388:, which contain most of the material found in the Earth's upper crust. The most common isotopes used are Al and Be; however, Be is used more often in these analyses. Be is used due to its abundance and, while it is not stable, its half-life of 1.39 million years is relatively stable compared to the thousand or million-year scale in which denudation is measured. Al is used because of the low presence of Al in quartz, making it easy to separate, and because there is no risk of contamination of atmospheric Be. This technique was developed because previous denudation-rate studies assumed steady rates of erosion even though such uniformity is difficult to verify in the field and may be invalid for many landscapes; its use to help measure denudation and geologically date events was important. On average, the concentration of undisturbed cosmogenic isotopes in sediment leaving a particular basin is inversely related to the rate at which that basin is eroding. In a rapidly-eroding basin, most rock will be exposed to only a small number of cosmic rays before erosion and transport out of the basin; as a result, isotope concentration will be low. In a slowly-eroding basin, integrated cosmic ray exposure is much greater and isotope concentration will be much higher. Measuring isotopic reservoirs in most areas is difficult with this technique so uniform erosion is assumed. There is also variation in year-to-year measurements, which can be as high as a factor of three.
233:, and W.J. McGee named these landscapes pediments. This later gave the concept the name pediplanation when L.C. King applied it on a global scale. The dominance of the Davisian cycle gave rise to several theories to explain planation, such as eolation and glacial planation, although only etchplanation survived time and scrutiny because it was based on observations and measurements done in different climates around the world and it also explained irregularities in landscapes. The majority of these concepts failed, partly because Joseph Jukes, a popular geologist and professor, separated denudation and uplift in an 1862 publication that had a lasting impact on geomorphology. These concepts also failed because the cycles, Davis's in particular, were generalizations and based on broad observations of the landscape rather than detailed measurements; many of the concepts were developed based on local or specific processes, not regional processes, and they assumed long periods of continental stability.
395:. The two main problems with dating methods are uncertainties in the measurements, both with equipment used and with assumptions made during measurement; and the relationship between the measured ages and histories of the markers. This relates to the problem of making assumptions based on the measurements being made and the area being measured. Environmental factors such as temperature, atmospheric pressure, humidity, elevation, wind, the speed of light at higher elevations if using lasers or time of flight measurements, instrument drift, chemical erosion, and for cosmogenic isotopes, climate and snow or glacier coverage. When studying denudation, the
492:
280:, which links landforms with measurable precipitation-infiltration runoff processes and concluded no peneplains exist over large areas in modern times, and any historical peneplains would have to be proven to exist, rather than inferred from modern geology. They also stated pediments could form across all rock types and regions, although through different processes. Through these findings and improvements in geophysics, the study of denudation shifted from planation to studying which relationships affect denudation–including uplift, isostasy, lithology, and vegetation–and measuring denudation rates around the world.
504:
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248:, who devised a more complex theory that denudation and uplift occurred at the same time, and that landscape formation is based on the ratio between denudation and uplift rates. His theory proposed geomorphology is based on endogenous and exogenous processes. Penck's theory, while ultimately being ignored, returned to denudation and uplift occurring simultaneously and relying on continental mobility, even though Penck rejected
426:
183:
417:; the more denudation occurs, the lighter the crust becomes in an area, which allows for uplift. The work is primarily trying to determine a ratio between denudation and uplift so better estimates can be made on changes in the landscape. In 2016 and 2019, research that attempted to apply denudation rates to improve the stream power law so it can be used more effectively was conducted.
150:
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Measurements of denudation over large areas are performed by averaging the rates of subdivisions. Often, no adjustments are made for human impact, which causes the measurements to be inflated. Calculations have suggested soil loss of up to 0.5 metres (20 in) caused by human activity will change previously calculated denudation rates by less than 30%.
368:, where E is erosion rate, K is the erodibility constant, A is drainage area, S is channel gradient, and m and n are functions that are usually given beforehand or assumed based on the location. Most denudation measurements are based on stream load measurements and analysis of the sediment or the water chemistry.
259:
From 1945 to 1965, a change in geomorphology research saw a shift from mostly deductive work to detailed experimental designs that used improved technologies and techniques, although this led to research over details of established theories, rather than researching new theories. Through the 1950s and
195:
at or near sea level, which gave the theory the name "planation". Charles Lyell proposed marine planation, oceans, and ancient shallow seas were the primary driving force behind denudation. While surprising given the centuries of observation of fluvial and pluvial erosion, this is more understandable
321:
are included in measurements. The weight of the load is converted to volumetric units and the load volume is divided by the area of the watershed above the gauging station. An issue with this method of measurement is the high annual variation in fluvial erosion, which can be up to a factor of five
412:
because only about 30% of chemical weathering from water occurs on the surface. Denudation has a large impact on karst and landscape evolution because the most-rapid changes to landscapes occur when there are changes to subterranean structures. Other research includes effects on denudation rates;
217:
to hypothesize peneplanation, despite the fact while peneplanation was compatible in the
Appalachians, it did not work as well in the more active American West. Peneplanation was a cycle in which young landscapes are produced by uplift and denuded down to sea level, which is the base level. The
288:
Denudation is measured in the wearing down of Earth's surface in inches or centimeters per 1000 years. This rate is intended as an estimate and often assumes uniform erosion, among other things, to simplify calculations. Assumptions made are often only valid for the landscapes being studied.
300:
Denudation is measured in catchment-scale measurements and can use other erosion measurements, which are generally split into dating and survey methods. Techniques for measuring erosion and denudation include stream load measurement, cosmogenic exposure and burial dating, erosion tracking,
272:) of Earth's surface. Improvements were also made in geomorphology to quantify slope forms and drainage networks, and to find relationships between the form and process, and the magnitude and frequency of geomorphic processes. The final blow to peneplanation came in 1964 when a team led by
491:
161:, scholars began trying to understand how denudation and erosion occurred without mythical or biblical explanations. Throughout the 18th century, scientists theorized valleys are formed by streams running through them, not from floods or other cataclysms. In 1785, Scottish physician
200:
was largely developed in
Britain, where the effects of coastal erosion are more evident and play a larger role in geomorphic processes. There was more evidence against marine planation than there was for it. By the 1860s, marine planation had largely fallen from favor, a move led by
49:
of landforms and landscapes. Although the terms erosion and denudation are used interchangeably, erosion is the transport of soil and rocks from one location to another, and denudation is the sum of processes, including erosion, that result in the lowering of Earth's surface.
399:, which states measurements over short time periods show higher accumulation rates and than measurements over longer time periods, should be considered. In a study by James Gilully, the presented data suggested the denudation rate has stayed roughly the same throughout the
407:
The research on denudation is primarily done in river basins and in mountainous regions like the
Himalayas because these are very geologically active regions, which allows for research between uplift and denudation. There is also research on the effects of denudation on
90:
Denudation incorporates the mechanical, biological, and chemical processes of erosion, weathering, and mass wasting. Denudation can involve the removal of both solid particles and dissolved material. These include sub-processes of cryofracture, insolation weathering,
205:, a former proponent of marine planation who recognized rain and rivers play a more important role in denudation. In North America during the mid-19th century, advancements in identifying fluvial, pluvial, and glacial erosion were made. The work being done in the
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era based on geological evidence; however, given estimates of denudation rates at the time of
Gilully's study and the United States' elevation, it would take 11-12 million years to erode North America; well before the 66 million years of the Cenozoic.
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analysis, which is used in conjunction with stream load measurements and sediment analysis. This technique measures chemical weathering intensity by calculating chemical alteration in molecular proportions. Preliminary research into using
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topographic measurements, surveying the deposition in reservoirs, landslide mapping, chemical fingerprinting, thermochronology, and analysis of sedimentary records in deposition areas. The most common way of measuring denudation is from
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Denudation rates are usually much lower than the rates of uplift and average orogeny rates can be eight times the maximum average denudation. The only areas at which there could be equal rates of denudation and uplift are active
190:
As denudation came into the wider conscience, questions of how denudation occurs and what the result is began arising. Hutton and
Playfair suggested over a period of time, a landscape would eventually be worn down to
503:
169:, a friend of Hutton, published a paper clarifying Hutton's ideas, explaining the basic process of water wearing down the Earth's surface, and describing erosion and chemical weathering. Between 1830 and 1833,
165:
proposed an Earth history based on observable processes over an unlimited amount of time, which marked a shift from assumptions based on faith to reasoning based on logic and observation. In 1802,
153:
Charles Lyell, author of
Principles of Geology, who established within the scientific community the concept of denudation and that idea that the surface of the Earth is shaped by gradual processes.
82:. The effects of denudation have been recorded for millennia but the mechanics behind it have been debated for the past 200 years and have only begun to be understood in the past few decades.
479:
252:. The Davisian and Penckian models were heavily debated for a few decades until Penck's was ignored and support for Davis's waned after his death as more critiques were made. One critic was
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Satellite images that show the extreme erosion in the
Betsiboka Estuary in Madagascar due to deforestation, which results in rapid denudation and one of the fastest changing coastlines.
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Problems in measuring denudation include both the technology used and the environment. Landslides can interfere with denudation measurements in mountainous regions, especially the
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Avaliação de aspectos texturais e estruturais de corpos vulcânicos e sub vulcânicos e sua relação com oambiente de cristalização, com base em exemplos do Brasil, Argentina e Chile
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The effects of denudation have been written about since antiquity, although the terms "denudation" and "erosion" have been used interchangeably throughout most of history. In the
225:
of erosion caused many geologists to begin looking for evidence of planation around the world. Unsatisfied with Davis's cycle due to evidence from the
Western United States,
366:
1863:
Torres Acosta, Veronica; Schildgen, Taylor; Clarke, Brian; Scherler, Dirk; Bookhagen, Bodo; Wittmann, Hella; von
Blankenburg, Friedhelm; Strecker, Manfred (2014-05-01).
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179:, which describes the shaping of the surface of Earth by ongoing processes, and which endorsed and established gradual denudation in the wider scientific community.
1820:
Wasak-Sęk, Katarzyna (2021). "Buffering role of soil in chemical denudation in mountainous areas affected by windfall events – In light of experimental research".
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this research is mostly studying how climate and vegetation impact denudation. Research is also being done to find the relationship between denudation and
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process would be restarted when the old landscape was uplifted again or when the base level was lowered, producing a new, young landscape.
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936:
Principles of
Geology: Being an Attempt to Explain the Former Changes of the Earth's Surface, By Reference to Causes Now in Operation
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Climate, most directly through chemical weathering from rain, but also because climate dictates what kind of weathering occurs;
100:
454:
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2100:
1793:
Gabrovšek, Franci (2008). "On concepts and methods for the estimation of dissolutional denudation rates in karst areas".
256:, who stated geologists did not know how landforms were developed, so Davis's theory was built upon a shaky foundation.
1536:
Lupker, Maarten; et al. (2012). "10Be-derived Himalayan denudation rates and sediment budgets in the Ganga basin".
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structures on the present surface of the area where volcanic activity once occurred. Subvolcanic structures such as
1249:<125::aid-esp511>3.0.co;2-8 "Estimating Rates of Denudation Using Cosmogenic Isotope Abundances in Sediment"
240:, who, based on measurements over time, realized denudation is nonlinear; he started developing theories based on
202:
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Cliffs of a coastline in Portugal that have denuded due to erosion and weathering primarily from water and salt.
1890:
Gilchrist, A.R. (1990). "Differential denudation and flexural isostasy in formation of rifted-margin upwarps".
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1970:
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1436:"Production of 10Be and 26Al by cosmic rays in terrestrial quartz in situ and implications for erosion rates"
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Tectonic activity, such as deformation, the changing of rocks due to stress mainly from tectonic forces, and
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A mountain road in Ladakh that shows signs of mass wasting and erosion that result in bedrock exposure.
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1987:"A New Efficient Method to Solve the Stream Power Law Model Taking Into Account Sediment Deposition"
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665:"The human impact on North American erosion, sediment transfer, and storage in a geologic context"
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Schumm, Stanley Alfred (1963). "The disparity between present rates of denudation and orogeny".
457:, Argentina, a volcanic area with strong effects of denudation, exposing subvolcanic rock body.
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1935:"Global analysis of the stream power law parameters based on worldwide 10Be denudation rates"
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Orme, A.R. (2013). "1.12 Denudation, Planation, and Cyclicity: Myths, Models, and Reality".
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Burbank, D.W., and Beck, R.A. 1991. Rapid long-term rates of denudation. Geology 19:1169-72
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Ritter, D.F. 1967. Rates of denudation. Jour. Geol. Educ. 15, C.E.G.S. short rev. 6:154-59
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theory on continental drift was correct and that there is constant movement of parts (the
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Anthropogenic (human) activity, including agriculture, damming, mining, and deforestation;
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Biosphere, via animals, plants, and microorganisms contributing to chemical and physical
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between successive years. An important equation for denudation is the stream power law:
1491:"Chemical isolation of quartz for measurement of in-situ -produced cosmogenic nuclides"
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Haloclasty, the build-up of salt in cracks in rocks leading to erosion and weathering;
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569:"Chemical weathering and landscape development in mid-latitude alpine environments"
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Nishiizumi, K.; Lal, D.; Klein, J.; Middleton, R.; Arnold, J. R. (January 1986).
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1099:"On the Mode of Formation of some of the River-valleys in the South of Ireland"
1064:
The Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland
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Oldroyd, D.R. "1.5 Geomorphology in the First Half of the Twentieth Century".
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Leighly, John. "Symposium: Walther Penck's Contribution to Geomorphology: ".
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1632:"Sediment Accumulation Rates and the Completeness of Stratigraphic Sections"
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Shukla, Dericks Praise (2017-10-18), "Introductory Chapter: Geomorphology",
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Smithson, P et al (2008) Fundamentals of the Physical Environment (4th ed.)
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A geological term describing the various processes that wear away landforms
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10.1002/(sici)1096-9837(199602)21:2<125::aid-esp511>3.0.co;2-8
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2010:
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EGU General Assembly 2014, held 27 April - 2 May 2014 in Vienna, Austria
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1576:"Millennial-scale denudation rates in the Himalaya of Far Western Nepal"
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and changes to surface topography, such as mass wasting and erosion; and
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Microorganisms contributing to weathering through cellular respiration.
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34:
17:
1985:
Yuan, X. P.; Braun, J.; Guerit, L.; Rouby, D.; Cordonnier, G. (2019).
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Wayland, E.J. (1934). "Rifts, Rivers, Rains and Early Man in Uganda".
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erode the Earth's surface, leading to a reduction in elevation and in
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The morphology of the earth: a study and synthesis of world scenery
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Kemp, David B.; Sadler, Peter M.; Vanacker, Veerle (2020-11-26).
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Theory of the Earth with proofs and illustrations: in four parts
1345:"Field techniques for measuring bedrock erosion and denudation"
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Judson, S. 1968. Erosion of the land. Am. Scientist 56:356-74
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to measure weathering was done by studying the weathering of
447:, a volcano with strong effects of erosion but no denudation
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suggested backwearing of slopes would shape landscapes into
1865:"Effects of vegetation cover on landscape denudation rates"
1574:
Ojha, Lujendra; Ferrier, Ken L.; Ojha, Tank (2019-02-26).
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W.M. Davis, the man who proposed the peneplanation cycle.
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1960s, as improvements were made in ocean geology and
437:, a volcano without effects of erosion and denudation
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Some scientists opposed the Davisian cycle; one was
1389:"Rates of regional denudation in the United States"
297:with an extended period of continuous deformation.
1762:"The Himalayas [This Dynamic Earth, USGS]"
1343:Turowski, Jens M.; Cook, Kristen L. (2016-08-31).
902:Illustrations of the Huttonian Theory of the Earth
360:
1971:20.500.11820/a17cd979-3d06-461c-9f14-4a6afa545c10
1171:Annals of the Association of American Geographers
1387:Judson, Sheldon; Ritter, Dale F. (1964-08-15).
1247:BIERMAN, PAUL; STEIG, ERIC J. (February 1996).
1991:Journal of Geophysical Research: Earth Surface
998:"Report on the geology of the Henry Mountains"
8:
1047:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
813:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
524:Ice accumulating in the cracks of rocks; and
1489:Kohl, C.P; Nishiizumi, K (September 1992).
1103:Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society
1969:
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905:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
706:
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1296:Shorter Contributions to General Geology
567:Dixon, John C.; Thorn, Colin E. (2005).
730:Blatt H, Middleton G, Murray R (1980).
619:Hydro-Geomorphology - Models and Trends
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244:and equilibrium concepts. Another was
106:Factors affecting denudation include:
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1349:Earth Surface Processes and Landforms
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37:process in which moving water, ice,
1630:Sadler, Peter M. (September 1981).
1538:Earth and Planetary Science Letters
949:Davis, William M. (November 1899).
140:, the process that forms mountains.
2040:Motoki, Akihisa; Sichel, Susanna.
1187:Fluvial Processes in Geomorphology
853:10.1016/B978-0-12-374739-6.00012-9
278:Fluvial Processes in Geomorphology
25:
1115:10.1144/gsl.jgs.1862.018.01-02.53
556:from the original on 2015-06-21.
502:
490:
478:
2071:from the original on 2020-07-20
2061:"Betsiboka Estuary, Madagascar"
1772:from the original on 2006-04-14
1743:from the original on 2021-04-28
1495:Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta
1393:Journal of Geophysical Research
1023:Charles., King, Lester (1967).
779:K., Lutgens, Frederick (2018).
756:from the original on 2015-03-13
518:Earthquakes causing landslides;
1962:10.1016/j.geomorph.2016.05.035
1842:10.1016/j.geomorph.2021.107642
1807:10.1016/j.geomorph.2008.09.008
1190:. Courier Dover Publications.
876:Hutton, James Geologe (1997).
746:"Weathering and Landforms 5.1"
732:Origin of sedimentary rocks 2e
593:10.1016/j.geomorph.2004.07.009
1:
1685:Gilluly, James (1955-05-01).
361:{\displaystyle E=KA^{m}S^{n}}
1515:10.1016/0016-7037(92)90401-4
934:Lyell, Charles (1830–1833).
1097:Jukes, J. B. (1862-02-01).
473:are exposed by denudation.
371:A more recent technique is
173:published three volumes of
2117:
1558:10.1016/j.epsl.2012.04.020
880:. The Geological Society.
690:10.1038/s41467-020-19744-3
213:that formed the basis for
2065:earthobservatory.nasa.gov
1691:Pacific Historical Review
1184:Leopold, Luna B. (1964).
1156:Treatise on Geomorphology
841:Treatise on Geomorphology
1124:2027/uiug.30112068306734
955:The Geographical Journal
951:"The Geographical Cycle"
911:10.1017/cbo9780511973086
628:10.5772/intechopen.70823
514:Other examples include:
461:Denudation exposes deep
1550:2012E&PSL.333..146L
1413:10.1029/jz069i016p03395
899:Playfair, John (2009).
550:Encyclopedia Britannica
1636:The Journal of Geology
1611:Cite journal requires
996:Gilbert, G.K. (1877).
458:
439:B) Chachahén Volcano,
362:
305:measurements taken at
187:
154:
1933:Harel, M.-A. (2016).
1029:. Oliver & Boyd.
782:Essentials of geology
669:Nature Communications
428:
363:
185:
176:Principles of Geology
152:
2101:Geological processes
2011:10.1029/2018JF004867
1585:10.5194/esurf-2019-7
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264:, it became clearer
215:William Morris Davis
159:Age of Enlightenment
126:or the type of rock;
2003:2019JGRF..124.1346Y
1954:2016Geomo.268..184H
1904:1990Natur.346..739G
1877:2014EGUGA..16.8857T
1834:2021Geomo.38107642W
1648:1981JG.....89..569S
1507:1992GeCoA..56.3583K
1452:1986Natur.319..134N
1405:1964JGR....69.3395J
1265:1996ESPL...21..125B
734:. pp. 245–250.
681:2020NatCo..11.6012K
585:2005Geomo..67..127D
455:Santa Cruz Province
378:cosmogenic isotopes
221:Publication of the
145:Historical theories
95:, salt weathering,
459:
431:Villarrica Volcano
373:cosmogenic isotope
358:
238:Grove Karl Gilbert
227:Grove Karl Gilbert
188:
155:
54:processes such as
1898:(6286): 739–742.
1446:(6049): 134–136.
1399:(16): 3395–3401.
1197:978-0-486-84552-4
920:978-0-511-97308-6
792:978-0-13-444662-2
638:978-953-51-3573-9
250:continental drift
68:continental crust
16:(Redirected from
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163:James Hutton
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2090:Categories
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1733:"Cenozoic"
1206:1137178795
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532:References
276:published
262:geophysics
231:pediplains
131:topography
115:weathering
76:weathering
52:Endogenous
35:geological
31:Denudation
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801:958585873
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546:"Erosion"
445:Argentina
393:Himalayas
266:Wegener's
124:Lithology
103:impacts.
72:exogenous
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2069:Archived
1920:42743054
1770:Archived
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754:Archived
717:33243971
554:Archived
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415:isostasy
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315:bed load
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1999:Bibcode
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