299:
desired you would not ascribe 'innate gravity' to me. That gravity should be innate, inherent, and essential to matter, so that one body may act upon another at a distance, through a vacuum, without the mediation of anything else, by and through which their action and force may be conveyed from one to another, is to me so great an absurdity, that I believe no man who has in philosophical matters a competent faculty of thinking can ever fall into it. Gravity must be caused by an agent acting constantly according to certain laws; but whether this agent be material or immaterial, I have left to the consideration of my readers.
230:). He also posited that bodies must consist mostly of empty space so that the aether can penetrate the bodies easily, which is necessary for mass proportionality. He further concluded that the aether moves much faster than the falling bodies. At this time, Newton developed his theory of gravitation which is based on attraction, and although Huygens agreed with the mathematical formalism, he said the model was insufficient due to the lack of a mechanical explanation of the force law. Newton's discovery that gravity obeys the
201:—so due to the pressure of the condensed outer matter those parts will be pushed into the center of the vortex. According to Descartes, this inward pressure is nothing other than gravity. He compared this mechanism with the fact that if a rotating, liquid filled vessel is stopped, the liquid goes on to rotate. Now, if one drops small pieces of light matter (e.g. wood) into the vessel, the pieces move to the middle of the vessel. This idea on the formation of the cosmos by vortices of matter was preceded by the
283:, Newton wrote the following: “a condensation causing a flow of ether with a corresponding thinning of the ether density associated with the increased velocity of flow.” He also asserted that such a process was consistent with all his other work and Kepler's Laws of Motion. Newtons' idea of a pressure drop associated with increased velocity of flow was mathematically formalised as
142:
for mass proportionality, the theory posits that a) the basic elements of matter are very small so that gross matter consists mostly of empty space, and b) that the particles are so small, that only a small fraction of them would be intercepted by gross matter. The result is, that the "shadow" of each body is proportional to the surface of every single element of matter.
455: : To explain universal gravitation, one is forced to assume that all pulsations in the universe are in phase—which appears very implausible. In addition, the aether should be incompressible to ensure that attraction also arises at greater distances. And Maxwell argued that this process must be accompanied by a permanent new production and destruction of aether.
475:
assumed that the effect of the aether is proportional to the complete surface of the elementary components of which matter consists (similar to
Huygens and Fatio before him). He also assumed an enormous penetrability of the bodies. However, no clear description was given by him as to how exactly the
311:
I have not as yet been able to discover the reason for these properties of gravity from phenomena, and I do not feign hypotheses. For whatever is not deduced from the phenomena must be called a hypothesis; and hypotheses, whether metaphysical or physical, or based on occult qualities, or mechanical,
226:
case of
Descartes) a greater concentration of fine matter at the outer borders. So also in his model the fine matter presses the rough matter into the center of the vortex. Huygens also found out that the centrifugal force is equal to the force that acts in the direction of the center of the vortex (
467:
assumed that all bodies are exposed to pushes by aether particles from all directions, and that there is some sort of limitation at a certain distance from the Earth's surface which cannot be passed by the particles. He assumed that if a body is closer to the Earth than to the limitation boundary,
141:
This shadow obeys the inverse square law, because the imbalance of momentum flow over an entire spherical surface enclosing the object is independent of the size of the enclosing sphere, whereas the surface area of the sphere increases in proportion to the square of the radius. To satisfy the need
403:
speculated in 1671 that gravitation is the result of all bodies emitting waves in all directions through the aether. Other bodies, which interact with these waves, move in the direction of the source of the waves. Hooke saw an analogy to the fact that small objects on a disturbed surface of water
225:
between 1669 and 1690 designed a much more exact vortex model. This model was the first theory of gravitation which was worked out mathematically. He assumed that the aether particles are moving in every direction, but were thrown back at the outer borders of the vortex and this causes (as in the
298:
It is inconceivable that inanimate brute matter should, without the mediation of something else which is not material, operate upon and affect other matter, without mutual contact, as it must do if gravitation in the sense of
Epicurus be essential and inherent in it. And this is one reason why I
335:
and normal matter represents sinks in this aether. So if the aether is destroyed or absorbed proportionally to the masses within the bodies, a stream arises and carries all surrounding bodies into the direction of the central mass. Riemann speculated that the absorbed aether is transferred into
500:
These mechanical explanations for gravity never gained widespread acceptance, although such ideas continued to be studied occasionally by physicists until the beginning of the twentieth century, by which time it was generally considered to be conclusively discredited. However, some researchers
411:
from 1859 to 1876. He calculated that the case of attraction occurs if the wavelength is large in comparison with the distance between the gravitating bodies. If the wavelength is small, the bodies repel each other. By a combination of these effects, he also tried to explain all other forces.
127:
but no net directional force. With a second object B present, however, a fraction of the particles that would otherwise have struck A from the direction of B is intercepted, so B works as a shield, so-to-speak—that is, from the direction of B, A will be struck by fewer particles than from the
170:
128:
opposite direction. Likewise, B will be struck by fewer particles from the direction of A than from the opposite direction. One can say that A and B are "shadowing" each other, and the two bodies are pushed toward each other by the resulting imbalance of forces.
418:: Maxwell objected that this theory requires a steady production of waves, which must be accompanied by an infinite consumption of energy. Challis himself admitted, that he hadn't reached a definite result due to the complexity of the processes.
267:, developed a quite distinct approach. Whereas Descartes had outlined three species of matter – each linked respectively to the emission, transmission, and reflection of light – Thomson developed a theory based on a unitary continuum.
487:
of gases on gravitation. He assumed that the aether is heated by the bodies and loses density so that other bodies are pushed to these regions of lower density. However, it was shown by Taylor that the decreased density due to
377:
presupposed in 1760 that the gravitational aether loses density in accordance with the inverse square law. Similarly to others, Euler also assumed that to maintain mass proportionality, matter consists mostly of empty space.
156:
the resistance of the particle streams in the direction of motion, is a great problem too. This problem can be solved by assuming superluminal speeds, but this solution largely increases the thermal problems and contradicts
366:(1717) with another mechanical-ether theory of gravity. Unlike his first explanation (1675 – see Streams), he proposed a stationary aether which gets thinner and thinner nearby the celestial bodies. On the analogy of the
189:. The parts of this matter tend to move in straight paths, but because they lie close together, they cannot move freely, which according to Descartes implies that every motion is circular, so the aether is filled with
433:(1871) assumed that all bodies pulsate in the aether. This was in analogy to the fact that, if the pulsation of two spheres in a fluid is in phase, they will attract each other; and if the pulsation of two spheres is
343:
in 1888. Based on his aether stream model, which was similar to that of
Riemann, he argued that the absorbed aether might be converted into new matter, leading to a mass increase of the celestial bodies.
1062:
A rough
English translation appeared in a U.S. government technical report: FTD TT64 323; TT 64 11801 (1964), Foreign Tech. Div., Air Force Systems Command, Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio (reprinted in
294:
However, although he later proposed a second explanation (see section below), Newton's comments to that question remained ambiguous. In the third letter to
Bentley in 1692 he wrote:
123:. The intensity of the flux of particles is assumed to be the same in all directions, so an isolated object A is struck equally from all sides, resulting in only an inward-directed
152:
reasons because a shadow only appears in this model if the particles or waves are at least partly absorbed, which should lead to an enormous heating of the bodies. Also drag,
1472:
1738:
197:, matter tends towards the outer edges of the vortex, which causes a condensation of this matter there. The rough matter cannot follow this movement due to its greater
193:. Descartes also distinguishes between different forms and sizes of matter in which rough matter resists the circular movement more strongly than fine matter. Due to
312:
have no place in experimental philosophy. In this philosophy particular propositions are inferred from the phenomena, and afterwards rendered general by induction.
2040:
1490:
1137:
Adamut, I. A. (1982), "The screen effect of the earth in the TETG. Theory of a screening experiment of a sample body at the equator using the earth as a screen",
947:
858:
793:
1846:
390:
the state of stress... which we must suppose to exist in the invisible medium, is 3000 times greater than that which the strongest steel could support
1768:
66:" hypotheses also attempt to describe gravity by more fundamental processes such as particle fields, but they are not based on classical mechanics.
2344:
370:, a force arises, which pushes all bodies to the central mass. He minimized drag by stating an extremely low density of the gravitational aether.
2017:
2272:
1831:
767:
I. Newton, letters quoted in detail in The
Metaphysical Foundations of Modern Physical Science by Edwin Arthur Burtt, Double day Anchor Books.
2416:
2349:
2001:
1974:
1816:
1731:
1707:
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248:
often move in different directions, against the direction of the vortex motion. Also, Huygens' explanation of the inverse square law is
2329:
1877:
1860:
1801:
524:
507:
was studied by
Radzievskii and Kagalnikova (1960), Shneiderov (1961), Buonomano and Engels (1976), Adamut (1982), and Edwards (2014).
75:
1095:
Buonomano, V. & Engel, E. (1976), "Some speculations on a causal unification of relativity, gravitation, and quantum mechanics",
1982:
1811:
1666:
886:
809:
426:
264:
234:
surprised
Huygens and he tried to take this into account by assuming that the speed of the aether is smaller in greater distance.
1724:
132:
1179:
Matthew R. Edwards (2014). "Gravity from refraction of CMB photons using the optical-mechanical analogy in general relativity".
1783:
519:
2089:
2011:
802:
442:
51:
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1806:
321:
2396:
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2411:
2406:
1961:
1951:
1826:
1909:
1624:
Van
Lunteren, F. (2002), "Nicolas Fatio de Duillier on the mechanical cause of Gravitation", in Edwards, M.R. (ed.),
2267:
1773:
1530:
1508:
2061:
2056:
317:
260:
81:
2277:
1987:
58:. However, such models are no longer regarded as viable theories within the mainstream scientific community and
2401:
2164:
2158:
840:
468:
then the body would experience a greater push from above than from below, causing it to fall toward the Earth.
340:
202:
2125:
284:
2192:
484:
351:
205:
1993:
1903:
2109:
1581:
384:: Both Newton and Euler gave no reason why the density of that static aether should change. Furthermore,
2241:
2220:
2213:
2153:
85:
1778:
1274:
Mayeul Arminjon (2006). "Space Isotropy and Weak Equivalence Principle in a Scalar Theory of Gravity".
845:
Hypothese cinetique de la Gravitation universelle et connexion avec la formation des elements chimiques
80:
This theory is probably the best-known mechanical explanation, and was developed for the first time by
1222:
Mayeul Arminjon (11 November 2004), "Gravity as Archimedes´ Thrust and a Bifurcation in that Theory",
2308:
2227:
2206:
2199:
2074:
1929:
1887:
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1293:
1241:
1188:
1146:
1104:
1033:
304:
249:
1524:
776:
492:
is compensated for by the increased speed of the heated particles; therefore, no attraction arises.
62:
is now the standard model to describe gravitation without the use of actions at a distance. Modern "
1519:
1331:
Aiton, E.J. (1969), "Newton's Aether-Stream Hypothesis and the Inverse Square Law of Gravitation",
430:
385:
350:: As in the case of Le Sage's theory, the disappearance of energy without explanation violates the
332:
244:
must lead to noticeable deviations of the orbits which were not observed. Another problem was that
97:
39:
1028:
2370:
1836:
1821:
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1257:
1231:
1204:
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1120:
661:
231:
222:
158:
112:
59:
437:
in phase, they will repel each other. This mechanism was also used for explaining the nature of
2354:
2262:
2006:
1934:
1703:
1662:
1502:
1484:
1002:
941:
882:
876:
852:
825:(1876), Dedekind, R.; Weber, W. (eds.), "Neue mathematische Prinzipien der Naturphilosophie",
805:
743:
643:
570:
489:
472:
227:
194:
178:
101:
47:
501:
outside the scientific mainstream still try to work out some consequences of those theories.
17:
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1366:
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1301:
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735:
635:
328:
54:. These theories were developed from the 16th until the 19th century in connection with the
2035:
1956:
1916:
1882:
1413:
982:
665:
464:
438:
354:. Also some drag must arise, and no process which leads to a creation of matter is known.
276:
93:
63:
55:
931:
1650:
1454:
1396:
1297:
1245:
1150:
1108:
1006:
706:
2235:
872:
446:
374:
241:
169:
149:
1580:
739:
256:. But a theory of gravitation has to explain those laws and must not presuppose them.
2390:
2172:
1841:
1676:
1543:
1473:"Ăśber die RĂĽckfĂĽhrung der Schwere auf Absorption und die daraus abgeleiteten Gesetze"
1208:
1166:
1124:
1024:
927:
480:
408:
1305:
1261:
2130:
1939:
1313:
788:
702:
400:
367:
280:
708:
Newton's Principia : the mathematical principles of natural philosophy (1687)
2099:
1699:
89:
1691:
Encyklopädie der Mathematischen Wissenschaften mit Einschluss ihrer Anwendungen
1534:, vol. 3 (9th ed.), New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, pp. 63–65
1512:, vol. 3 (9th ed.), New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, pp. 36–49
1052:
Radzievskii, V.V. & Kagalnikova, I.I. (1960), "The nature of gravitation",
986:
620:
2313:
1598:
1418:
1344:
1253:
1200:
639:
215:
1635:
Zehe, Horst (1980), "Die Gravitationstheorie des Nicolas Fatio de Duillier",
1609:
1462:
1404:
747:
647:
2318:
2300:
2104:
2081:
211:
1523:
1370:
574:
1716:
2375:
2185:
2178:
324:, Newton thought that gravitation is based directly on divine influence.
124:
120:
43:
1236:
1747:
1658:
1158:
1116:
208:
198:
35:
1288:
1076:
Shneiderov, A. J. (1961), "On the internal temperature of the earth",
1501:
190:
186:
1626:
Pushing Gravity: New Perspectives on Le Sage's Theory of Gravitation
1582:"Comparative Review of some Dynamical Theories of Gravitation"
1438:
1380:
1354:
476:
aether interacts with matter so that the law of gravitation arises.
131:
723:
1967:
245:
182:
130:
108:
1542:
777:
http://www.newtonproject.ox.ac.uk/view/texts/normalized/THEM00258
510:
Gravity due to static pressure was recently studied by Arminjon.
116:
1720:
1564:
1029:"On the Causes, Laws and Phenomena of Heat, Gases, Gravitation"
316:
And according to the testimony of some of his friends, such as
1007:"On the Relation of the Amount of Material and Weight (1758)"
1439:"Ueber die Vermittelung der Fernewirkungen durch den Aether"
303:
On the other hand, Newton is also well known for the phrase
878:
Briefe an eine deutsche Prinzessin, Nr. 50, 30. August 1760
595:
Descartes, 1644; Zehe, 1980, pp. 65–70; Van Lunteren, p. 47
1417:
1353:
Carrington, Hereward (1913), Sugden, Sherwood J. B (ed.),
441:. Among others, this hypothesis has also been examined by
185:
can exist and that space must consequently be filled with
1608:
1549:
Proceedings of the Royal Philosophical Society of Glasgow
327:
Similar to Newton, but mathematically in greater detail,
621:"Leucippus and Democritus on Like to Like and ou mallon"
339:
Another attempt to solve the energy problem was made by
263:
in the late nineteenth century. However, the physicist,
1572:, London, New York: Nelson & Sons, pp. 246–253
1011:
Mikhail Vasil'evich Lomonosov on the Corpuscular Theory
933:
Notes of the Principles of Pure and Applied Calculation
119:
moving at high speed in all directions, throughout the
136:
P5: Permeability, attenuation and mass proportionality
331:
assumed in 1853 that the gravitational aether is an
2363:
2295:
2253:
2139:
2118:
2049:
1896:
1870:
1859:
1792:
1761:
1754:
724:"The Vortex Atom: A Victorian Theory of Everything"
407:A similar theory was worked out mathematically by
827:Bernhard Riemanns Werke und Gesammelter Nachlass
1544:"The Corpuscular Theories of Gravitation"
797:, General Scholium. Third edition, page 943 of
2041:Degenerate Higher-Order Scalar-Tensor theories
1013:, Cambridge: Harvard University Press: 224–233
388:pointed out that in this "hydrostatic" model "
1732:
1563:
903:Maxwell (1875, Attraction), Secondary sources
666:"Discours de la Cause de la Pesanteur (1690)"
664:(1944), Société Hollaise des Sciences (ed.),
542:Taylor (1876), Peck (1903), secondary sources
483:tried to apply his co-developed model of the
8:
1628:, Montreal: C. Roy Keys Inc., pp. 41–59
1078:Bollettino di Geofisica Teorica ed Applicata
1054:Vsesoyuz. Astronom.-Geodezich. Obsch. Byull.
794:Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica
252:, because this means that the aether obeys
221:Following the basic premises of Descartes,
84:in 1690, and re-invented, among others, by
1867:
1758:
1739:
1725:
1717:
1489:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
1477:Abhandlungen zur Geschichte der Mathematik
1424:Proceedings of the Iowa Academy of Science
968:
966:
946:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
899:
897:
857:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
685:
683:
1287:
1235:
913:
911:
909:
697:
695:
148:: This theory was declined primarily for
1479:, vol. 6, Leipzig, pp. 161–204
1419:"Physical Theories of Gravitation"
575:"Les principes de la philosophie (1644)"
240:: Newton objected to the theory because
168:
34:) are attempts to explain the action of
2345:Gravitational interaction of antimatter
1610:"Kinetic Theories of Gravitation"
670:Oeuvres Complètes de Christiaan Huygens
560:Maxwell (1875, Atom), Secondary sources
535:
404:move to the center of the disturbance.
173:Aether vortices around celestial bodies
1482:
988:Nouvelles conjectures sur la Pesanteur
939:
850:
689:Van Lunteren (2002), Secondary sources
605:
603:
601:
177:Because of his philosophical beliefs,
28:Mechanical explanations of gravitation
2350:Physics in the medieval Islamic world
2273:(2+1)-dimensional topological gravity
1769:Newton's law of universal gravitation
1638:Archive for History of Exact Sciences
801:and Anne Whitman's 1999 translation,
362:Newton updated the second edition of
287:published in Daniel Bernoulli's book
259:Several British physicists developed
7:
2095:Asymptotic safety in quantum gravity
1645:(1), Hildesheim: Gerstenberg: 1–23,
779:Newton, 1692, 4th letter to Bentley
1847:Gibbons–Hawking–York boundary term
1005:(1970), Henry M. Leicester (ed.),
551:Poincaré (1908), Secondary sources
25:
1962:Modified Newtonian dynamics, MOND
1878:Classical theories of gravitation
972:Zenneck (1903), Secondary sources
960:Maxwell (1875), Secondary sources
740:10.1034/j.1600-0498.2002.440102.x
265:William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin
111:of gravity is the result of tiny
917:Taylor (1876), Secondary sources
1784:History of gravitational theory
1694:, vol. 5, pp. 25–67,
1579:Preston, Samuel Tolver (1895),
1306:10.1590/S0103-97332006000200010
573:(1824–1826), Cousin, V. (ed.),
525:Le Sage's theory of gravitation
520:History of gravitational theory
181:proposed in 1644 that no empty
76:Le Sage's theory of gravitation
32:kinetic theories of gravitation
2090:Causal dynamical triangulation
1779:Poisson's equation for gravity
1607:Taylor, William Bower (1876),
1181:Astrophysics and Space Science
803:University of California Press
619:Andrew, Gregory (2013-10-01).
609:Zehe (1980), Secondary sources
504:
1:
1500:Maxwell, James Clerk (1878),
1355:"Earlier Theories of Gravity"
881:, Leipzig, pp. 173–176,
459:Other historical speculations
18:Descartes' vortex theory
2417:Obsolete scientific theories
1276:Brazilian Journal of Physics
336:another world or dimension.
1952:Infinite derivative gravity
1700:10.1007/978-3-663-16016-8_2
107:The theory posits that the
2433:
2140:Unified-field-theoric and
1528:, in Baynes, T. S. (ed.),
1506:, in Baynes, T. S. (ed.),
1471:Isenkrahe, Caspar (1892),
96:(1900), and criticized by
73:
2283:Jackiw–Teitelboim gravity
2062:Canonical quantum gravity
2057:Euclidean quantum gravity
1599:10.1080/14786449508620698
1562:Poincaré, Henri (1914) ,
1345:10.1080/00033796900200151
1254:10.1007/s10701-004-1312-3
1201:10.1007/s10509-014-1864-4
640:10.1515/apeiron-2013-0021
318:Nicolas Fatio de Duillier
261:vortex theory of the atom
82:Nicolas Fatio de Duillier
50:, without the use of any
2159:Superfluid vacuum theory
1983:Nonsymmetric gravitation
1832:Post-Newtonian formalism
1463:10.1002/andp.18812500912
1405:10.1002/andp.18972981220
341:Ivan Osipovich Yarkovsky
2324:Mechanical explanations
2193:Heterotic string theory
2149:Noncommutative geometry
2068:Wheeler–DeWitt equation
1794:General relativity (GR)
1774:Gauss's law for gravity
1748:Theories of gravitation
1688:(1903), "Gravitation",
1565:"Lesage's theory"
1531:Encyclopædia Britannica
1509:Encyclopædia Britannica
1193:2014Ap&SS.351..401E
711:, New York: Daniel Adee
585:, Paris: F.-G. Levrault
352:energy conservation law
2165:Logarithmic BEC vacuum
2110:Rainbow gravity theory
1988:Scalar–tensor theories
1762:Newtonian gravity (NG)
1587:Philosophical Magazine
1381:"Ueber Fernewirkungen"
1371:10.5840/monist19132332
1224:Foundations of Physics
314:
301:
174:
138:
2242:Twistor string theory
2221:Type II string theory
2214:Bosonic string theory
2154:Semiclassical gravity
2119:Unified-field-theoric
1904:Poincaré gauge theory
722:Kragh, Helge (2002).
443:George Gabriel Stokes
309:
296:
285:Bernoulli's principle
172:
134:
86:Georges-Louis Le Sage
2309:Aristotelian physics
2278:Gauss–Bonnet gravity
2228:Little string theory
2207:Type 0 string theory
2200:Type I string theory
2075:Loop quantum gravity
2002:Scalar–tensor–vector
1975:Tensor–vector–scalar
1930:Gauge theory gravity
1888:Theory of everything
1541:Peck, J. W. (1903),
1520:Maxwell, James Clerk
1437:Helm, Georg (1881),
1414:Hall, Thomas Proctor
1379:Drude, Paul (1897),
1097:Int. J. Theor. Phys.
1034:Annals of Philosophy
579:Oeuvres de Descartes
333:incompressible fluid
305:Hypotheses non fingo
275:In a 1675 letter to
52:action at a distance
2397:Theories of gravity
2126:Kaluza–Klein theory
1651:1983AHES...28....1Z
1455:1881AnP...250..149H
1397:1897AnP...298D...1D
1298:2006BrJPh..36..177A
1246:2004FoPh...34.1703A
1151:1982NCimC...5..189A
1109:1976IJTP...15..231B
676:, Den Haag: 443–488
431:Carl Anton Bjerknes
386:James Clerk Maxwell
307:, written in 1713:
98:James Clerk Maxwell
42:processes, such as
2412:History of physics
2407:Natural philosophy
2371:Gravitational wave
2254:Generalisations /
2142:quantum-mechanical
2050:Quantum-mechanical
1863:general relativity
1837:Linearized gravity
1659:10.1007/BF00327787
1615:Smithsonian Report
1570:Science and Method
1525:"Attraction"
1443:Annalen der Physik
1385:Annalen der Physik
1159:10.1007/BF02509010
1117:10.1007/BF01807095
829:, Leipzig: 528–538
254:Kepler's third law
232:inverse square law
223:Christiaan Huygens
175:
159:special relativity
139:
60:general relativity
2384:
2383:
2355:Theory of impetus
2291:
2290:
2263:Liouville gravity
2007:Conformal gravity
1935:Composite gravity
1925:Bimetric theories
1855:
1854:
1709:978-3-663-15445-7
1686:Zenneck, Jonathan
1333:Annals of Science
1230:(11): 1703–1724,
496:Recent theorizing
490:thermal expansion
473:Mikhail Lomonosov
228:centripetal force
195:centrifugal force
46:forces caused by
16:(Redirected from
2424:
2339:
2337:Entropic gravity
2332:
2256:extensions of GR
2244:
2230:
2223:
2216:
2209:
2202:
2195:
2188:
2181:
2167:
2084:
2077:
2070:
2031:Geometrodynamics
2020:
1996:
1977:
1970:
1919:
1912:
1868:
1759:
1741:
1734:
1727:
1718:
1712:
1679:
1629:
1618:
1612:
1601:
1593:(237): 145–159,
1584:
1573:
1567:
1556:
1546:
1535:
1527:
1513:
1505:
1494:
1488:
1480:
1465:
1431:
1421:
1407:
1373:
1347:
1318:
1317:
1291:
1271:
1265:
1264:
1239:
1219:
1213:
1212:
1176:
1170:
1169:
1134:
1128:
1127:
1092:
1086:
1085:
1073:
1067:
1061:
1049:
1043:
1042:
1041:, Paris: 273–293
1021:
1015:
1014:
999:
993:
992:
979:
973:
970:
961:
958:
952:
951:
945:
937:
924:
918:
915:
904:
901:
892:
891:
869:
863:
862:
856:
848:
841:Yarkovsky, I. O.
837:
831:
830:
819:
813:
799:I. Bernard Cohen
786:
780:
774:
768:
765:
759:
758:
756:
754:
719:
713:
712:
699:
690:
687:
678:
677:
658:
652:
651:
625:
616:
610:
607:
596:
593:
587:
586:
567:
561:
558:
552:
549:
543:
540:
505:Le Sage's theory
439:electric charges
329:Bernhard Riemann
38:by aid of basic
21:
2432:
2431:
2427:
2426:
2425:
2423:
2422:
2421:
2402:Aether theories
2387:
2386:
2385:
2380:
2359:
2335:
2328:
2299:
2297:
2287:
2268:Lovelock theory
2255:
2249:
2240:
2226:
2219:
2212:
2205:
2198:
2191:
2184:
2177:
2163:
2141:
2135:
2114:
2080:
2073:
2066:
2045:
2036:Induced gravity
2016:
2012:Scalar theories
1992:
1973:
1966:
1957:Massive gravity
1917:Teleparallelism
1915:
1910:Einstein–Cartan
1908:
1892:
1883:Quantum gravity
1862:
1861:Alternatives to
1851:
1817:Exact solutions
1788:
1750:
1745:
1715:
1710:
1684:
1669:
1634:
1623:
1606:
1578:
1561:
1540:
1518:
1499:
1481:
1470:
1436:
1412:
1378:
1352:
1330:
1326:
1321:
1282:(1B): 177–189.
1273:
1272:
1268:
1237:physics/0404103
1221:
1220:
1216:
1178:
1177:
1173:
1139:Nuovo Cimento C
1136:
1135:
1131:
1094:
1093:
1089:
1075:
1074:
1070:
1064:Pushing Gravity
1051:
1050:
1046:
1023:
1022:
1018:
1001:
1000:
996:
981:
980:
976:
971:
964:
959:
955:
938:
926:
925:
921:
916:
907:
902:
895:
889:
871:
870:
866:
849:
839:
838:
834:
821:
820:
816:
787:
783:
775:
771:
766:
762:
752:
750:
734:(1–2): 32–114.
721:
720:
716:
701:
700:
693:
688:
681:
660:
659:
655:
623:
618:
617:
613:
608:
599:
594:
590:
569:
568:
564:
559:
555:
550:
546:
541:
537:
533:
516:
498:
465:Pierre Varignon
461:
424:
398:
360:
358:Static pressure
279:, and later to
277:Henry Oldenburg
273:
167:
137:
94:Hendrik Lorentz
78:
72:
64:quantum gravity
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2430:
2428:
2420:
2419:
2414:
2409:
2404:
2399:
2389:
2388:
2382:
2381:
2379:
2378:
2373:
2367:
2365:
2364:Related topics
2361:
2360:
2358:
2357:
2352:
2347:
2342:
2341:
2340:
2333:
2321:
2316:
2311:
2305:
2303:
2293:
2292:
2289:
2288:
2286:
2285:
2280:
2275:
2270:
2265:
2259:
2257:
2251:
2250:
2248:
2247:
2246:
2245:
2236:Twistor theory
2233:
2232:
2231:
2224:
2217:
2210:
2203:
2196:
2189:
2182:
2170:
2169:
2168:
2156:
2151:
2145:
2143:
2137:
2136:
2134:
2133:
2128:
2122:
2120:
2116:
2115:
2113:
2112:
2107:
2102:
2097:
2092:
2087:
2086:
2085:
2078:
2071:
2059:
2053:
2051:
2047:
2046:
2044:
2043:
2038:
2033:
2028:
2023:
2022:
2021:
2009:
2004:
1999:
1998:
1997:
1985:
1980:
1979:
1978:
1971:
1959:
1954:
1949:
1937:
1932:
1927:
1922:
1921:
1920:
1913:
1900:
1898:
1894:
1893:
1891:
1890:
1885:
1880:
1874:
1872:
1865:
1857:
1856:
1853:
1852:
1850:
1849:
1844:
1839:
1834:
1829:
1824:
1819:
1814:
1809:
1804:
1798:
1796:
1790:
1789:
1787:
1786:
1781:
1776:
1771:
1765:
1763:
1756:
1752:
1751:
1746:
1744:
1743:
1736:
1729:
1721:
1714:
1713:
1708:
1681:
1680:
1667:
1631:
1630:
1620:
1619:
1603:
1602:
1589:, 5th series,
1575:
1574:
1558:
1557:
1537:
1536:
1515:
1514:
1496:
1495:
1467:
1466:
1449:(9): 149–176,
1433:
1432:
1409:
1408:
1391:(12): I–XLIX,
1375:
1374:
1365:(3): 445–458,
1349:
1348:
1339:(3): 255–260,
1327:
1325:
1322:
1320:
1319:
1266:
1214:
1187:(2): 401–406.
1171:
1145:(2): 189–208,
1129:
1103:(3): 231–246,
1087:
1068:
1044:
1016:
994:
974:
962:
953:
919:
905:
893:
887:
864:
832:
814:
781:
769:
760:
714:
691:
679:
653:
634:(4): 446–468.
611:
597:
588:
562:
553:
544:
534:
532:
529:
528:
527:
522:
515:
512:
497:
494:
485:kinetic theory
460:
457:
447:Woldemar Voigt
423:
420:
397:
394:
375:Leonhard Euler
359:
356:
272:
269:
179:René Descartes
166:
163:
135:
102:Henri Poincaré
74:Main article:
71:
68:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2429:
2418:
2415:
2413:
2410:
2408:
2405:
2403:
2400:
2398:
2395:
2394:
2392:
2377:
2374:
2372:
2369:
2368:
2366:
2362:
2356:
2353:
2351:
2348:
2346:
2343:
2338:
2334:
2331:
2330:Fatio–Le Sage
2327:
2326:
2325:
2322:
2320:
2317:
2315:
2312:
2310:
2307:
2306:
2304:
2302:
2296:Pre-Newtonian
2294:
2284:
2281:
2279:
2276:
2274:
2271:
2269:
2266:
2264:
2261:
2260:
2258:
2252:
2243:
2239:
2238:
2237:
2234:
2229:
2225:
2222:
2218:
2215:
2211:
2208:
2204:
2201:
2197:
2194:
2190:
2187:
2183:
2180:
2176:
2175:
2174:
2173:String theory
2171:
2166:
2162:
2161:
2160:
2157:
2155:
2152:
2150:
2147:
2146:
2144:
2138:
2132:
2129:
2127:
2124:
2123:
2121:
2117:
2111:
2108:
2106:
2103:
2101:
2098:
2096:
2093:
2091:
2088:
2083:
2079:
2076:
2072:
2069:
2065:
2064:
2063:
2060:
2058:
2055:
2054:
2052:
2048:
2042:
2039:
2037:
2034:
2032:
2029:
2027:
2024:
2019:
2015:
2014:
2013:
2010:
2008:
2005:
2003:
2000:
1995:
1991:
1990:
1989:
1986:
1984:
1981:
1976:
1972:
1969:
1965:
1964:
1963:
1960:
1958:
1955:
1953:
1950:
1948:
1946:
1942:
1938:
1936:
1933:
1931:
1928:
1926:
1923:
1918:
1914:
1911:
1907:
1906:
1905:
1902:
1901:
1899:
1895:
1889:
1886:
1884:
1881:
1879:
1876:
1875:
1873:
1869:
1866:
1864:
1858:
1848:
1845:
1843:
1842:ADM formalism
1840:
1838:
1835:
1833:
1830:
1828:
1825:
1823:
1820:
1818:
1815:
1813:
1810:
1808:
1805:
1803:
1800:
1799:
1797:
1795:
1791:
1785:
1782:
1780:
1777:
1775:
1772:
1770:
1767:
1766:
1764:
1760:
1757:
1753:
1749:
1742:
1737:
1735:
1730:
1728:
1723:
1722:
1719:
1711:
1705:
1701:
1697:
1693:
1692:
1687:
1683:
1682:
1678:
1674:
1670:
1668:3-8067-0862-2
1664:
1660:
1656:
1652:
1648:
1644:
1640:
1639:
1633:
1632:
1627:
1622:
1621:
1616:
1611:
1605:
1604:
1600:
1596:
1592:
1588:
1583:
1577:
1576:
1571:
1566:
1560:
1559:
1554:
1550:
1545:
1539:
1538:
1533:
1532:
1526:
1521:
1517:
1516:
1511:
1510:
1504:
1498:
1497:
1492:
1486:
1478:
1474:
1469:
1468:
1464:
1460:
1456:
1452:
1448:
1444:
1440:
1435:
1434:
1429:
1425:
1420:
1415:
1411:
1410:
1406:
1402:
1398:
1394:
1390:
1386:
1382:
1377:
1376:
1372:
1368:
1364:
1360:
1356:
1351:
1350:
1346:
1342:
1338:
1334:
1329:
1328:
1323:
1315:
1311:
1307:
1303:
1299:
1295:
1290:
1289:gr-qc/0412085
1285:
1281:
1277:
1270:
1267:
1263:
1259:
1255:
1251:
1247:
1243:
1238:
1233:
1229:
1225:
1218:
1215:
1210:
1206:
1202:
1198:
1194:
1190:
1186:
1182:
1175:
1172:
1168:
1164:
1160:
1156:
1152:
1148:
1144:
1140:
1133:
1130:
1126:
1122:
1118:
1114:
1110:
1106:
1102:
1098:
1091:
1088:
1083:
1079:
1072:
1069:
1065:
1059:
1055:
1048:
1045:
1040:
1036:
1035:
1030:
1026:
1020:
1017:
1012:
1008:
1004:
1003:Lomonosow, M.
998:
995:
990:
989:
984:
978:
975:
969:
967:
963:
957:
954:
949:
943:
935:
934:
929:
923:
920:
914:
912:
910:
906:
900:
898:
894:
890:
888:9785875783876
884:
880:
879:
874:
868:
865:
860:
854:
846:
842:
836:
833:
828:
824:
818:
815:
811:
810:0-520-08817-4
807:
804:
800:
796:
795:
790:
785:
782:
778:
773:
770:
764:
761:
749:
745:
741:
737:
733:
729:
725:
718:
715:
710:
709:
704:
698:
696:
692:
686:
684:
680:
675:
671:
667:
663:
657:
654:
649:
645:
641:
637:
633:
629:
622:
615:
612:
606:
604:
602:
598:
592:
589:
584:
580:
576:
572:
571:Descartes, R.
566:
563:
557:
554:
548:
545:
539:
536:
530:
526:
523:
521:
518:
517:
513:
511:
508:
506:
502:
495:
493:
491:
486:
482:
481:John Herapath
477:
474:
469:
466:
458:
456:
454:
450:
448:
444:
440:
436:
432:
428:
421:
419:
417:
413:
410:
409:James Challis
405:
402:
395:
393:
391:
387:
383:
379:
376:
373:Like Newton,
371:
369:
365:
357:
355:
353:
349:
345:
342:
337:
334:
330:
325:
323:
322:David Gregory
319:
313:
308:
306:
300:
295:
292:
290:
289:Hydrodynamica
286:
282:
278:
270:
268:
266:
262:
257:
255:
251:
247:
243:
239:
235:
233:
229:
224:
219:
217:
213:
210:
207:
204:
200:
196:
192:
188:
184:
180:
171:
164:
162:
160:
155:
151:
150:thermodynamic
147:
143:
133:
129:
126:
122:
118:
114:
110:
105:
103:
99:
95:
91:
87:
83:
77:
69:
67:
65:
61:
57:
53:
49:
45:
41:
37:
33:
29:
19:
2323:
2298:theories and
2131:Supergravity
1944:
1940:
1802:Introduction
1690:
1642:
1636:
1625:
1614:
1590:
1586:
1569:
1552:
1548:
1529:
1507:
1503:"Atom"
1476:
1446:
1442:
1427:
1423:
1388:
1384:
1362:
1358:
1336:
1332:
1279:
1275:
1269:
1227:
1223:
1217:
1184:
1180:
1174:
1142:
1138:
1132:
1100:
1096:
1090:
1081:
1077:
1071:
1063:
1057:
1053:
1047:
1038:
1032:
1025:Herapath, J.
1019:
1010:
997:
987:
983:Varignon, P.
977:
956:
932:
922:
877:
867:
844:
835:
826:
817:
812:, 974 pages.
792:
789:Isaac Newton
784:
772:
763:
751:. Retrieved
731:
727:
717:
707:
673:
669:
656:
631:
627:
614:
591:
582:
578:
565:
556:
547:
538:
509:
503:
499:
478:
470:
462:
452:
451:
434:
425:
415:
414:
406:
401:Robert Hooke
399:
389:
381:
380:
372:
363:
361:
347:
346:
338:
326:
315:
310:
302:
297:
293:
288:
281:Robert Boyle
274:
258:
237:
236:
220:
206:pre-Socratic
176:
153:
145:
144:
140:
106:
100:(1875), and
92:(1872), and
79:
31:
27:
26:
2100:Causal sets
1994:Brans–Dicke
1812:Mathematics
936:, Cambridge
928:Challis, J.
823:Riemann, B.
662:Huygens, C.
429:(1871) and
427:Lord Kelvin
90:Lord Kelvin
2391:Categories
2314:CGHS model
2301:toy models
1359:The Monist
1060:(33): 3–14
703:Newton, I.
531:References
216:Democritus
40:mechanical
2319:RST model
2105:DGP model
2082:Spin foam
2026:Whitehead
2018:Nordström
1947:) gravity
1897:Classical
1871:Paradigms
1822:Resources
1677:123509380
1617:: 205–282
1209:254255947
1167:117039637
1125:124895055
1084:: 137–159
873:Euler, L.
748:0008-8994
728:Centaurus
648:2156-7093
479:In 1821,
471:In 1748,
463:In 1690,
453:Criticism
422:Pulsation
416:Criticism
382:Criticism
348:Criticism
291:in 1738.
238:Criticism
212:Leucippus
146:Criticism
113:particles
70:Screening
2376:Graviton
2186:F-theory
2179:M-theory
1755:Standard
1522:(1878),
1485:citation
1416:(1895),
1262:14421710
1027:(1821),
985:(1690),
942:citation
930:(1869),
875:(1776),
853:citation
847:, Moscow
843:(1888),
791:(1726).
705:(1846),
514:See also
250:circular
209:atomists
191:vortices
125:pressure
121:universe
104:(1908).
88:(1748),
44:pressure
1807:History
1647:Bibcode
1555:: 17–44
1451:Bibcode
1430:: 47–52
1393:Bibcode
1324:Sources
1314:6415412
1294:Bibcode
1242:Bibcode
1189:Bibcode
1147:Bibcode
1105:Bibcode
991:, Paris
753:9 March
628:Apeiron
271:Streams
203:ancient
199:inertia
36:gravity
1706:
1675:
1665:
1312:
1260:
1207:
1165:
1123:
885:
808:
746:
646:
364:Optics
187:matter
165:Vortex
56:aether
48:pushes
1968:AQUAL
1827:Tests
1673:S2CID
1310:S2CID
1284:arXiv
1258:S2CID
1232:arXiv
1205:S2CID
1163:S2CID
1121:S2CID
624:(PDF)
396:Waves
246:moons
183:space
117:waves
109:force
1704:ISBN
1663:ISBN
1491:link
948:link
883:ISBN
859:link
806:ISBN
755:2019
744:ISSN
644:ISSN
445:and
368:lift
242:drag
214:and
154:i.e.
30:(or
1696:doi
1655:doi
1595:doi
1459:doi
1447:250
1401:doi
1389:298
1367:doi
1341:doi
1302:doi
1250:doi
1197:doi
1185:351
1155:doi
1113:doi
736:doi
636:doi
435:not
392:".
320:or
115:or
2393::
1702:,
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