Development of the nervous system in humans

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that 90 per cent of these were differentially regulated at the whole-transcript or exon level across brain regions and/or time. The majority of these spatio-temporal differences were detected before birth, with subsequent increases in the similarity among regional transcriptomes. Furthermore, interareal differences exhibit a temporal hourglass pattern, dividing the human neocortical development into three major phases. During the first phase, in the first six months after conception, general architecture of brain regions is largely formed by a burst of genetic activity, which is distinct for specific regions of the neocortex. This rush is followed by a sort of intermission beginning in the third trimester of pregnancy. During this period, most genes that are active in specific brain regions are quieted — except for genes that spur connections between all neocortex regions. Then in late childhood and early adolescence, the genetic orchestra begins again and helps subtly shape neocortex regions that progressively perform more specialized tasks, a process that continues into adulthood.

870:, also known as the prosencephalon, mesencephalon, and the rhombencephalon respectively. Five secondary structures from these in the seventh gestational week. These are the telencephalon, diencephalon, mesencephalon, metencephalon, and myelencephalon which later become the lateral ventricles, third ventricles, aqueduct, and upper and lower parts of the fourth ventricle from the telencephalon to the myelencephalon, during adulthood. 3D ultrasound imaging allows in-vivo depictions of ideal brain development which can help tp recognize irregularities during gestation. 759: 1429:

these receptors during stress exposure, facilitating the development of survival responses at the cost of other important neural pathways. Some examples of brain regions with high glucocorticoid receptor density are the hippocampus and cerebellar vermis. Stress activates the HPA axis, and results in the production of glucocorticoids. Increased glucocorticoid production results in increased activation of these brain regions, facilitating the development of certain neural pathways at the cost of others.

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structure that is affected by childhood maltreatment. Early life stress seems to interfere with the overproduction of synapses that is typical in childhood, but does not interfere with synaptic pruning in adolescence. This results in smaller hippocampal volumes, potentially explaining the association between early life stress and reduced hippocampal volume. This volume reduction may be associated with the emotion regulation deficits seen in those exposed to early life stress.

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ventral MPFC was more stimulated in children. They can be attributed to the use of objective strategy associated with the dMPFC. Theories for decrease in activity from adolescence to adulthood vary. One theory is that cognitive strategy becomes more automatic with age and another is that functional change occurs parallel to neuroanatomical change which is characterized by synaptogenesis and pruning.

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intentional causality. These regions were also activated during the "mind in the eyes" exercise where emotion must be judged based on different images of eyes. Another key region is the anterior temporal cortex (ATC) in the posterior region. In adults, the left ATC showed greater response than the same region in adolescents when tested on emotional tests of mentalising. Finally, the

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mechanisms of injury associated with risk factors for maldevelopment such as premature birth. Hence, there is a need for dense coverage of this age range with a time-varying, age-dependent atlas. Such a spatio-temporal atlases can accurately represent the dynamic changes occurring during early brain development, and can be used as a normative reference space.

591:. Ectodermal cells overlying the notochord develop into the neural plate in response to a diffusible signal produced by the notochord. The remainder of the ectoderm gives rise to the epidermis (skin). The ability of the mesoderm to convert the overlying ectoderm into neural tissue is called neural induction. 1424:

The amygdala is particularly vulnerable to early life stress. The amygdala also undergoes significant development during childhood, is structurally and functionally altered in individuals that have experienced early life stress, and is associated with the socioemotional difficulties linked with early

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In this region, more activity is noted in adolescents than in adults when faced with tests on mentalising tasks as well as communicative and personal intent. Decreased activity from adolescence to adulthood. In a mentalising task employing animation, the dMPFC was more stimulated in adults while the

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Furthermore, large scale gene expression studies of different brain regions from early gestation to aging have been performed. This kind of data provides a unique insight into changes that happen in brain during this long period. This approach showed that 86 per cent of the genes were expressed, and

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Research, treatments and policies often distinguish between "mature" brains and "developing" brains while scientists have pointed out that "the complex nature of neurodevelopment itself poses challenges to establishing a point of reference that would indicate when a brain is mature" and that various

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necessary for cellular maintenance and growth by their specificity; each neurotrophic factor promotes the survival of only certain kinds of neurons during a particular stage of their development. In addition, it has been argued that neurotrophic factors are involved in many other aspects of neuronal

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The spinal cord forms from the lower part of the neural tube. The wall of the neural tube consists of neuroepithelial cells, which differentiate into neuroblasts, forming the mantle layer (the gray matter). Nerve fibers emerge from these neuroblasts to form the marginal layer (the white matter). The

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Receptor type is another consideration when determining whether or not a brain region is sensitive to the effects of early life stress. Brain regions with a high density of glucocorticoid receptors are especially vulnerable to the effects of early life stress, likely because glucocorticoids bind to

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Early life stress is believed to produce changes in brain development by interfering with neurogenesis, synaptic production, and pruning of synapses and receptors. Interference with these processes could result in increased or decreased brain region volumes, potentially explaining the findings that

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Early life stress is defined as exposure to circumstances during childhood that overwhelm a child's coping resources and lead to sustained periods of stress. Results from multiple studies indicate that the effects of early life stress on the developing brain are significant and include, but are not

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In early development (before birth and during the first few months), the brain undergoes more changes in size, shape and structure than at any other time in life. Improved understanding of cerebral development during this critical period is important for mapping normal growth, and for investigating

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in the frontal and parietal lobes peaked at ~12 years of age. The peak for the temporal lobes was ~17 years with the superior temporal cortex being last to mature. The sensory and motor regions matured first after which the rest of the cortex developed. This was characterized by loss of grey matter

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fMRI's test mentalising which is the theory of the mind by activating a network. The posterior superior temporal sulcus (pSTS) and temporo-parietal junction (TPJ) are helpful in predicting movement. In adults, the right pSTS showed greater response than the same region in adolescents when tested on

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Ragusa, Antonio; Svelato, Alessandro; Santacroce, Criselda; Catalano, Piera; Notarstefano, Valentina; Carnevali, Oliana; Papa, Fabrizio; Rongioletti, Mauro Ciro Antonio; Baiocco, Federico; Draghi, Simonetta; d'Amore, Elisabetta; Rinaldo, Denise; Matta, Maria; Giorgini, Elisabetta (1 January 2021).

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When embryonic ectodermal cells are cultured at low density in the absence of mesodermal cells they undergo neural differentiation (express neural genes), suggesting that neural differentiation is the default fate of ectodermal cells. In explant cultures (which allow direct cell-cell interactions)

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Tottenham, Nim; Hare, Todd A.; Quinn, Brian T.; McCarry, Thomas W.; Nurse, Marcella; Gilhooly, Tara; Millner, Alexander; Galvan, Adriana; Davidson, Matthew C.; Eigsti, Inge-Marie; Thomas, Kathleen M.; Freed, Peter J.; Booma, Elizabeth S.; Gunnar, Megan R.; Altemus, Margaret; Aronson, Jane; Casey,

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Abnormalities in brain structure and function are often associated with deficits that may persist for years after the stress is removed, and may be a risk factor for future psychopathology. The brain regions most sensitive to early life stress are those undergoing developmental changes during the

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From the literature, several important conclusions have been drawn. Brain areas that undergo significant post-natal development, such as those involved in memory and emotion are more vulnerable to effects of early life stress. For example, the hippocampus continues to develop after birth and is a

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decreases. This was observed primarily in the frontal and parietal cortices. Theories as to why this occurs vary. One thought is that the intracortical myelination paired with increased axonal calibre increases the volume of white matter tissue. Another is that synaptic reorganization occurs from

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Mehta, Mitul A.; Golembo, Nicole I.; Nosarti, Chiara; Colvert, Emma; Mota, Ashley; Williams, Steven C. R.; Rutter, Michael; Sonuga-Barke, Edmund J. S. (2009). "Amygdala, hippocampal and corpus callosum size following severe early institutional deprivation: The English and Romanian Adoptees Study

983:, which make a long journey from their birthplace in the nose, through the forebrain, and into the hypothalamus. Many of the mechanisms of this migration have been worked out, starting with the extracellular guidance cues that trigger intracellular signaling. These intracellular signals, such as 3655:

Amadei, Gianluca; Handford, Charlotte E.; Qiu, Chengxiang; De Jonghe, Joachim; Greenfeld, Hannah; Tran, Martin; Martin, Beth K.; Chen, Dong-Yuan; Aguilera-Castrejon, Alejandro; Hanna, Jacob H.; Elowitz, Michael; Hollfelder, Florian; Shendure, Jay; Glover, David M.; Zernicka-Goetz, Magdalena (25

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Tarazi, Shadi; Aguilera-Castrejon, Alejandro; Joubran, Carine; Ghanem, Nadir; Ashouokhi, Shahd; Roncato, Francesco; Wildschutz, Emilie; Haddad, Montaser; Oldak, Bernardo; Gomez-Cesar, Elidet; Livnat, Nir; Viukov, Sergey; Lokshtanov, Dmitry; Naveh-Tassa, Segev; Rose, Max; Hanna, Suhair; Raanan,

1254:, instead of being able to choose specific topics/skills or jobs to learn and the styles of learning. For instance, children may not have developed consolidated interests, ethics, interest in purpose and meaningful activities, knowledge about real-world requirements and demands, and priorities. 658:

family protein) that induces ectodermal cultures to differentiate into epidermis. During neural induction, noggin and chordin are produced by the dorsal mesoderm (notochord) and diffuse into the overlying ectoderm to inhibit the activity of BMP4. This inhibition of BMP4 causes the cells to

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A transplanted blastopore lip can convert ectoderm into neural tissue and is said to have an inductive effect. Neural inducers are molecules that can induce the expression of neural genes in ectoderm explants without inducing mesodermal genes as well. Neural induction is often studied in

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fibres to form the cortical plate. Each wave of migrating cells travel past their predecessors forming layers in an inside-out manner, meaning that the youngest neurons are the closest to the surface. It is estimated that glial guided migration represents 80-90% of migrating neurons.

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ventral part of the mantle layer (the basal plates) forms the motor areas of the spinal cord, whilst the dorsal part (the alar plates) forms the sensory areas. Between the basal and alar plates is an intermediate layer that contains neurons of the autonomic nervous system.

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Wollman, Scott C.; Alhassoon, Omar M.; Hall, Matthew G.; Stern, Mark J.; Connors, Eric J.; Kimmel, Christine L.; Allen, Kenneth E.; Stephan, Rick A.; Radua, Joaquim (September 2017). "Gray matter abnormalities in opioid-dependent patients: A neuroimaging meta-analysis".

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along the dorsal side of the embryo. The neural plate is the source of the majority of neurons and glial cells of the CNS. A groove forms along the long axis of the neural plate and, by week four of development, the neural plate wraps in on itself to give rise to the

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What humans learn at the early stages, and what they learn to apply, sets humans on course for life or has a disproportional impact. Adults usually have a higher capacity to select what they learn, to what extent and how. For example, children may learn

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Eluvathingal, T. J.; Chugani, H. T.; Behen, M. E.; Juhász, C; Muzik, O; Maqbool, M; Chugani, D. C.; Makki, M (2006). "Abnormal Brain Connectivity in Children After Early Severe Socioemotional Deprivation: A Diffusion Tensor Imaging Study".

1031:. They do not resemble the cells migrating by locomotion or somal translocation. Instead these multipolar cells express neuronal markers and extend multiple thin processes in various directions independently of the radial glial fibers. 824:

Using structural MRI, quantitative assessment of a number of developmental processes can be carried out including defining growth patterns, and characterizing the sequence of myelination. These data complement evidence from

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Chugani, Harry T.; Behen, Michael E.; Muzik, Otto; Juhász, Csaba; Nagy, Ferenc; Chugani, Diane C. (2001). "Local Brain Functional Activity Following Early Deprivation: A Study of Postinstitutionalized Romanian Orphans".

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and it occurred from the posterior to the anterior region. This loss of grey matter and increase of white matter may occur throughout a lifetime though the more robust changes occur from childhood to adolescence.

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Activity-independent mechanisms. Activity-independent mechanisms are generally believed to occur as hardwired processes determined by genetic programs that are played out within individual neurons. These include

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Common types of early life stress that are documented include maltreatment, neglect, and previous institutionalization. Living in poverty has also been shown to similarly influence brain function.

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Teicher, Martin H.; Andersen, Susan L.; Polcari, Ann; Anderson, Carl M.; Navalta, Carryl P.; Kim, Dennis M. (2003). "The neurobiological consequences of early stress and childhood maltreatment".

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Many neurons migrating along the anterior-posterior axis of the body use existing axon tracts to migrate along in a process called axophilic migration. An example of this mode of migration is in

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Frank, Sebastian M.; Becker, Markus; Qi, Andrea; Geiger, Patricia; Frank, Ulrike I.; Rosedahl, Luke A.; Malloni, Wilhelm M.; Sasaki, Yuka; Greenlee, Mark W.; Watanabe, Takeo (5 December 2022).

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and microtubule cytoskeletal dynamics, which produce cellular forces that interact with the extracellular environment through cell adhesion proteins to cause the movement of these cells.

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of the embryo. It continues to flex at the mesencephalon. The rhombencephalon folds posteriorly, which causes its alar plate to flare and form the fourth ventricle of the brain. The

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Most interneurons migrate tangentially through multiple modes of migration to reach their appropriate location in the cortex. An example of tangential migration is the movement of

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the ectoderm becomes specified to give rise to the epidermis (skin) and the neural plate. The conversion of undifferentiated ectoderm to neuro-ectoderm requires signals from the

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Alan M. Davies (1 May 1988)"Trends In Genetics", Volume 4-Issue 5; Department of Anatomy, St George's Hospital Medical School, Cranmer Terrace, Tooting, London SW17 0RE, UK

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The MPFC is an example of one specific region that has become better understood using current imaging techniques. Current research provides many more findings like this.

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to different parts of the developing brain to self-organize into different brain structures. Once the neurons have reached their regional positions, they extend

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neurons. These cells do so by somal translocation. Neurons migrating with this mode of locomotion are bipolar and attach the leading edge of the process to the

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Serag, A.; et al. (2012). "Construction of a consistent high-definition spatio-temporal atlas of the developing brain using adaptive kernel regression".

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limited to the following: increased amygdala volume, decreased activity in frontal cortical and limbic brain structures, and altered white matter structures.

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Nadarajah B, Brunstrom JE, Grutzendler J, Wong RO, Pearlman AL (February 2001). "Two modes of radial migration in early development of the cerebral cortex".

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stress exposure. As a result, stress alters the developmental trajectory of that brain region, producing long-lasting alterations in structure and function.

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to guide the nucleus to its final destination. Radial fibres (also known as radial glia) can translocate to the cortical plate and differentiate either into

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Chiaradia, Ilaria; Lancaster, Madeline A. (December 2020). "Brain organoids for the study of human neurobiology at the interface of in vitro and in vivo".

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Neuronal migration is the method by which neurons travel from their origin or birthplace to their final position in the brain. Their most common means of

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of the CNS. Because the neural tube gives rise to the brain and spinal cord any mutations at this stage in development can lead to fatal deformities like

196: 2414:"Suppression of β1-integrin in gonadotropin-releasing hormone cells disrupts migration and axonal extension resulting in severe reproductive alterations" 168: 4726: 3873:

Vasung, Lana; Abaci Turk, Esra; Ferradal, Silvina L.; Sutin, Jason; Stout, Jeffrey N.; Ahtam, Banu; Lin, Pei-Yi; Grant, P. Ellen (15 February 2019).

2363:"Capture of microtubule plus-ends at the actin cortex promotes axophilic neuronal migration by enhancing microtubule tension in the leading process" 659:

differentiate into neural cells. Inhibition of TGF-β and BMP (bone morphogenetic protein) signaling can efficiently induce neural tissue from human

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Ismail, Fatima Yousif; Fatemi, Ali; Johnston, Michael V. (1 January 2017). "Cerebral plasticity: Windows of opportunity in the developing brain".

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Ismail, Fatima Yousif; Fatemi, Ali; Johnston, Michael V. (January 2017). "Cerebral plasticity: Windows of opportunity in the developing brain".

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This article is about the development of the nervous system in humans. For information on the development of the nervous system in general, see

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reach their target areas, activity-dependent mechanisms come into play. Neural activity and sensory experience will mediate formation of new

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Calanit; Brenner, Ori; Kedmi, Merav; Keren-Shaul, Hadas; Lapidot, Tsvee; Maza, Itay; Novershtern, Noa; Hanna, Jacob H. (1 September 2022).

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to help identify human brain development during the embryonic stages. Studies report that three primary structures are formed in the sixth

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Serag, Ahmed; et al. (2011). "Tracking developmental changes in subcortical structures of the preterm brain using multi-modal MRI".

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MRI's are helpful in analyzing many aspects of the brain. The magnetization-transfer ratio (MTR) measures integrity using magnetization.

4736: 3930: 1243:. Neuroplasticity is heightened during critical or sensitive periods of brain development, mainly referring to brain development during 164: 76: 61: 3819: 788:

are effective imaging processes used mainly on babies and young children since they are more gentle. Infants are generally tested with

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For example, several genes have been identified as being associated with changes in brain structure over lifetime and are potential

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are molecules which promote and regulate neuronal survival in the developing nervous system. They are distinguished from ubiquitous

734: 215: 99: 71: 56: 31: 3721: 746: 583:. At the onset of gastrulation presumptive mesodermal cells move through the dorsal blastopore lip and form a layer in between the 1445: 2265:"Hepatocyte growth factor acts as a motogen and guidance signal for gonadotropin hormone-releasing hormone-1 neuronal migration" 812:(FA) measures organization using the diffusion of water molecules. Additionally, mean diffusivity (MD) measures the strength of 1188:-levels may not be reached again and it is thought that there are various critical and sensitive periods of brain development. 638:

and there are good markers to distinguish between neural and non-neural tissue. Examples of neural inducers are the molecules

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to their initial target areas. These processes are thought of as being independent of neural activity and sensory experience.

153: 4132:"Prolonged institutional rearing is associated with atypically large amygdala volume and difficulties in emotion regulation" 1392:

Research has been able to make new discoveries for various parts of the brain thanks to the noninvasive imaging available.

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Baker, Laurie M.; Williams, Leanne M.; Korgaonkar, Mayuresh S.; Cohen, Ronald A.; Heaps, Jodi M.; Paul, Robert H. (2012).

1465: 523:). The CSF-filled central chamber is continuous from the telencephalon to the spinal cord, and constitutes the developing 189: 4554: 3037: 1708: 855: 3630: 539:, which drive brain growth as they divide many times. Gradually some of the cells stop dividing and differentiate into 1455: 1321: 576: 419: 380: 81: 2843: 3815: 3418: 3216: 1028: 793: 587:

and the ectoderm. These mesodermal cells that migrate along the dorsal midline give rise to a structure called the

3130: 626:. By the end of the fourth week of gestation, the open ends of the neural tube, called the neuropores, close off. 142: 4613: 1090: 615: 4375:

Kim, P.; Evans, G. W.; Angstadt, M.; Ho, S. S.; Sripada, C. S.; Swain, J. E.; Liberzon, I.; Phan, K. L. (2013).

695:(which will eventually become the optic nerve, retina and iris) forms at the basal plate of the prosencephalon. 2726:

Spindler, Carolin; Mallien, Louisa; Trautmann, Sebastian; Alexander, Nina; Muehlhan, Markus (27 January 2022).

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early life stress is associated with increased amygdala volume and decreased anterior cingulate cortex volume.

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Human tissue inaccessibility has impeded molecular understanding of the formation of cognitive capacities. The

1149: 839: 826: 344: 272: 4043:"Effects of early life stress on cognitive and affective function: An integrated review of human literature" 2844:"Genetic 'hotspots' that speed up and slow down brain aging could provide new targets for Alzheimer's drugs" 2124: 1125:, recreational drugs and medications may possibly also have effects on the development of the nervous system 1114: 785: 3820:"The early development of brain white matter: A review of imaging studies in fetuses, newborns and infants" 1012: 932: 4741: 4665: 1336: 1136: 1094: 781: 660: 407: 2037:

Nadarajah B, Parnavelas JG (June 2002). "Modes of neuronal migration in the developing cerebral cortex".

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are widely used for research on the brain due to the quality of images and analysis possible from them.

245: 2463:"Mechanisms of cell migration in the nervous systemMechanisms of cell migration in the nervous system" 1372:

Better understanding of the development may potentially enable insights into nervous system diseases,

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In the fifth week, the alar plate of the prosencephalon expands to form the cerebral hemispheres (the

4561: 4549: 4388: 3970: 3560: 3374: 3170: 3075: 2572:"Multipolar migration: the third mode of radial neuronal migration in the developing cerebral cortex" 2523: 1477: 1377: 1145: 842:(MPFC) and the anterior dorsal MPFC (dMPFC) are activated when the mind is stimulated by psychology. 725:

form in the upper part of the rhombencephalon, whilst the medulla oblongata forms in the lower part.

672: 257: 3287: 2870:

Brouwer, Rachel M.; Klein, Marieke; Grasby, Katrina L.; Schnack, Hugo G.; et al. (April 2022).

2728:"A coordinate-based meta-analysis of white matter alterations in patients with alcohol use disorder" 1948:

Campbell K, Götz M (May 2002). "Radial glia: multi-purpose cells for vertebrate brain development".

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the given subjects and topics of school curricula via classroom blackboard-transcription handwriting

4377:"Effects of childhood poverty and chronic stress on emotion regulatory brain function in adulthood" 2412:

Parkash J, Cimino I, Ferraris N, Casoni F, Wray S, Cappy H, Prevot V, Giacobini P (November 2012).

1659:"Highly efficient neural conversion of human ES and iPS cells by dual inhibition of SMAD signaling" 1039: 500: 436: 367: 331: 2080:

Rakic P (May 1972). "Mode of cell migration to the superficial layers of fetal monkey neocortex".

4531: 4484: 4357: 4309: 4249: 4205: 4014: 3850: 3703: 3586: 3529: 3486: 3202: 3111: 2976: 2919: 2825: 2773: 2708: 2105: 2062: 2019: 1973: 1930: 1846: 1805: 1759: 1184:

structural brain measures change constantly throughout the adult phase of life, albeit childhood

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Giacobini P, Messina A, Wray S, Giampietro C, Crepaldi T, Carmeliet P, Fasolo A (January 2007).

389: 2621:"Neuronal migration in the developing cerebral cortex: observations based on real-time imaging" 4579: 4416: 4349: 4301: 4241: 4197: 4161: 4111: 4072: 4006: 3998: 3912: 3894: 3842: 3789: 3771: 3695: 3677: 3578: 3521: 3478: 3470: 3400: 3343: 3268: 3260: 3194: 3186: 3103: 3095: 3019: 3011: 2968: 2960: 2911: 2893: 2873:"Genetic variants associated with longitudinal changes in brain structure across the lifespan" 2817: 2809: 2765: 2747: 2700: 2692: 2642: 2601: 2549: 2492: 2443: 2394: 2343: 2294: 2245: 2196: 2147: 2097: 2054: 2011: 1965: 1922: 1887: 1836: 1797: 1751: 1688: 1637: 1612: 1587: 1564: 1546: 1502: 1244: 1166: 1056: 984: 536: 520: 86: 17: 4670: 4598: 4593: 4406: 4396: 4341: 4291: 4283: 4233: 4189: 4151: 4143: 4103: 4062: 4054: 3988: 3978: 3902: 3886: 3834: 3779: 3761: 3685: 3669: 3568: 3513: 3460: 3390: 3382: 3333: 3325: 3252: 3178: 3085: 3003: 2950: 2901: 2885: 2801: 2755: 2739: 2682: 2632: 2591: 2583: 2539: 2531: 2482: 2474: 2433: 2425: 2384: 2374: 2333: 2325: 2284: 2276: 2235: 2227: 2186: 2178: 2139: 2089: 2046: 2003: 1957: 1914: 1877: 1828: 1789: 1743: 1678: 1670: 1554: 1538: 1460: 1218: 920: 639: 320: 4642: 4628: 4603: 3314:"Temporal specification and bilaterality of human neocortical topographic gene expression" 2314:"Calcium release-dependent actin flow in the leading process mediates axophilic migration" 1712: 1361:

approaches have contributed significantly to our understanding of early brain development"

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other activities may also have effects on the development of the nervous system, such as

829:(DTI) studies that have been widely used to investigate the development of white matter. 4392: 3974: 3875:"Exploring early human brain development with structural and physiological neuroimaging" 3564: 3378: 3174: 2906: 2527: 2165:

Casoni, F; Hutchins, BI; Donohue, D; Fornaro, M; Condie, BG; Wray, S (1 November 2012).

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Typically, these neurodevelopmental processes can be broadly divided into two classes:

4461: 4411: 4376: 4296: 4271: 4156: 4131: 4067: 4042: 3907: 3874: 3838: 3784: 3749: 3690: 3657: 3449:"Human brain organogenesis: Toward a cellular understanding of development and disease" 3395: 3362: 3338: 3313: 2760: 2727: 2596: 2587: 2571: 2544: 2511: 2487: 2462: 2438: 2413: 2389: 2362: 2338: 2313: 2289: 2264: 2240: 2215: 2191: 2166: 1683: 1658: 1328: 1228: 944: 909: 684: 564: 516: 448: 253: 4345: 1961: 1357:

is not commonly done without strong medical arguments; in 2019 a study reported that "

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development ranging from axonal guidance to regulation of neurotransmitter synthesis.

4720: 4655: 4519: 4504: 4147: 4107: 4018: 3890: 3707: 3631:"A synthetic embryo, made without sperm or egg, could lead to infertility treatments" 3590: 3533: 3490: 3206: 3157: 3115: 2980: 2923: 2872: 2777: 2231: 1793: 1763: 1747: 1480:

sequences of radial migration (also known as glial guidance) and somal translocation.

1317: 1159: 1155: 1066: 851: 703: 680: 676: 599: 504: 496: 480: 472: 468: 456: 440: 423: 352: 302: 4429: 4361: 4253: 2712: 2109: 2066: 1977: 1934: 4703: 4693: 4675: 4541: 4526: 4509: 4469: 3854: 3064:"Efficient learning in children with rapid GABA boosting during and after training" 2829: 2429: 2329: 2280: 2143: 2023: 1850: 1809: 1373: 1358: 1214: 948: 879: 813: 777: 707: 623: 603: 595: 532: 492: 484: 427: 284: 249: 46: 2805: 563:. Synaptic communication between neurons leads to the establishment of functional 294:

of immature neurons from their birthplaces in the embryo to their final positions.

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refers to the migration of neurons along an axon belonging to a different nerve.

547:, which are the main cellular components of the CNS. The newly generated neurons 4660: 4650: 4571: 4514: 4489: 2669:

Dye, Louise; Boyle, Neil Bernard; Champ, Claire; Lawton, Clare (November 2017).

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Blakemore, S. J. (Jun 2012). "Imaging brain development: the adolescent brain".

1342: 1177: 1101: 980: 967: 896: 883: 611: 607: 544: 528: 439:(CSF). As the embryo develops, the anterior part of the neural tube forms three 432: 394: 384: 324: 306: 131: 3766: 3673: 3573: 3548: 3517: 3465: 3448: 3256: 3182: 3007: 2889: 2743: 2216:"From nose to brain: development of gonadotrophin-releasing hormone-1 neurones" 1542: 947:

is then transported to the pial surface by nucleokinesis, a process by which a

780:

is responsible for great advancements in understanding how the brain develops.

4623: 4608: 4588: 4287: 4058: 3750:"Post-gastrulation synthetic embryos generated ex utero from mouse naive ESCs" 3090: 3080: 3063: 2687: 2670: 2637: 2620: 1882: 1865: 1832: 1381: 1332: 1232: 1170: 1118: 1043: 952: 722: 714: 619: 512: 415: 241: 4272:"Impact of early vs. Late childhood early life stress on brain morphometrics" 4002: 3898: 3818:; Kulikova, S.; Poupon, C.; Hüppi, P.S.; Hertz-Pannier, L. (September 2014). 3775: 3681: 3474: 3264: 3190: 3158:"Filopodia are a structural substrate for silent synapses in adult neocortex" 3099: 3015: 2964: 2897: 2813: 2751: 2696: 2379: 1550: 252:. These describe the cellular and molecular mechanisms by which the complex 4618: 4584: 4499: 4401: 1251: 956: 940: 924: 867: 859: 635: 588: 556: 460: 444: 280: 4420: 4353: 4305: 4245: 4237: 4201: 4193: 4165: 4115: 4076: 4010: 3916: 3846: 3793: 3699: 3582: 3525: 3482: 3404: 3347: 3272: 3198: 3107: 3023: 2972: 2915: 2821: 2769: 2704: 2646: 2605: 2553: 2496: 2447: 2398: 2347: 2298: 2249: 2200: 2151: 2058: 2015: 1969: 1926: 1891: 1825:

2011 IEEE International Symposium on Biomedical Imaging: From Nano to Macro

1801: 1755: 1692: 1568: 3658:"Synthetic embryos complete gastrulation to neurulation and organogenesis" 2478: 2101: 2093: 1866:"Three-dimensional sonographic evaluations of embryonic brain development" 951:"cage" around the nucleus elongates and contracts in association with the 650:

the same cells differentiate into epidermis. This is due to the action of

370:, which will be responsible for refinement of the nascent neural circuits. 4698: 1705: 1366: 1206: 1198: 1097:(CNS) by the functional mechanisms and especially, the extent and speed. 1065:

Neurodevelopment in the adult nervous system includes mechanisms such as

936: 863: 655: 584: 580: 560: 488: 467:). These simple, early vesicles enlarge and further divide into the five 452: 411: 363: 3993: 3386: 2939:"Searching for Signatures of Brain Maturity: What Are We Searching For?" 1918: 1027:. This is seen in multipolar cells, which are abundantly present in the 4494: 3155:

Vardalaki, Dimitra; Chung, Kwanghun; Harnett, Mark T. (December 2022).

2182: 2167:"SDF and GABA interact to regulate axophilic migration of GnRH neurons" 1380:(potentially including from diseases of the mother, various events and 1086: 928: 643: 631: 540: 313: 2535: 3809: 3807: 3805: 3803: 1674: 1240: 1224:

boosting as a major potential explanation-component for why that is.

1082: 960: 276: 264: 2512:"Exotic skyrmion crystals in chiral magnets with compass anisotropy" 3868: 3866: 3864: 2671:"The relationship between obesity and cognitive health and decline" 2050: 713:

The diencephalon, mesencephalon and rhombencephalon constitute the

3549:"Mouse embryos grown without eggs or sperm: why, and what's next?" 2007: 1905:

Samuels BA, Tsai LH (November 2004). "Nucleokinesis illuminated".

1210: 988: 966:

Subsequent waves of neurons split the preplate by migrating along

567:

that mediate sensory and motor processing, and underlie behavior.

552: 388: 1162:

may have effects on the further development of the nervous system

963:. Somal translocation can occur at any time during development. 3959:"Plasticenta: First evidence of microplastics in human placenta" 1450: 1221: 1078: 1074: 1000: 931:

cells to migrate from the preplate which are destined to become

882:

increases from childhood (~9 years) to adolescence (~14 years),

718: 651: 508: 443:, which become the primary anatomical regions of the brain: the 359: 298: 4433: 1100:

The nervous system continues to develop during adulthood until

610:. The formation of the neural tube from the ectoderm is called 4036: 4034: 4032: 4030: 4028: 2619:

Nadarajah B, Alifragis P, Wong RO, Parnavelas JG (June 2003).

1499:

Anatomy & physiology : the unity of form and function

1280: 671:

Late in the fourth week, the superior part of the neural tube

598:

folds outwards during the third week of gestation to form the

125: 3442: 3440: 3038:"Brain scans shed light on how kids learn faster than adults" 3221:

Massachusetts Institute of Technology via medicalxpress.com

3931:"Microplastics revealed in the placentas of unborn babies" 3419:"Human brain development is a symphony in three movements" 1015:

within the marginal zone of the cortical neuroepithelium.

559:, which allow them to communicate with other neurons via 535:. During this time, the walls of the neural tube contain 1132:, have effects on the development of the nervous system 3131:"Adult mouse brains are teeming with 'silent synapses'" 1297: 752:

Cross-section of a developing spinal cord at four weeks

4327: 4325: 4323: 923:

proliferate in the ventricular zone of the developing

3722:"Scientists create world's first 'synthetic embryos'" 3447:

Kelley, Kevin W.; Pașca, Sergiu P. (6 January 2022).

1376:, and better protection against harmful impacts from 4265: 4263: 4088: 4086: 1525:

Zhou, Yi; Song, Hongjun; Ming, Guo-Li (2023-07-28).

1023:

There is also a method of neuronal migration called

614:. The ventral part of the neural tube is called the 4686: 4641: 4570: 4540: 4477: 4468: 1775: 1773: 156:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 3156: 2871: 334:which are thought to underlie learning and memory. 3363:"Spatiotemporal transcriptome of the human brain" 3217:"Silent synapses are abundant in the adult brain" 309:through the embryo towards postsynaptic partners. 3288:"What Happens in the Brain When Children Learn?" 1611:(5. ed.). Appleton and Lange: McGraw Hill. 1353:Non-invasive in vivo imaging As of 2014 imaging 1199:Learning § Adult learning vs children's learning 4381:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 3361:Kang, Hyo Jung; et al. (27 October 2011). 1729: 1727: 1725: 1723: 1721: 2794:The American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse 675:at the level of the future midbrain—the 316:between axons and their postsynaptic partners. 4445: 2565: 2563: 1264:Spatio-temporal modeling of brain development 1173:, and types of media- and economic activities 1109:physical exercise has neurobiological effects 165:"Development of the nervous system in humans" 107: 27:Mechanisms that form the human nervous system 8: 3312:Pletikos, M; et al. (22 January 2014). 263:Some landmarks of neural development in the 230:development of the nervous system in humans, 4041:Pechtel, Pia; Pizzagalli, Diego A. (2010). 3129:Lloreda, Claudia López (16 December 2022). 2312:Hutchins BI, Klenke U, Wray S (July 2013). 2138:. Annual Reviews in Neuroscience: 511–539. 2125:"Central Nervous System Neuronal Migration" 1209:and takes longer or is more difficult with 602:. Beginning in the future neck region, the 4474: 4452: 4438: 4430: 4096:Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 1586:(Tenth ed.). Sinauer Associates Inc. 1501:(6th ed.). McGraw-Hill. p. 541. 114: 100: 36: 4410: 4400: 4295: 4155: 4066: 3992: 3982: 3906: 3783: 3765: 3689: 3572: 3464: 3394: 3337: 3089: 3079: 2954: 2905: 2759: 2686: 2636: 2595: 2543: 2486: 2437: 2388: 2378: 2337: 2288: 2239: 2190: 1989: 1987: 1881: 1682: 1558: 1337:Genetic factors of recent brain evolution 687:(future forebrain) and beneath it is the 216:Learn how and when to remove this message 4334:Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews 3605:"Synthetischer Embryo entwickelt Organe" 3245:European Journal of Paediatric Neurology 2996:European Journal of Paediatric Neurology 2937:Somerville, Leah H. (21 December 2016). 2675:The Proceedings of the Nutrition Society 2461:Cooper, Jonathan A. (2 September 2013). 1154:exposure to environmental pollution and 1089:. Neuroregeneration differs between the 764:The embryo's nervous system at six weeks 260:, and continues to develop postnatally. 2510:Chen JP, Zhang DW, Liu JM (July 2016). 1489: 1378:identified factors of fetal development 730: 44: 40:This article is part of a series on the 3547:Willyard, Cassandra (25 August 2022). 2570:Tabata H, Nakajima K (November 2003). 1634:Clinical Neuroanatomy and Neuroscience 1632:Estomih Mtui; Gregory Gruener (2006). 1520: 1518: 850:Higher resolution imaging has allowed 663:, a model of early human development. 1657:Chambers, S. M.; et al. (2009). 1636:. Philadelphia: Saunders. p. 1. 1527:"Genetics of human brain development" 912:are radial and tangential migration. 878:Using MRI, studies showed that while 833:Functional magnetic resonance imaging 820:Structural magnetic resonance imaging 358:Activity-dependent mechanisms. Once 7: 2082:The Journal of Comparative Neurology 1864:Kim, M. S.; et al. (Jan 2008). 1706:Atlas of Human Embryology, Chronolab 1277:Embryonic brain development research 1205:Learning is often more efficient in 622:. The hollow interior is called the 418:of the embryo. In the third week of 154:adding citations to reliable sources 895:The rise and fall of the volume of 606:of this groove close to create the 3839:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2013.12.044 2588:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.23-31-09996.2003 2367:Frontiers in Cellular Neuroscience 1192:Differences to children's learning 25: 3286:Buxton, Alex (10 February 2016). 2849:University of Southern California 1870:Journal of Ultrasound in Medicine 1322:the human brain or nervous system 634:embryos since they have a simple 256:forms in humans, develops during 32:development of the nervous system 4727:Vertebrate developmental biology 4148:10.1111/j.1467-7687.2009.00852.x 4108:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2009.02084.x 3891:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2018.07.041 2232:10.1111/j.1365-2826.2010.02034.x 1794:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2011.09.062 1748:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2011.11.080 1715:. Last accessed on Oct 30, 2007. 1446:Human brain development timeline 1284: 1227:Children's brains contain more " 1197:This section is an excerpt from 887:proliferation and then pruning. 757: 745: 740:The embryo's brain at four weeks 733: 618:; the dorsal part is called the 130: 1396:Medial Prefrontal Cortex (MPFC) 1343:Synthetic embryos/embryo models 1117:), obesity, alterations of the 706:). The basal plate becomes the 141:needs additional citations for 2430:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3057-12.2012 2330:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3758-12.2013 2281:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.4979-06.2007 2144:10.1146/annurev.neuro.22.1.511 1316:Approaches to investigate the 531:or lifelong disabilities like 393:Highly schematic flowchart of 385:Human brain § Development 375:Development of the human brain 18:Development of the human brain 1: 4346:10.1016/S0149-7634(03)00007-1 2806:10.1080/00952990.2016.1245312 2220:Journal of Neuroendocrinology 2132:Annual Review of Neuroscience 1962:10.1016/S0166-2236(02)02156-2 1466:Pre- and perinatal psychology 1144:psychological events such as 1113:the consumption of foods (or 4732:Embryology of nervous system 4555:Cardiac neural crest complex 3984:10.1016/j.envint.2020.106274 3330:10.1016/j.neuron.2013.11.018 2956:10.1016/j.neuron.2016.10.059 2361:Hutchins BI, Wray S (2014). 2039:Nature Reviews. Neuroscience 1609:Principles of neural science 1456:Neurodevelopmental disorders 852:three-dimensional ultrasound 846:Three-dimensional sonography 2576:The Journal of Neuroscience 2467:The Journal of Cell Biology 2418:The Journal of Neuroscience 2318:The Journal of Neuroscience 2269:The Journal of Neuroscience 420:human embryonic development 381:Human embryonic development 4758: 4737:Developmental neuroscience 4276:Brain Imaging and Behavior 3767:10.1016/j.cell.2022.07.028 3674:10.1038/s41586-022-05246-3 3574:10.1038/d41586-022-02334-2 3518:10.1038/s41593-020-00730-3 3466:10.1016/j.cell.2021.10.003 3257:10.1016/j.ejpn.2016.07.007 3213:University press release: 3183:10.1038/s41586-022-05483-6 3008:10.1016/j.ejpn.2016.07.007 2890:10.1038/s41593-022-01042-4 2744:10.1038/s41398-022-01809-0 1543:10.1038/s41576-023-00626-5 1196: 1054: 1029:cortical intermediate zone 804:Magnetic resonance imaging 410:(CNS) is derived from the 378: 29: 4288:10.1007/s11682-012-9215-y 4059:10.1007/s00213-010-2009-2 3963:Environment International 3609:www.sciencemediacenter.de 3091:10.1016/j.cub.2022.10.021 3081:10.1101/2022.01.02.474022 2688:10.1017/S0029665117002014 1883:10.7863/jum.2008.27.1.119 1833:10.1109/ISBI.2011.5872421 1320:and early development of 1239:and flexible learning or 1091:peripheral nervous system 1071:generation of new neurons 2732:Translational Psychiatry 2380:10.3389/fncel.2014.00400 1607:Kandel, Eric R. (2006). 1531:Nature Reviews. Genetics 1191: 1051:Adult neural development 874:White matter development 840:medial prefrontal cortex 827:Diffusion Tensor Imaging 691:(future hindbrain). The 469:secondary brain vesicles 240:involves the studies of 4402:10.1073/pnas.1308240110 2638:10.1093/cercor/13.6.607 2171:Journal of Cell Science 1950:Trends in Neurosciences 1582:Gilbert, Scott (2013). 1369:is researched as well. 981:GnRH-expressing neurons 891:Grey matter development 435:, which is filled with 4238:10.1542/peds.2005-1727 4194:10.1006/nimg.2001.0917 1374:improving intelligence 1095:central nervous system 661:pluripotent stem cells 441:primary brain vesicles 426:appears and forms the 408:central nervous system 398: 4136:Developmental Science 3760:(18): 3290–3306.e25. 2479:10.1083/jcb.201305021 2123:Hatten, Mary (1999). 2094:10.1002/cne.901450105 1584:Developmental Biology 993:Neurophilic migration 810:Fractional anisotropy 577:embryonic development 392: 379:Further information: 301:from neurons and the 246:developmental biology 4562:Truncal neural crest 4550:Cranial neural crest 3816:Dehaene-Lambertz, G. 3629:Holcombe, Madeline. 3074:(23): 5022–5030.e7. 2214:Wray S (July 2010). 1827:. pp. 349–352. 1663:Nature Biotechnology 1231:" that are inactive 1040:Neurotrophic factors 1035:Neurotrophic factors 1025:multipolar migration 1007:Tangential migration 1003:along glial fibres. 999:is the migration of 997:Gliophilic migration 858:week. These are the 258:prenatal development 150:improve this article 4460:Development of the 4393:2013PNAS..11018442K 3975:2021EnInt.14606274R 3565:2022Natur.609..230W 3506:Nature Neuroscience 3387:10.1038/nature10523 3379:2011Natur.478..483K 3175:2022Natur.612..323V 2878:Nature Neuroscience 2528:2016NatSR...629126C 1996:Nature Neuroscience 1919:10.1038/nn1104-1169 1907:Nature Neuroscience 1497:Saladin, K (2011). 1350:Post-mortem studies 1150:resilience-building 1137:Alzheimer's disease 1123:dietary supplements 1013:Cajal–Retzius cells 975:Axophilic migration 933:Cajal–Retzius cells 437:cerebrospinal fluid 368:synaptic plasticity 332:changes in synapses 234:neural development, 67:Reproductive system 4532:Adult neurogenesis 4485:Neural development 4047:Psychopharmacology 3937:. 22 December 2020 2582:(31): 9996–10001. 2516:Scientific Reports 2424:(47): 16992–7002. 2183:10.1242/jcs.101675 2177:(Pt 21): 5015–25. 1711:2007-12-27 at the 1296:. You can help by 1128:various diseases, 1061:Adult neurogenesis 904:Neuronal migration 525:ventricular system 399: 312:The generation of 271:The formation and 87:Circulatory system 4714: 4713: 4637: 4636: 4580:Rostral neuropore 3668:(7930): 143–153. 3559:(7926): 230–231. 3512:(12): 1496–1508. 3373:(7370): 483–489. 3292:Neuroscience News 3169:(7939): 323–327. 2536:10.1038/srep29126 1842:978-1-4244-4127-3 1643:978-1-4160-3445-2 1408:Early life stress 1314: 1313: 1245:child development 1217:identified rapid 1167:lifelong learning 1057:Neuroregeneration 985:calcium signaling 921:Neural stem cells 537:neural stem cells 297:The outgrowth of 226: 225: 218: 200: 124: 123: 82:Human development 16:(Redirected from 4749: 4671:Surface ectoderm 4599:Cervical flexure 4594:Cephalic flexure 4475: 4454: 4447: 4440: 4431: 4425: 4424: 4414: 4404: 4372: 4366: 4365: 4329: 4318: 4317: 4299: 4267: 4258: 4257: 4220: 4214: 4213: 4176: 4170: 4169: 4159: 4126: 4120: 4119: 4090: 4081: 4080: 4070: 4038: 4023: 4022: 3996: 3986: 3953: 3947: 3946: 3944: 3942: 3927: 3921: 3920: 3910: 3870: 3859: 3858: 3824: 3811: 3798: 3797: 3787: 3769: 3744: 3738: 3737: 3735: 3733: 3718: 3712: 3711: 3693: 3652: 3646: 3645: 3643: 3641: 3626: 3620: 3619: 3617: 3615: 3601: 3595: 3594: 3576: 3544: 3538: 3537: 3501: 3495: 3494: 3468: 3444: 3435: 3434: 3432: 3430: 3415: 3409: 3408: 3398: 3358: 3352: 3351: 3341: 3309: 3303: 3302: 3300: 3298: 3283: 3277: 3276: 3240: 3234: 3231: 3229: 3227: 3210: 3160: 3152: 3146: 3145: 3143: 3141: 3126: 3120: 3119: 3093: 3083: 3059: 3053: 3052: 3050: 3048: 3034: 3028: 3027: 2991: 2985: 2984: 2958: 2949:(6): 1164–1167. 2934: 2928: 2927: 2909: 2875: 2867: 2861: 2860: 2858: 2856: 2840: 2834: 2833: 2788: 2782: 2781: 2763: 2723: 2717: 2716: 2690: 2666: 2660: 2657: 2651: 2650: 2640: 2616: 2610: 2609: 2599: 2567: 2558: 2557: 2547: 2507: 2501: 2500: 2490: 2458: 2452: 2451: 2441: 2409: 2403: 2402: 2392: 2382: 2358: 2352: 2351: 2341: 2324:(28): 11361–71. 2309: 2303: 2302: 2292: 2260: 2254: 2253: 2243: 2211: 2205: 2204: 2194: 2162: 2156: 2155: 2129: 2120: 2114: 2113: 2077: 2071: 2070: 2034: 2028: 2027: 1991: 1982: 1981: 1945: 1939: 1938: 1902: 1896: 1895: 1885: 1861: 1855: 1854: 1820: 1814: 1813: 1788:(3): 2255–2265. 1777: 1768: 1767: 1731: 1716: 1703: 1697: 1696: 1686: 1675:10.1038/nbt.1529 1654: 1648: 1647: 1629: 1623: 1622: 1604: 1598: 1597: 1579: 1573: 1572: 1562: 1522: 1513: 1512: 1494: 1461:Neural Darwinism 1388:Specific regions 1309: 1306: 1288: 1281: 1219:neurotransmitter 1213:. A study using 1139:therapy-targets. 1130:such as COVID-19 916:Radial migration 761: 749: 737: 571:Neural induction 321:synaptic pruning 238:neurodevelopment 221: 214: 210: 207: 201: 199: 158: 134: 126: 116: 109: 102: 77:Endocrine system 62:Digestive system 37: 21: 4757: 4756: 4752: 4751: 4750: 4748: 4747: 4746: 4717: 4716: 4715: 4710: 4682: 4633: 4629:Germinal matrix 4604:Pontine flexure 4566: 4536: 4464: 4458: 4428: 4387:(46): 18442–7. 4374: 4373: 4369: 4331: 4330: 4321: 4269: 4268: 4261: 4232:(6): 2093–100. 4222: 4221: 4217: 4188:(6): 1290–301. 4178: 4177: 4173: 4128: 4127: 4123: 4092: 4091: 4084: 4040: 4039: 4026: 3955: 3954: 3950: 3940: 3938: 3929: 3928: 3924: 3872: 3871: 3862: 3822: 3813: 3812: 3801: 3746: 3745: 3741: 3731: 3729: 3728:. 3 August 2022 3720: 3719: 3715: 3654: 3653: 3649: 3639: 3637: 3628: 3627: 3623: 3613: 3611: 3603: 3602: 3598: 3546: 3545: 3541: 3503: 3502: 3498: 3446: 3445: 3438: 3428: 3426: 3417: 3416: 3412: 3360: 3359: 3355: 3311: 3310: 3306: 3296: 3294: 3285: 3284: 3280: 3242: 3241: 3237: 3225: 3223: 3215:Trafton, Anne. 3214: 3154: 3153: 3149: 3139: 3137: 3128: 3127: 3123: 3068:Current Biology 3061: 3060: 3056: 3046: 3044: 3036: 3035: 3031: 2993: 2992: 2988: 2936: 2935: 2931: 2869: 2868: 2864: 2854: 2852: 2842: 2841: 2837: 2790: 2789: 2785: 2725: 2724: 2720: 2668: 2667: 2663: 2658: 2654: 2625:Cerebral Cortex 2618: 2617: 2613: 2569: 2568: 2561: 2509: 2508: 2504: 2460: 2459: 2455: 2411: 2410: 2406: 2360: 2359: 2355: 2311: 2310: 2306: 2262: 2261: 2257: 2213: 2212: 2208: 2164: 2163: 2159: 2127: 2122: 2121: 2117: 2079: 2078: 2074: 2036: 2035: 2031: 1993: 1992: 1985: 1947: 1946: 1942: 1913:(11): 1169–70. 1904: 1903: 1899: 1863: 1862: 1858: 1843: 1822: 1821: 1817: 1779: 1778: 1771: 1733: 1732: 1719: 1713:Wayback Machine 1704: 1700: 1656: 1655: 1651: 1644: 1631: 1630: 1626: 1619: 1606: 1605: 1601: 1594: 1581: 1580: 1576: 1524: 1523: 1516: 1509: 1496: 1495: 1491: 1487: 1474: 1442: 1410: 1390: 1329:Brain organoids 1310: 1304: 1301: 1294:needs expansion 1279: 1266: 1261: 1256: 1255: 1237:neuroplasticity 1233:until recruited 1229:silent synapses 1202: 1194: 1186:neuroplasticity 1104:. For example: 1063: 1055:Main articles: 1053: 1037: 1021: 1009: 977: 918: 906: 893: 876: 848: 835: 822: 806: 775: 770: 769: 768: 765: 762: 753: 750: 741: 738: 693:optical vesicle 689:rhombencephalon 669: 667:The early brain 573: 565:neural circuits 477:cerebral cortex 465:rhombencephalon 414:—the outermost 404: 387: 377: 345:differentiation 323:that occurs in 273:differentiation 222: 211: 205: 202: 159: 157: 147: 135: 120: 91: 45:Development of 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 4755: 4753: 4745: 4744: 4739: 4734: 4729: 4719: 4718: 4712: 4711: 4709: 4708: 4707: 4706: 4701: 4690: 4688: 4684: 4683: 4681: 4680: 4679: 4678: 4668: 4663: 4658: 4653: 4647: 4645: 4639: 4638: 4635: 4634: 4632: 4631: 4626: 4621: 4616: 4611: 4606: 4601: 4596: 4591: 4582: 4576: 4574: 4568: 4567: 4565: 4564: 4559: 4558: 4557: 4546: 4544: 4538: 4537: 4535: 4534: 4529: 4524: 4523: 4522: 4517: 4507: 4502: 4497: 4492: 4487: 4481: 4479: 4472: 4466: 4465: 4462:nervous system 4459: 4457: 4456: 4449: 4442: 4434: 4427: 4426: 4367: 4340:(1–2): 33–44. 4319: 4282:(2): 196–203. 4259: 4215: 4171: 4121: 4082: 4024: 3948: 3922: 3860: 3799: 3739: 3713: 3656:August 2022). 3647: 3621: 3596: 3539: 3496: 3436: 3410: 3353: 3304: 3278: 3235: 3233: 3232: 3147: 3121: 3054: 3029: 2986: 2929: 2884:(4): 421–432. 2862: 2835: 2800:(5): 505–517. 2783: 2718: 2681:(4): 443–454. 2661: 2652: 2611: 2559: 2502: 2473:(5): 725–734. 2453: 2404: 2353: 2304: 2255: 2206: 2157: 2115: 2072: 2051:10.1038/nrn845 2029: 1983: 1940: 1897: 1876:(1): 119–124. 1856: 1841: 1815: 1769: 1742:(2): 397–406. 1717: 1698: 1669:(3): 275–280. 1649: 1642: 1624: 1618:978-0071390118 1617: 1599: 1593:978-1605351926 1592: 1574: 1514: 1507: 1488: 1486: 1483: 1482: 1481: 1473: 1472:External links 1470: 1469: 1468: 1463: 1458: 1453: 1448: 1441: 1438: 1409: 1406: 1398: 1397: 1389: 1386: 1363: 1362: 1351: 1348: 1345: 1340: 1312: 1311: 1291: 1289: 1278: 1275: 1265: 1262: 1260: 1257: 1203: 1195: 1193: 1190: 1181: 1180: 1174: 1163: 1152: 1142: 1141: 1140: 1126: 1111: 1093:(PNS) and the 1052: 1049: 1036: 1033: 1020: 1017: 1008: 1005: 976: 973: 917: 914: 905: 902: 892: 889: 875: 872: 847: 844: 834: 831: 821: 818: 805: 802: 774: 771: 767: 766: 763: 756: 754: 751: 744: 742: 739: 732: 729: 728: 727: 685:prosencephalon 668: 665: 572: 569: 517:myelencephalon 449:prosencephalon 403: 400: 376: 373: 372: 371: 356: 336: 335: 328: 317: 310: 305:of the motile 295: 288: 254:nervous system 224: 223: 138: 136: 129: 122: 121: 119: 118: 111: 104: 96: 93: 92: 90: 89: 84: 79: 74: 72:Urinary system 69: 64: 59: 57:Nervous system 53: 50: 49: 42: 41: 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4754: 4743: 4742:Human biology 4740: 4738: 4735: 4733: 4730: 4728: 4725: 4724: 4722: 4705: 4702: 4700: 4697: 4696: 4695: 4692: 4691: 4689: 4685: 4677: 4674: 4673: 4672: 4669: 4667: 4664: 4662: 4659: 4657: 4656:Optic vesicle 4654: 4652: 4649: 4648: 4646: 4644: 4640: 4630: 4627: 4625: 4622: 4620: 4617: 4615: 4612: 4610: 4607: 4605: 4602: 4600: 4597: 4595: 4592: 4590: 4586: 4583: 4581: 4578: 4577: 4575: 4573: 4569: 4563: 4560: 4556: 4553: 4552: 4551: 4548: 4547: 4545: 4543: 4539: 4533: 4530: 4528: 4525: 4521: 4520:Neural groove 4518: 4516: 4513: 4512: 4511: 4508: 4506: 4505:Neuroectoderm 4503: 4501: 4498: 4496: 4493: 4491: 4488: 4486: 4483: 4482: 4480: 4476: 4473: 4471: 4467: 4463: 4455: 4450: 4448: 4443: 4441: 4436: 4435: 4432: 4422: 4418: 4413: 4408: 4403: 4398: 4394: 4390: 4386: 4382: 4378: 4371: 4368: 4363: 4359: 4355: 4351: 4347: 4343: 4339: 4335: 4328: 4326: 4324: 4320: 4315: 4311: 4307: 4303: 4298: 4293: 4289: 4285: 4281: 4277: 4273: 4266: 4264: 4260: 4255: 4251: 4247: 4243: 4239: 4235: 4231: 4227: 4219: 4216: 4211: 4207: 4203: 4199: 4195: 4191: 4187: 4183: 4175: 4172: 4167: 4163: 4158: 4153: 4149: 4145: 4141: 4137: 4133: 4130:B.J. (2010). 4125: 4122: 4117: 4113: 4109: 4105: 4102:(8): 943–51. 4101: 4097: 4089: 4087: 4083: 4078: 4074: 4069: 4064: 4060: 4056: 4052: 4048: 4044: 4037: 4035: 4033: 4031: 4029: 4025: 4020: 4016: 4012: 4008: 4004: 4000: 3995: 3990: 3985: 3980: 3976: 3972: 3968: 3964: 3960: 3952: 3949: 3936: 3932: 3926: 3923: 3918: 3914: 3909: 3904: 3900: 3896: 3892: 3888: 3884: 3880: 3876: 3869: 3867: 3865: 3861: 3856: 3852: 3848: 3844: 3840: 3836: 3832: 3828: 3821: 3817: 3810: 3808: 3806: 3804: 3800: 3795: 3791: 3786: 3781: 3777: 3773: 3768: 3763: 3759: 3755: 3751: 3743: 3740: 3727: 3723: 3717: 3714: 3709: 3705: 3701: 3697: 3692: 3687: 3683: 3679: 3675: 3671: 3667: 3663: 3659: 3651: 3648: 3636: 3632: 3625: 3622: 3610: 3606: 3600: 3597: 3592: 3588: 3584: 3580: 3575: 3570: 3566: 3562: 3558: 3554: 3550: 3543: 3540: 3535: 3531: 3527: 3523: 3519: 3515: 3511: 3507: 3500: 3497: 3492: 3488: 3484: 3480: 3476: 3472: 3467: 3462: 3458: 3454: 3450: 3443: 3441: 3437: 3424: 3420: 3414: 3411: 3406: 3402: 3397: 3392: 3388: 3384: 3380: 3376: 3372: 3368: 3364: 3357: 3354: 3349: 3345: 3340: 3335: 3331: 3327: 3324:(2): 321–32. 3323: 3319: 3315: 3308: 3305: 3293: 3289: 3282: 3279: 3274: 3270: 3266: 3262: 3258: 3254: 3250: 3246: 3239: 3236: 3222: 3218: 3212: 3211: 3208: 3204: 3200: 3196: 3192: 3188: 3184: 3180: 3176: 3172: 3168: 3164: 3159: 3151: 3148: 3136: 3132: 3125: 3122: 3117: 3113: 3109: 3105: 3101: 3097: 3092: 3087: 3082: 3077: 3073: 3069: 3065: 3058: 3055: 3043: 3039: 3033: 3030: 3025: 3021: 3017: 3013: 3009: 3005: 3001: 2997: 2990: 2987: 2982: 2978: 2974: 2970: 2966: 2962: 2957: 2952: 2948: 2944: 2940: 2933: 2930: 2925: 2921: 2917: 2913: 2908: 2903: 2899: 2895: 2891: 2887: 2883: 2879: 2874: 2866: 2863: 2851: 2850: 2845: 2839: 2836: 2831: 2827: 2823: 2819: 2815: 2811: 2807: 2803: 2799: 2795: 2787: 2784: 2779: 2775: 2771: 2767: 2762: 2757: 2753: 2749: 2745: 2741: 2737: 2733: 2729: 2722: 2719: 2714: 2710: 2706: 2702: 2698: 2694: 2689: 2684: 2680: 2676: 2672: 2665: 2662: 2656: 2653: 2648: 2644: 2639: 2634: 2631:(6): 607–11. 2630: 2626: 2622: 2615: 2612: 2607: 2603: 2598: 2593: 2589: 2585: 2581: 2577: 2573: 2566: 2564: 2560: 2555: 2551: 2546: 2541: 2537: 2533: 2529: 2525: 2521: 2517: 2513: 2506: 2503: 2498: 2494: 2489: 2484: 2480: 2476: 2472: 2468: 2464: 2457: 2454: 2449: 2445: 2440: 2435: 2431: 2427: 2423: 2419: 2415: 2408: 2405: 2400: 2396: 2391: 2386: 2381: 2376: 2372: 2368: 2364: 2357: 2354: 2349: 2345: 2340: 2335: 2331: 2327: 2323: 2319: 2315: 2308: 2305: 2300: 2296: 2291: 2286: 2282: 2278: 2275:(2): 431–45. 2274: 2270: 2266: 2259: 2256: 2251: 2247: 2242: 2237: 2233: 2229: 2226:(7): 743–53. 2225: 2221: 2217: 2210: 2207: 2202: 2198: 2193: 2188: 2184: 2180: 2176: 2172: 2168: 2161: 2158: 2153: 2149: 2145: 2141: 2137: 2133: 2126: 2119: 2116: 2111: 2107: 2103: 2099: 2095: 2091: 2087: 2083: 2076: 2073: 2068: 2064: 2060: 2056: 2052: 2048: 2045:(6): 423–32. 2044: 2040: 2033: 2030: 2025: 2021: 2017: 2013: 2009: 2008:10.1038/83967 2005: 2002:(2): 143–50. 2001: 1997: 1990: 1988: 1984: 1979: 1975: 1971: 1967: 1963: 1959: 1955: 1951: 1944: 1941: 1936: 1932: 1928: 1924: 1920: 1916: 1912: 1908: 1901: 1898: 1893: 1889: 1884: 1879: 1875: 1871: 1867: 1860: 1857: 1852: 1848: 1844: 1838: 1834: 1830: 1826: 1819: 1816: 1811: 1807: 1803: 1799: 1795: 1791: 1787: 1783: 1776: 1774: 1770: 1765: 1761: 1757: 1753: 1749: 1745: 1741: 1737: 1730: 1728: 1726: 1724: 1722: 1718: 1714: 1710: 1707: 1702: 1699: 1694: 1690: 1685: 1680: 1676: 1672: 1668: 1664: 1660: 1653: 1650: 1645: 1639: 1635: 1628: 1625: 1620: 1614: 1610: 1603: 1600: 1595: 1589: 1585: 1578: 1575: 1570: 1566: 1561: 1556: 1552: 1548: 1544: 1540: 1536: 1532: 1528: 1521: 1519: 1515: 1510: 1508:9780073378251 1504: 1500: 1493: 1490: 1484: 1479: 1476: 1475: 1471: 1467: 1464: 1462: 1459: 1457: 1454: 1452: 1449: 1447: 1444: 1443: 1439: 1437: 1434: 1430: 1426: 1425:life stress. 1422: 1418: 1414: 1407: 1405: 1402: 1395: 1394: 1393: 1387: 1385: 1383: 1379: 1375: 1370: 1368: 1360: 1356: 1352: 1349: 1347:Model animals 1346: 1344: 1341: 1338: 1335:' (see also: 1334: 1330: 1327: 1326: 1325: 1323: 1319: 1318:organogenesis 1308: 1305:November 2022 1299: 1295: 1292:This section 1290: 1287: 1283: 1282: 1276: 1274: 1270: 1263: 1258: 1253: 1248: 1246: 1242: 1238: 1234: 1230: 1225: 1223: 1220: 1216: 1212: 1208: 1200: 1189: 1187: 1179: 1175: 1172: 1168: 1164: 1161: 1160:air pollution 1157: 1153: 1151: 1147: 1146:mental trauma 1143: 1138: 1134: 1133: 1131: 1127: 1124: 1120: 1116: 1112: 1110: 1107: 1106: 1105: 1103: 1098: 1096: 1092: 1088: 1084: 1080: 1076: 1072: 1068: 1067:remyelination 1062: 1058: 1050: 1048: 1045: 1041: 1034: 1032: 1030: 1026: 1018: 1016: 1014: 1006: 1004: 1002: 998: 994: 990: 986: 982: 974: 972: 969: 964: 962: 958: 954: 950: 946: 942: 938: 934: 930: 926: 922: 915: 913: 911: 903: 901: 898: 890: 888: 885: 881: 873: 871: 869: 865: 861: 857: 853: 845: 843: 841: 832: 830: 828: 819: 817: 815: 811: 803: 801: 799: 795: 791: 787: 783: 779: 772: 760: 755: 748: 743: 736: 731: 726: 724: 720: 716: 711: 709: 705: 704:telencephalon 700: 696: 694: 690: 686: 682: 681:mesencephalon 678: 677:mesencephalon 674: 666: 664: 662: 657: 653: 647: 645: 641: 637: 633: 627: 625: 621: 617: 613: 609: 605: 601: 600:neural groove 597: 592: 590: 586: 582: 578: 575:During early 570: 568: 566: 562: 558: 554: 550: 546: 542: 538: 534: 530: 526: 522: 518: 514: 510: 506: 505:metencephalon 502: 498: 497:mesencephalon 494: 490: 486: 482: 481:basal ganglia 478: 474: 473:telencephalon 470: 466: 462: 458: 457:mesencephalon 454: 450: 446: 442: 438: 434: 429: 425: 424:neuroectoderm 421: 417: 413: 409: 401: 396: 391: 386: 382: 374: 369: 366:, as well as 365: 361: 357: 354: 353:axon guidance 350: 346: 341: 340: 339: 333: 330:The lifelong 329: 326: 322: 318: 315: 311: 308: 304: 300: 296: 293: 289: 286: 282: 278: 274: 270: 269: 268: 266: 261: 259: 255: 251: 247: 243: 239: 235: 231: 220: 217: 209: 206:December 2023 198: 195: 191: 188: 184: 181: 177: 174: 170: 167: – 166: 162: 161:Find sources: 155: 151: 145: 144: 139:This article 137: 133: 128: 127: 117: 112: 110: 105: 103: 98: 97: 95: 94: 88: 85: 83: 80: 78: 75: 73: 70: 68: 65: 63: 60: 58: 55: 54: 52: 51: 48: 47:organ systems 43: 39: 38: 33: 19: 4704:Otic vesicle 4694:Otic placode 4676:Lens placode 4542:Neural crest 4527:Neuropoiesis 4510:Neural plate 4470:Neurogenesis 4384: 4380: 4370: 4337: 4333: 4279: 4275: 4229: 4225: 4218: 4185: 4181: 4174: 4142:(1): 46–61. 4139: 4135: 4124: 4099: 4095: 4053:(1): 55–70. 4050: 4046: 3994:11566/286406 3966: 3962: 3951: 3939:. Retrieved 3935:The Guardian 3934: 3925: 3882: 3878: 3830: 3827:Neuroscience 3826: 3814:Dubois, J.; 3757: 3753: 3742: 3732:16 September 3730:. Retrieved 3726:The Guardian 3725: 3716: 3665: 3661: 3650: 3640:16 September 3638:. Retrieved 3634: 3624: 3614:16 September 3612:. Retrieved 3608: 3599: 3556: 3552: 3542: 3509: 3505: 3499: 3459:(1): 42–61. 3456: 3452: 3429:December 26, 3427:. Retrieved 3425:. 2013-12-26 3422: 3413: 3370: 3366: 3356: 3321: 3317: 3307: 3295:. Retrieved 3291: 3281: 3251:(1): 23–48. 3248: 3244: 3238: 3224:. Retrieved 3220: 3166: 3162: 3150: 3138:. Retrieved 3135:Science News 3134: 3124: 3071: 3067: 3057: 3045:. Retrieved 3041: 3032: 3002:(1): 23–48. 2999: 2995: 2989: 2946: 2942: 2932: 2881: 2877: 2865: 2853:. 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Knowledge (XXG)

Development of the nervous system in humans

Index