444:
443:
438:
437:Energy portal
432:
427:
422:
420:
418:
412:
406:
404:
402:
396:
393:
388:
385:
381:
375:
373:
369:
364:
362:
358:
354:
350:
342:
340:
334:
332:
325:
323:
320:
313:
308:
306:
299:
297:
293:
291:
282:
280:
274:Utility scale
273:
271:
264:
262:
256:
251:
247:
244:
240:
236:
232:
229:
226:
222:
219:
216:
213:
212:
208:
206:
202:
200:
195:
194:consumption.
192:
186:
183:
175:
173:
171:
165:
163:
157:
155:
149:
146:
142:
138:
130:
128:
126:
122:
118:
114:
110:
106:
102:
98:
94:
89:
86:
82:
77:
75:
71:
67:
63:
59:
54:
52:
48:
44:
40:
36:
32:
19:
2480:Net metering
2427:and policies
2345:Power outage
2314:Utility pole
2278:Pumped hydro
2184:distribution
2179:Transmission
2128:Cogeneration
1930:Power factor
1879:
1766:
1762:
1709:
1705:
1680:
1676:
1657:. Retrieved
1650:the original
1645:
1620:. Retrieved
1602:. Retrieved
1595:the original
1590:
1571:. Retrieved
1567:the original
1562:
1546:. Retrieved
1524:
1520:
1494:
1490:
1484:
1473:the original
1468:
1455:
1420:
1410:
1399:the original
1386:
1374:. Retrieved
1369:
1359:
1324:
1311:
1299:. Retrieved
1292:the original
1287:
1278:
1271:
1246:
1242:
1232:
1210:
1185:
1182:Solar Energy
1181:
1175:
1162:
1127:
1114:
1105:
1091:(10R): 993.
1088:
1084:
1078:
1046:(3): 381–8.
1043:
1039:
1033:
1021:. Retrieved
1012:
1003:
984:
959:
955:
942:
907:
901:
891:
879:. Retrieved
875:
866:
854:. Retrieved
850:
841:
828:
815:
780:
774:
754:
747:
730:
726:
716:
695:cite journal
677:
638:
631:
619:. Retrieved
615:the original
610:
601:
566:
562:
556:
544:. Retrieved
540:the original
535:
526:
502:Load profile
413:
410:
397:
389:
376:
365:
346:
338:
329:
321:
317:
303:
294:
286:
277:
268:
260:
239:power factor
203:
196:
187:
179:
166:
158:
150:
148:management.
137:fossil fuels
134:
90:
78:
55:
46:
42:
38:
34:
30:
29:
2475:Load factor
2330:Black start
2298:Transformer
1999:Natural gas
1950:Variability
1925:Peak demand
1915:Merit order
1845:Backfeeding
1769:: 199–206.
1646:PacificCorp
1632:Works cited
1188:: 390–404.
1023:17 February
733:: 785–807.
621:30 November
546:7 September
512:Time of Use
380:natural gas
372:peak demand
335:Indiana, US
2563:Categories
2517:production
2362:Protective
2293:Super grid
2288:Smart grid
2115:Generation
2049:Geothermal
1940:Repowering
1659:7 November
1622:9 November
1604:9 November
1573:9 November
1548:9 November
1513:References
1376:2 December
1301:2 December
1249:: 118407.
881:3 December
856:3 December
576:1705.02135
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