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that 90 per cent of these were differentially regulated at the whole-transcript or exon level across brain regions and/or time. The majority of these spatio-temporal differences were detected before birth, with subsequent increases in the similarity among regional transcriptomes. Furthermore, interareal differences exhibit a temporal hourglass pattern, dividing the human neocortical development into three major phases. During the first phase, in the first six months after conception, general architecture of brain regions is largely formed by a burst of genetic activity, which is distinct for specific regions of the neocortex. This rush is followed by a sort of intermission beginning in the third trimester of pregnancy. During this period, most genes that are active in specific brain regions are quieted — except for genes that spur connections between all neocortex regions. Then in late childhood and early adolescence, the genetic orchestra begins again and helps subtly shape neocortex regions that progressively perform more specialized tasks, a process that continues into adulthood.
859:, also known as the prosencephalon, mesencephalon, and the rhombencephalon respectively. Five secondary structures from these in the seventh gestational week. These are the telencephalon, diencephalon, mesencephalon, metencephalon, and myelencephalon which later become the lateral ventricles, third ventricles, aqueduct, and upper and lower parts of the fourth ventricle from the telencephalon to the myelencephalon, during adulthood. 3D ultrasound imaging allows in-vivo depictions of ideal brain development which can help tp recognize irregularities during gestation.
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these receptors during stress exposure, facilitating the development of survival responses at the cost of other important neural pathways. Some examples of brain regions with high glucocorticoid receptor density are the hippocampus and cerebellar vermis. Stress activates the HPA axis, and results in the production of glucocorticoids. Increased glucocorticoid production results in increased activation of these brain regions, facilitating the development of certain neural pathways at the cost of others.
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structure that is affected by childhood maltreatment. Early life stress seems to interfere with the overproduction of synapses that is typical in childhood, but does not interfere with synaptic pruning in adolescence. This results in smaller hippocampal volumes, potentially explaining the association between early life stress and reduced hippocampal volume. This volume reduction may be associated with the emotion regulation deficits seen in those exposed to early life stress.
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ventral MPFC was more stimulated in children. They can be attributed to the use of objective strategy associated with the dMPFC. Theories for decrease in activity from adolescence to adulthood vary. One theory is that cognitive strategy becomes more automatic with age and another is that functional change occurs parallel to neuroanatomical change which is characterized by synaptogenesis and pruning.
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intentional causality. These regions were also activated during the "mind in the eyes" exercise where emotion must be judged based on different images of eyes. Another key region is the anterior temporal cortex (ATC) in the posterior region. In adults, the left ATC showed greater response than the same region in adolescents when tested on emotional tests of mentalising. Finally, the
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mechanisms of injury associated with risk factors for maldevelopment such as premature birth. Hence, there is a need for dense coverage of this age range with a time-varying, age-dependent atlas. Such a spatio-temporal atlases can accurately represent the dynamic changes occurring during early brain development, and can be used as a normative reference space.
580:. Ectodermal cells overlying the notochord develop into the neural plate in response to a diffusible signal produced by the notochord. The remainder of the ectoderm gives rise to the epidermis (skin). The ability of the mesoderm to convert the overlying ectoderm into neural tissue is called neural induction.
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The amygdala is particularly vulnerable to early life stress. The amygdala also undergoes significant development during childhood, is structurally and functionally altered in individuals that have experienced early life stress, and is associated with the socioemotional difficulties linked with early
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In this region, more activity is noted in adolescents than in adults when faced with tests on mentalising tasks as well as communicative and personal intent. Decreased activity from adolescence to adulthood. In a mentalising task employing animation, the dMPFC was more stimulated in adults while the
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Furthermore, large scale gene expression studies of different brain regions from early gestation to aging have been performed. This kind of data provides a unique insight into changes that happen in brain during this long period. This approach showed that 86 per cent of the genes were expressed, and
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Research, treatments and policies often distinguish between "mature" brains and "developing" brains while scientists have pointed out that "the complex nature of neurodevelopment itself poses challenges to establishing a point of reference that would indicate when a brain is mature" and that various
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necessary for cellular maintenance and growth by their specificity; each neurotrophic factor promotes the survival of only certain kinds of neurons during a particular stage of their development. In addition, it has been argued that neurotrophic factors are involved in many other aspects of neuronal
687:
The spinal cord forms from the lower part of the neural tube. The wall of the neural tube consists of neuroepithelial cells, which differentiate into neuroblasts, forming the mantle layer (the gray matter). Nerve fibers emerge from these neuroblasts to form the marginal layer (the white matter). The
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Receptor type is another consideration when determining whether or not a brain region is sensitive to the effects of early life stress. Brain regions with a high density of glucocorticoid receptors are especially vulnerable to the effects of early life stress, likely because glucocorticoids bind to
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Early life stress is believed to produce changes in brain development by interfering with neurogenesis, synaptic production, and pruning of synapses and receptors. Interference with these processes could result in increased or decreased brain region volumes, potentially explaining the findings that
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Early life stress is defined as exposure to circumstances during childhood that overwhelm a child's coping resources and lead to sustained periods of stress. Results from multiple studies indicate that the effects of early life stress on the developing brain are significant and include, but are not
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In early development (before birth and during the first few months), the brain undergoes more changes in size, shape and structure than at any other time in life. Improved understanding of cerebral development during this critical period is important for mapping normal growth, and for investigating
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in the frontal and parietal lobes peaked at ~12 years of age. The peak for the temporal lobes was ~17 years with the superior temporal cortex being last to mature. The sensory and motor regions matured first after which the rest of the cortex developed. This was characterized by loss of grey matter
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fMRI's test mentalising which is the theory of the mind by activating a network. The posterior superior temporal sulcus (pSTS) and temporo-parietal junction (TPJ) are helpful in predicting movement. In adults, the right pSTS showed greater response than the same region in adolescents when tested on
3945:
Ragusa, Antonio; Svelato, Alessandro; Santacroce, Criselda; Catalano, Piera; Notarstefano, Valentina; Carnevali, Oliana; Papa, Fabrizio; Rongioletti, Mauro Ciro
Antonio; Baiocco, Federico; Draghi, Simonetta; d'Amore, Elisabetta; Rinaldo, Denise; Matta, Maria; Giorgini, Elisabetta (1 January 2021).
638:
When embryonic ectodermal cells are cultured at low density in the absence of mesodermal cells they undergo neural differentiation (express neural genes), suggesting that neural differentiation is the default fate of ectodermal cells. In explant cultures (which allow direct cell-cell interactions)
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Tottenham, Nim; Hare, Todd A.; Quinn, Brian T.; McCarry, Thomas W.; Nurse, Marcella; Gilhooly, Tara; Millner, Alexander; Galvan, Adriana; Davidson, Matthew C.; Eigsti, Inge-Marie; Thomas, Kathleen M.; Freed, Peter J.; Booma, Elizabeth S.; Gunnar, Megan R.; Altemus, Margaret; Aronson, Jane; Casey,
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Abnormalities in brain structure and function are often associated with deficits that may persist for years after the stress is removed, and may be a risk factor for future psychopathology. The brain regions most sensitive to early life stress are those undergoing developmental changes during the
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From the literature, several important conclusions have been drawn. Brain areas that undergo significant post-natal development, such as those involved in memory and emotion are more vulnerable to effects of early life stress. For example, the hippocampus continues to develop after birth and is a
875:
decreases. This was observed primarily in the frontal and parietal cortices. Theories as to why this occurs vary. One thought is that the intracortical myelination paired with increased axonal calibre increases the volume of white matter tissue. Another is that synaptic reorganization occurs from
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Mehta, Mitul A.; Golembo, Nicole I.; Nosarti, Chiara; Colvert, Emma; Mota, Ashley; Williams, Steven C. R.; Rutter, Michael; Sonuga-Barke, Edmund J. S. (2009). "Amygdala, hippocampal and corpus callosum size following severe early institutional deprivation: The
English and Romanian Adoptees Study
972:, which make a long journey from their birthplace in the nose, through the forebrain, and into the hypothalamus. Many of the mechanisms of this migration have been worked out, starting with the extracellular guidance cues that trigger intracellular signaling. These intracellular signals, such as
3644:
Amadei, Gianluca; Handford, Charlotte E.; Qiu, Chengxiang; De Jonghe, Joachim; Greenfeld, Hannah; Tran, Martin; Martin, Beth K.; Chen, Dong-Yuan; Aguilera-Castrejon, Alejandro; Hanna, Jacob H.; Elowitz, Michael; Hollfelder, Florian; Shendure, Jay; Glover, David M.; Zernicka-Goetz, Magdalena (25
3736:
Tarazi, Shadi; Aguilera-Castrejon, Alejandro; Joubran, Carine; Ghanem, Nadir; Ashouokhi, Shahd; Roncato, Francesco; Wildschutz, Emilie; Haddad, Montaser; Oldak, Bernardo; Gomez-Cesar, Elidet; Livnat, Nir; Viukov, Sergey; Lokshtanov, Dmitry; Naveh-Tassa, Segev; Rose, Max; Hanna, Suhair; Raanan,
1243:, instead of being able to choose specific topics/skills or jobs to learn and the styles of learning. For instance, children may not have developed consolidated interests, ethics, interest in purpose and meaningful activities, knowledge about real-world requirements and demands, and priorities.
647:
family protein) that induces ectodermal cultures to differentiate into epidermis. During neural induction, noggin and chordin are produced by the dorsal mesoderm (notochord) and diffuse into the overlying ectoderm to inhibit the activity of BMP4. This inhibition of BMP4 causes the cells to
618:
A transplanted blastopore lip can convert ectoderm into neural tissue and is said to have an inductive effect. Neural inducers are molecules that can induce the expression of neural genes in ectoderm explants without inducing mesodermal genes as well. Neural induction is often studied in
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fibres to form the cortical plate. Each wave of migrating cells travel past their predecessors forming layers in an inside-out manner, meaning that the youngest neurons are the closest to the surface. It is estimated that glial guided migration represents 80-90% of migrating neurons.
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688:
ventral part of the mantle layer (the basal plates) forms the motor areas of the spinal cord, whilst the dorsal part (the alar plates) forms the sensory areas. Between the basal and alar plates is an intermediate layer that contains neurons of the autonomic nervous system.
2780:
Wollman, Scott C.; Alhassoon, Omar M.; Hall, Matthew G.; Stern, Mark J.; Connors, Eric J.; Kimmel, Christine L.; Allen, Kenneth E.; Stephan, Rick A.; Radua, Joaquim (September 2017). "Gray matter abnormalities in opioid-dependent patients: A neuroimaging meta-analysis".
419:
along the dorsal side of the embryo. The neural plate is the source of the majority of neurons and glial cells of the CNS. A groove forms along the long axis of the neural plate and, by week four of development, the neural plate wraps in on itself to give rise to the
1238:
What humans learn at the early stages, and what they learn to apply, sets humans on course for life or has a disproportional impact. Adults usually have a higher capacity to select what they learn, to what extent and how. For example, children may learn
4212:
Eluvathingal, T. J.; Chugani, H. T.; Behen, M. E.; Juhász, C; Muzik, O; Maqbool, M; Chugani, D. C.; Makki, M (2006). "Abnormal Brain
Connectivity in Children After Early Severe Socioemotional Deprivation: A Diffusion Tensor Imaging Study".
1020:. They do not resemble the cells migrating by locomotion or somal translocation. Instead these multipolar cells express neuronal markers and extend multiple thin processes in various directions independently of the radial glial fibers.
813:
Using structural MRI, quantitative assessment of a number of developmental processes can be carried out including defining growth patterns, and characterizing the sequence of myelination. These data complement evidence from
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Chugani, Harry T.; Behen, Michael E.; Muzik, Otto; Juhász, Csaba; Nagy, Ferenc; Chugani, Diane C. (2001). "Local Brain
Functional Activity Following Early Deprivation: A Study of Postinstitutionalized Romanian Orphans".
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and it occurred from the posterior to the anterior region. This loss of grey matter and increase of white matter may occur throughout a lifetime though the more robust changes occur from childhood to adolescence.
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Activity-independent mechanisms. Activity-independent mechanisms are generally believed to occur as hardwired processes determined by genetic programs that are played out within individual neurons. These include
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Common types of early life stress that are documented include maltreatment, neglect, and previous institutionalization. Living in poverty has also been shown to similarly influence brain function.
4321:
Teicher, Martin H.; Andersen, Susan L.; Polcari, Ann; Anderson, Carl M.; Navalta, Carryl P.; Kim, Dennis M. (2003). "The neurobiological consequences of early stress and childhood maltreatment".
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Many neurons migrating along the anterior-posterior axis of the body use existing axon tracts to migrate along in a process called axophilic migration. An example of this mode of migration is in
138:
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Frank, Sebastian M.; Becker, Markus; Qi, Andrea; Geiger, Patricia; Frank, Ulrike I.; Rosedahl, Luke A.; Malloni, Wilhelm M.; Sasaki, Yuka; Greenlee, Mark W.; Watanabe, Takeo (5 December 2022).
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and microtubule cytoskeletal dynamics, which produce cellular forces that interact with the extracellular environment through cell adhesion proteins to cause the movement of these cells.
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of the embryo. It continues to flex at the mesencephalon. The rhombencephalon folds posteriorly, which causes its alar plate to flare and form the fourth ventricle of the brain. The
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Most interneurons migrate tangentially through multiple modes of migration to reach their appropriate location in the cortex. An example of tangential migration is the movement of
568:
the ectoderm becomes specified to give rise to the epidermis (skin) and the neural plate. The conversion of undifferentiated ectoderm to neuro-ectoderm requires signals from the
2648:
Alan M. Davies (1 May 1988)"Trends In
Genetics", Volume 4-Issue 5; Department of Anatomy, St George's Hospital Medical School, Cranmer Terrace, Tooting, London SW17 0RE, UK
102:
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The MPFC is an example of one specific region that has become better understood using current imaging techniques. Current research provides many more findings like this.
540:
to different parts of the developing brain to self-organize into different brain structures. Once the neurons have reached their regional positions, they extend
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neurons. These cells do so by somal translocation. Neurons migrating with this mode of locomotion are bipolar and attach the leading edge of the process to the
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Serag, A.; et al. (2012). "Construction of a consistent high-definition spatio-temporal atlas of the developing brain using adaptive kernel regression".
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limited to the following: increased amygdala volume, decreased activity in frontal cortical and limbic brain structures, and altered white matter structures.
1983:
Nadarajah B, Brunstrom JE, Grutzendler J, Wong RO, Pearlman AL (February 2001). "Two modes of radial migration in early development of the cerebral cortex".
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stress exposure. As a result, stress alters the developmental trajectory of that brain region, producing long-lasting alterations in structure and function.
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to guide the nucleus to its final destination. Radial fibres (also known as radial glia) can translocate to the cortical plate and differentiate either into
747:
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3493:
Chiaradia, Ilaria; Lancaster, Madeline A. (December 2020). "Brain organoids for the study of human neurobiology at the interface of in vitro and in vivo".
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Neuronal migration is the method by which neurons travel from their origin or birthplace to their final position in the brain. Their most common means of
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of the CNS. Because the neural tube gives rise to the brain and spinal cord any mutations at this stage in development can lead to fatal deformities like
185:
2403:"Suppression of β1-integrin in gonadotropin-releasing hormone cells disrupts migration and axonal extension resulting in severe reproductive alterations"
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Vasung, Lana; Abaci Turk, Esra; Ferradal, Silvina L.; Sutin, Jason; Stout, Jeffrey N.; Ahtam, Banu; Lin, Pei-Yi; Grant, P. Ellen (15 February 2019).
2352:"Capture of microtubule plus-ends at the actin cortex promotes axophilic neuronal migration by enhancing microtubule tension in the leading process"
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differentiate into neural cells. Inhibition of TGF-β and BMP (bone morphogenetic protein) signaling can efficiently induce neural tissue from human
164:
3232:
Ismail, Fatima Yousif; Fatemi, Ali; Johnston, Michael V. (1 January 2017). "Cerebral plasticity: Windows of opportunity in the developing brain".
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Ismail, Fatima Yousif; Fatemi, Ali; Johnston, Michael V. (January 2017). "Cerebral plasticity: Windows of opportunity in the developing brain".
19:
This article is about the development of the nervous system in humans. For information on the development of the nervous system in general, see
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reach their target areas, activity-dependent mechanisms come into play. Neural activity and sensory experience will mediate formation of new
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Calanit; Brenner, Ori; Kedmi, Merav; Keren-Shaul, Hadas; Lapidot, Tsvee; Maza, Itay; Novershtern, Noa; Hanna, Jacob H. (1 September 2022).
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to help identify human brain development during the embryonic stages. Studies report that three primary structures are formed in the sixth
1812:
Serag, Ahmed; et al. (2011). "Tracking developmental changes in subcortical structures of the preterm brain using multi-modal MRI".
797:
MRI's are helpful in analyzing many aspects of the brain. The magnetization-transfer ratio (MTR) measures integrity using magnetization.
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3919:
1232:. Neuroplasticity is heightened during critical or sensitive periods of brain development, mainly referring to brain development during
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65:
50:
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are effective imaging processes used mainly on babies and young children since they are more gentle. Infants are generally tested with
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For example, several genes have been identified as being associated with changes in brain structure over lifetime and are potential
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are molecules which promote and regulate neuronal survival in the developing nervous system. They are distinguished from ubiquitous
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204:
88:
60:
45:
20:
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572:. At the onset of gastrulation presumptive mesodermal cells move through the dorsal blastopore lip and form a layer in between the
1434:
2254:"Hepatocyte growth factor acts as a motogen and guidance signal for gonadotropin hormone-releasing hormone-1 neuronal migration"
801:(FA) measures organization using the diffusion of water molecules. Additionally, mean diffusivity (MD) measures the strength of
1177:-levels may not be reached again and it is thought that there are various critical and sensitive periods of brain development.
627:
and there are good markers to distinguish between neural and non-neural tissue. Examples of neural inducers are the molecules
344:
to their initial target areas. These processes are thought of as being independent of neural activity and sensory experience.
142:
4121:"Prolonged institutional rearing is associated with atypically large amygdala volume and difficulties in emotion regulation"
1381:
Research has been able to make new discoveries for various parts of the brain thanks to the noninvasive imaging available.
4259:
Baker, Laurie M.; Williams, Leanne M.; Korgaonkar, Mayuresh S.; Cohen, Ronald A.; Heaps, Jodi M.; Paul, Robert H. (2012).
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512:). The CSF-filled central chamber is continuous from the telencephalon to the spinal cord, and constitutes the developing
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528:, which drive brain growth as they divide many times. Gradually some of the cells stop dividing and differentiate into
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and the ectoderm. These mesodermal cells that migrate along the dorsal midline give rise to a structure called the
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615:. By the end of the fourth week of gestation, the open ends of the neural tube, called the neuropores, close off.
131:
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4364:
Kim, P.; Evans, G. W.; Angstadt, M.; Ho, S. S.; Sripada, C. S.; Swain, J. E.; Liberzon, I.; Phan, K. L. (2013).
684:(which will eventually become the optic nerve, retina and iris) forms at the basal plate of the prosencephalon.
2715:
Spindler, Carolin; Mallien, Louisa; Trautmann, Sebastian; Alexander, Nina; Muehlhan, Markus (27 January 2022).
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early life stress is associated with increased amygdala volume and decreased anterior cingulate cortex volume.
1354:
Human tissue inaccessibility has impeded molecular understanding of the formation of cognitive capacities. The
1138:
828:
815:
333:
261:
4032:"Effects of early life stress on cognitive and affective function: An integrated review of human literature"
2833:"Genetic 'hotspots' that speed up and slow down brain aging could provide new targets for Alzheimer's drugs"
2113:
1114:, recreational drugs and medications may possibly also have effects on the development of the nervous system
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774:
3809:"The early development of brain white matter: A review of imaging studies in fetuses, newborns and infants"
1001:
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4730:
4654:
1325:
1125:
1083:
770:
649:
396:
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Nadarajah B, Parnavelas JG (June 2002). "Modes of neuronal migration in the developing cerebral cortex".
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are widely used for research on the brain due to the quality of images and analysis possible from them.
234:
2452:"Mechanisms of cell migration in the nervous systemMechanisms of cell migration in the nervous system"
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Better understanding of the development may potentially enable insights into nervous system diseases,
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In the fifth week, the alar plate of the prosencephalon expands to form the cerebral hemispheres (the
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2561:"Multipolar migration: the third mode of radial neuronal migration in the developing cerebral cortex"
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831:(MPFC) and the anterior dorsal MPFC (dMPFC) are activated when the mind is stimulated by psychology.
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form in the upper part of the rhombencephalon, whilst the medulla oblongata forms in the lower part.
661:
246:
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2859:
Brouwer, Rachel M.; Klein, Marieke; Grasby, Katrina L.; Schnack, Hugo G.; et al. (April 2022).
2717:"A coordinate-based meta-analysis of white matter alterations in patients with alcohol use disorder"
1937:
Campbell K, Götz M (May 2002). "Radial glia: multi-purpose cells for vertebrate brain development".
1241:
the given subjects and topics of school curricula via classroom blackboard-transcription handwriting
4366:"Effects of childhood poverty and chronic stress on emotion regulatory brain function in adulthood"
2401:
Parkash J, Cimino I, Ferraris N, Casoni F, Wray S, Cappy H, Prevot V, Giacobini P (November 2012).
1648:"Highly efficient neural conversion of human ES and iPS cells by dual inhibition of SMAD signaling"
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489:
425:
356:
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Rakic P (May 1972). "Mode of cell migration to the superficial layers of fetal monkey neocortex".
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structural brain measures change constantly throughout the adult phase of life, albeit childhood
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Giacobini P, Messina A, Wray S, Giampietro C, Crepaldi T, Carmeliet P, Fasolo A (January 2007).
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2610:"Neuronal migration in the developing cerebral cortex: observations based on real-time imaging"
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2862:"Genetic variants associated with longitudinal changes in brain structure across the lifespan"
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3303:"Temporal specification and bilaterality of human neocortical topographic gene expression"
2303:"Calcium release-dependent actin flow in the leading process mediates axophilic migration"
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approaches have contributed significantly to our understanding of early brain development"
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other activities may also have effects on the development of the nervous system, such as
818:(DTI) studies that have been widely used to investigate the development of white matter.
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3864:"Exploring early human brain development with structural and physiological neuroimaging"
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Casoni, F; Hutchins, BI; Donohue, D; Fornaro, M; Condie, BG; Wray, S (1 November 2012).
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Typically, these neurodevelopmental processes can be broadly divided into two classes:
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3438:"Human brain organogenesis: Toward a cellular understanding of development and disease"
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is not commonly done without strong medical arguments; in 2019 a study reported that "
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development ranging from axonal guidance to regulation of neurotransmitter synthesis.
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3620:"A synthetic embryo, made without sperm or egg, could lead to infertility treatments"
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sequences of radial migration (also known as glial guidance) and somal translocation.
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485:
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457:
445:
429:
412:
341:
291:
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2701:
2098:
2055:
1966:
1923:
4692:
4682:
4664:
4530:
4515:
4498:
4458:
3843:
3053:"Efficient learning in children with rapid GABA boosting during and after training"
2818:
2418:
2318:
2269:
2132:
2012:
1839:
1798:
1362:
1347:
1203:
937:
868:
802:
766:
696:
612:
592:
584:
521:
481:
473:
416:
273:
238:
35:
2794:
552:. Synaptic communication between neurons leads to the establishment of functional
283:
of immature neurons from their birthplaces in the embryo to their final positions.
4302:
4198:
3972:
3947:
3318:
2944:
2927:
984:
refers to the migration of neurons along an axon belonging to a different nerve.
536:, which are the main cellular components of the CNS. The newly generated neurons
4649:
4639:
4560:
4503:
4478:
2658:
Dye, Louise; Boyle, Neil
Bernard; Champ, Claire; Lawton, Clare (November 2017).
1723:
Blakemore, S. J. (Jun 2012). "Imaging brain development: the adolescent brain".
1331:
1166:
1090:
969:
956:
885:
872:
600:
596:
533:
517:
428:(CSF). As the embryo develops, the anterior part of the neural tube forms three
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295:
120:
3755:
3662:
3562:
3537:
3506:
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3437:
3245:
3171:
2996:
2878:
2732:
2205:"From nose to brain: development of gonadotrophin-releasing hormone-1 neurones"
1531:
936:
is then transported to the pial surface by nucleokinesis, a process by which a
769:
is responsible for great advancements in understanding how the brain develops.
4612:
4597:
4577:
4276:
4047:
3739:"Post-gastrulation synthetic embryos generated ex utero from mouse naive ESCs"
3079:
3069:
3052:
2676:
2659:
2626:
2609:
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1370:
1321:
1221:
1159:
1107:
1032:
941:
711:
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608:
501:
404:
230:
4261:"Impact of early vs. Late childhood early life stress on brain morphometrics"
3991:
3887:
3807:; Kulikova, S.; Poupon, C.; Hüppi, P.S.; Hertz-Pannier, L. (September 2014).
3764:
3670:
3463:
3253:
3179:
3147:"Filopodia are a structural substrate for silent synapses in adult neocortex"
3088:
3004:
2953:
2886:
2802:
2740:
2685:
2368:
1539:
241:. These describe the cellular and molecular mechanisms by which the complex
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2189:
2140:
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1880:
1814:
2011 IEEE International
Symposium on Biomedical Imaging: From Nano to Macro
1790:
1744:
1681:
1557:
3647:"Synthetic embryos complete gastrulation to neurulation and organogenesis"
2467:
2090:
2082:
1855:"Three-dimensional sonographic evaluations of embryonic brain development"
940:"cage" around the nucleus elongates and contracts in association with the
639:
the same cells differentiate into epidermis. This is due to the action of
359:, which will be responsible for refinement of the nascent neural circuits.
4687:
1694:
1355:
1195:
1187:
1086:(CNS) by the functional mechanisms and especially, the extent and speed.
1054:
Neurodevelopment in the adult nervous system includes mechanisms such as
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644:
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456:). These simple, early vesicles enlarge and further divide into the five
441:
400:
352:
3982:
3375:
2928:"Searching for Signatures of Brain Maturity: What Are We Searching For?"
1907:
1016:. This is seen in multipolar cells, which are abundantly present in the
4483:
3144:
Vardalaki, Dimitra; Chung, Kwanghun; Harnett, Mark T. (December 2022).
2171:
2156:"SDF and GABA interact to regulate axophilic migration of GnRH neurons"
1369:(potentially including from diseases of the mother, various events and
1075:
917:
632:
620:
529:
302:
2524:
3798:
3796:
3794:
3792:
1663:
1229:
1213:
boosting as a major potential explanation-component for why that is.
1071:
949:
265:
253:
2501:"Exotic skyrmion crystals in chiral magnets with compass anisotropy"
3857:
3855:
3853:
2660:"The relationship between obesity and cognitive health and decline"
2039:
702:
The diencephalon, mesencephalon and rhombencephalon constitute the
3538:"Mouse embryos grown without eggs or sperm: why, and what's next?"
1996:
1894:
Samuels BA, Tsai LH (November 2004). "Nucleokinesis illuminated".
1199:
977:
955:
Subsequent waves of neurons split the preplate by migrating along
556:
that mediate sensory and motor processing, and underlie behavior.
541:
377:
1151:
may have effects on the further development of the nervous system
952:. Somal translocation can occur at any time during development.
3948:"Plasticenta: First evidence of microplastics in human placenta"
1439:
1210:
1067:
1063:
989:
920:
cells to migrate from the preplate which are destined to become
871:
increases from childhood (~9 years) to adolescence (~14 years),
707:
640:
497:
432:, which become the primary anatomical regions of the brain: the
348:
287:
4422:
1089:
The nervous system continues to develop during adulthood until
599:. The formation of the neural tube from the ectoderm is called
4025:
4023:
4021:
4019:
4017:
2608:
Nadarajah B, Alifragis P, Wong RO, Parnavelas JG (June 2003).
1488:
Anatomy & physiology : the unity of form and function
1269:
660:
Late in the fourth week, the superior part of the neural tube
587:
folds outwards during the third week of gestation to form the
114:
3431:
3429:
3027:"Brain scans shed light on how kids learn faster than adults"
3210:
Massachusetts
Institute of Technology via medicalxpress.com
3920:"Microplastics revealed in the placentas of unborn babies"
3408:"Human brain development is a symphony in three movements"
1004:
within the marginal zone of the cortical neuroepithelium.
548:, which allow them to communicate with other neurons via
524:. During this time, the walls of the neural tube contain
1121:, have effects on the development of the nervous system
3120:"Adult mouse brains are teeming with 'silent synapses'"
1286:
741:
Cross-section of a developing spinal cord at four weeks
4316:
4314:
4312:
912:
proliferate in the ventricular zone of the developing
3711:"Scientists create world's first 'synthetic embryos'"
3436:
Kelley, Kevin W.; Pașca, Sergiu P. (6 January 2022).
1365:, and better protection against harmful impacts from
4254:
4252:
4077:
4075:
1514:
Zhou, Yi; Song, Hongjun; Ming, Guo-Li (2023-07-28).
1012:
There is also a method of neuronal migration called
603:. The ventral part of the neural tube is called the
4675:
4630:
4559:
4529:
4466:
4457:
1764:
1762:
145:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
3145:
2860:
323:which are thought to underlie learning and memory.
3352:"Spatiotemporal transcriptome of the human brain"
3206:"Silent synapses are abundant in the adult brain"
298:through the embryo towards postsynaptic partners.
3277:"What Happens in the Brain When Children Learn?"
1600:(5. ed.). Appleton and Lange: McGraw Hill.
1342:Non-invasive in vivo imaging As of 2014 imaging
1188:Learning § Adult learning vs children's learning
4370:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
3350:Kang, Hyo Jung; et al. (27 October 2011).
1718:
1716:
1714:
1712:
1710:
2783:The American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse
664:at the level of the future midbrain—the
305:between axons and their postsynaptic partners.
4434:
2554:
2552:
1253:Spatio-temporal modeling of brain development
1162:, and types of media- and economic activities
1098:physical exercise has neurobiological effects
154:"Development of the nervous system in humans"
96:
16:Mechanisms that form the human nervous system
8:
3301:Pletikos, M; et al. (22 January 2014).
252:Some landmarks of neural development in the
219:development of the nervous system in humans,
4030:Pechtel, Pia; Pizzagalli, Diego A. (2010).
3118:Lloreda, Claudia López (16 December 2022).
2301:Hutchins BI, Klenke U, Wray S (July 2013).
2127:. Annual Reviews in Neuroscience: 511–539.
2114:"Central Nervous System Neuronal Migration"
1198:and takes longer or is more difficult with
591:. Beginning in the future neck region, the
4463:
4441:
4427:
4419:
4085:Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry
1575:(Tenth ed.). Sinauer Associates Inc.
1490:(6th ed.). McGraw-Hill. p. 541.
103:
89:
25:
4399:
4389:
4284:
4144:
4055:
3981:
3971:
3895:
3772:
3754:
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3068:
2943:
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2748:
2675:
2625:
2584:
2532:
2475:
2426:
2377:
2367:
2326:
2277:
2228:
2179:
1978:
1976:
1870:
1671:
1547:
1326:Genetic factors of recent brain evolution
676:(future forebrain) and beneath it is the
205:Learn how and when to remove this message
4323:Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews
3594:"Synthetischer Embryo entwickelt Organe"
3234:European Journal of Paediatric Neurology
2985:European Journal of Paediatric Neurology
2926:Somerville, Leah H. (21 December 2016).
2664:The Proceedings of the Nutrition Society
2450:Cooper, Jonathan A. (2 September 2013).
1143:exposure to environmental pollution and
1078:. Neuroregeneration differs between the
753:The embryo's nervous system at six weeks
249:, and continues to develop postnatally.
2499:Chen JP, Zhang DW, Liu JM (July 2016).
1478:
1367:identified factors of fetal development
719:
33:
29:This article is part of a series on the
3536:Willyard, Cassandra (25 August 2022).
2559:Tabata H, Nakajima K (November 2003).
1623:Clinical Neuroanatomy and Neuroscience
1621:Estomih Mtui; Gregory Gruener (2006).
1509:
1507:
839:Higher resolution imaging has allowed
652:, a model of early human development.
1646:Chambers, S. M.; et al. (2009).
1625:. Philadelphia: Saunders. p. 1.
1516:"Genetics of human brain development"
901:are radial and tangential migration.
867:Using MRI, studies showed that while
822:Functional magnetic resonance imaging
809:Structural magnetic resonance imaging
347:Activity-dependent mechanisms. Once
7:
2071:The Journal of Comparative Neurology
1853:Kim, M. S.; et al. (Jan 2008).
1695:Atlas of Human Embryology, Chronolab
1266:Embryonic brain development research
1194:Learning is often more efficient in
611:. The hollow interior is called the
407:of the embryo. In the third week of
143:adding citations to reliable sources
884:The rise and fall of the volume of
595:of this groove close to create the
3828:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2013.12.044
2577:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.23-31-09996.2003
2356:Frontiers in Cellular Neuroscience
1181:Differences to children's learning
14:
3275:Buxton, Alex (10 February 2016).
2838:University of Southern California
1859:Journal of Ultrasound in Medicine
1311:the human brain or nervous system
623:embryos since they have a simple
245:forms in humans, develops during
21:development of the nervous system
4716:Vertebrate developmental biology
4137:10.1111/j.1467-7687.2009.00852.x
4097:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2009.02084.x
3880:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2018.07.041
2221:10.1111/j.1365-2826.2010.02034.x
1783:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2011.09.062
1737:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2011.11.080
1704:. Last accessed on Oct 30, 2007.
1435:Human brain development timeline
1273:
1216:Children's brains contain more "
1186:This section is an excerpt from
876:proliferation and then pruning.
746:
734:
729:The embryo's brain at four weeks
722:
607:; the dorsal part is called the
119:
1385:Medial Prefrontal Cortex (MPFC)
1332:Synthetic embryos/embryo models
1106:), obesity, alterations of the
695:). The basal plate becomes the
130:needs additional citations for
2419:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3057-12.2012
2319:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3758-12.2013
2270:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.4979-06.2007
2133:10.1146/annurev.neuro.22.1.511
1305:Approaches to investigate the
520:or lifelong disabilities like
382:Highly schematic flowchart of
374:Human brain § Development
364:Development of the human brain
1:
4335:10.1016/S0149-7634(03)00007-1
2795:10.1080/00952990.2016.1245312
2209:Journal of Neuroendocrinology
2121:Annual Review of Neuroscience
1951:10.1016/S0166-2236(02)02156-2
1455:Pre- and perinatal psychology
1133:psychological events such as
1102:the consumption of foods (or
4721:Embryology of nervous system
4544:Cardiac neural crest complex
3973:10.1016/j.envint.2020.106274
3319:10.1016/j.neuron.2013.11.018
2945:10.1016/j.neuron.2016.10.059
2350:Hutchins BI, Wray S (2014).
2028:Nature Reviews. Neuroscience
1598:Principles of neural science
1445:Neurodevelopmental disorders
841:three-dimensional ultrasound
835:Three-dimensional sonography
2565:The Journal of Neuroscience
2456:The Journal of Cell Biology
2407:The Journal of Neuroscience
2307:The Journal of Neuroscience
2258:The Journal of Neuroscience
409:human embryonic development
370:Human embryonic development
4747:
4726:Developmental neuroscience
4265:Brain Imaging and Behavior
3756:10.1016/j.cell.2022.07.028
3663:10.1038/s41586-022-05246-3
3563:10.1038/d41586-022-02334-2
3507:10.1038/s41593-020-00730-3
3455:10.1016/j.cell.2021.10.003
3246:10.1016/j.ejpn.2016.07.007
3202:University press release:
3172:10.1038/s41586-022-05483-6
2997:10.1016/j.ejpn.2016.07.007
2879:10.1038/s41593-022-01042-4
2733:10.1038/s41398-022-01809-0
1532:10.1038/s41576-023-00626-5
1185:
1043:
1018:cortical intermediate zone
793:Magnetic resonance imaging
399:(CNS) is derived from the
367:
18:
4277:10.1007/s11682-012-9215-y
4048:10.1007/s00213-010-2009-2
3952:Environment International
3598:www.sciencemediacenter.de
3080:10.1016/j.cub.2022.10.021
3070:10.1101/2022.01.02.474022
2677:10.1017/S0029665117002014
1872:10.7863/jum.2008.27.1.119
1822:10.1109/ISBI.2011.5872421
1309:and early development of
1228:and flexible learning or
1080:peripheral nervous system
1060:generation of new neurons
2721:Translational Psychiatry
2369:10.3389/fncel.2014.00400
1596:Kandel, Eric R. (2006).
1520:Nature Reviews. Genetics
1180:
1040:Adult neural development
863:White matter development
829:medial prefrontal cortex
816:Diffusion Tensor Imaging
680:(future hindbrain). The
458:secondary brain vesicles
229:involves the studies of
4391:10.1073/pnas.1308240110
2627:10.1093/cercor/13.6.607
2160:Journal of Cell Science
1939:Trends in Neurosciences
1571:Gilbert, Scott (2013).
1358:is researched as well.
970:GnRH-expressing neurons
880:Grey matter development
424:, which is filled with
4227:10.1542/peds.2005-1727
4183:10.1006/nimg.2001.0917
1363:improving intelligence
1084:central nervous system
650:pluripotent stem cells
430:primary brain vesicles
415:appears and forms the
397:central nervous system
387:
4125:Developmental Science
3749:(18): 3290–3306.e25.
2468:10.1083/jcb.201305021
2112:Hatten, Mary (1999).
2083:10.1002/cne.901450105
1573:Developmental Biology
982:Neurophilic migration
799:Fractional anisotropy
566:embryonic development
381:
368:Further information:
290:from neurons and the
235:developmental biology
4551:Truncal neural crest
4539:Cranial neural crest
3805:Dehaene-Lambertz, G.
3618:Holcombe, Madeline.
3063:(23): 5022–5030.e7.
2203:Wray S (July 2010).
1816:. pp. 349–352.
1652:Nature Biotechnology
1220:" that are inactive
1029:Neurotrophic factors
1024:Neurotrophic factors
1014:multipolar migration
996:Tangential migration
992:along glial fibres.
988:is the migration of
986:Gliophilic migration
847:week. These are the
247:prenatal development
139:improve this article
4449:Development of the
4382:2013PNAS..11018442K
3964:2021EnInt.14606274R
3554:2022Natur.609..230W
3495:Nature Neuroscience
3376:10.1038/nature10523
3368:2011Natur.478..483K
3164:2022Natur.612..323V
2867:Nature Neuroscience
2517:2016NatSR...629126C
1985:Nature Neuroscience
1908:10.1038/nn1104-1169
1896:Nature Neuroscience
1486:Saladin, K (2011).
1339:Post-mortem studies
1139:resilience-building
1126:Alzheimer's disease
1112:dietary supplements
1002:Cajal–Retzius cells
964:Axophilic migration
922:Cajal–Retzius cells
426:cerebrospinal fluid
357:synaptic plasticity
321:changes in synapses
223:neural development,
56:Reproductive system
4521:Adult neurogenesis
4474:Neural development
4036:Psychopharmacology
3926:. 22 December 2020
2571:(31): 9996–10001.
2505:Scientific Reports
2413:(47): 16992–7002.
2172:10.1242/jcs.101675
2166:(Pt 21): 5015–25.
1700:2007-12-27 at the
1285:. You can help by
1117:various diseases,
1050:Adult neurogenesis
893:Neuronal migration
514:ventricular system
388:
301:The generation of
260:The formation and
76:Circulatory system
4703:
4702:
4626:
4625:
4569:Rostral neuropore
3657:(7930): 143–153.
3548:(7926): 230–231.
3501:(12): 1496–1508.
3362:(7370): 483–489.
3281:Neuroscience News
3158:(7939): 323–327.
2525:10.1038/srep29126
1831:978-1-4244-4127-3
1632:978-1-4160-3445-2
1397:Early life stress
1303:
1302:
1234:child development
1206:identified rapid
1156:lifelong learning
1046:Neuroregeneration
974:calcium signaling
910:Neural stem cells
526:neural stem cells
286:The outgrowth of
215:
214:
207:
189:
113:
112:
71:Human development
4738:
4660:Surface ectoderm
4588:Cervical flexure
4583:Cephalic flexure
4464:
4443:
4436:
4429:
4420:
4414:
4413:
4403:
4393:
4361:
4355:
4354:
4318:
4307:
4306:
4288:
4256:
4247:
4246:
4209:
4203:
4202:
4165:
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4158:
4148:
4115:
4109:
4108:
4079:
4070:
4069:
4059:
4027:
4012:
4011:
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3975:
3942:
3936:
3935:
3933:
3931:
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3909:
3899:
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3848:
3847:
3813:
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3786:
3776:
3758:
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3727:
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3724:
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3707:
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3635:
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3608:
3606:
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3483:
3457:
3433:
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3423:
3421:
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3397:
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3341:
3340:
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3298:
3292:
3291:
3289:
3287:
3272:
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3229:
3223:
3220:
3218:
3216:
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3130:
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3109:
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3082:
3072:
3048:
3042:
3041:
3039:
3037:
3023:
3017:
3016:
2980:
2974:
2973:
2947:
2938:(6): 1164–1167.
2923:
2917:
2916:
2898:
2864:
2856:
2850:
2849:
2847:
2845:
2829:
2823:
2822:
2777:
2771:
2770:
2752:
2712:
2706:
2705:
2679:
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2649:
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2640:
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2556:
2547:
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2489:
2479:
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2441:
2440:
2430:
2398:
2392:
2391:
2381:
2371:
2347:
2341:
2340:
2330:
2313:(28): 11361–71.
2298:
2292:
2291:
2281:
2249:
2243:
2242:
2232:
2200:
2194:
2193:
2183:
2151:
2145:
2144:
2118:
2109:
2103:
2102:
2066:
2060:
2059:
2023:
2017:
2016:
1980:
1971:
1970:
1934:
1928:
1927:
1891:
1885:
1884:
1874:
1850:
1844:
1843:
1809:
1803:
1802:
1777:(3): 2255–2265.
1766:
1757:
1756:
1720:
1705:
1692:
1686:
1685:
1675:
1664:10.1038/nbt.1529
1643:
1637:
1636:
1618:
1612:
1611:
1593:
1587:
1586:
1568:
1562:
1561:
1551:
1511:
1502:
1501:
1483:
1450:Neural Darwinism
1377:Specific regions
1298:
1295:
1277:
1270:
1208:neurotransmitter
1202:. A study using
1128:therapy-targets.
1119:such as COVID-19
905:Radial migration
750:
738:
726:
560:Neural induction
310:synaptic pruning
227:neurodevelopment
210:
203:
199:
196:
190:
188:
147:
123:
115:
105:
98:
91:
66:Endocrine system
51:Digestive system
26:
4746:
4745:
4741:
4740:
4739:
4737:
4736:
4735:
4706:
4705:
4704:
4699:
4671:
4622:
4618:Germinal matrix
4593:Pontine flexure
4555:
4525:
4453:
4447:
4417:
4376:(46): 18442–7.
4363:
4362:
4358:
4320:
4319:
4310:
4258:
4257:
4250:
4221:(6): 2093–100.
4211:
4210:
4206:
4177:(6): 1290–301.
4167:
4166:
4162:
4117:
4116:
4112:
4081:
4080:
4073:
4029:
4028:
4015:
3944:
3943:
3939:
3929:
3927:
3918:
3917:
3913:
3861:
3860:
3851:
3811:
3802:
3801:
3790:
3735:
3734:
3730:
3720:
3718:
3717:. 3 August 2022
3709:
3708:
3704:
3643:
3642:
3638:
3628:
3626:
3617:
3616:
3612:
3602:
3600:
3592:
3591:
3587:
3535:
3534:
3530:
3492:
3491:
3487:
3435:
3434:
3427:
3417:
3415:
3406:
3405:
3401:
3349:
3348:
3344:
3300:
3299:
3295:
3285:
3283:
3274:
3273:
3269:
3231:
3230:
3226:
3214:
3212:
3204:Trafton, Anne.
3203:
3143:
3142:
3138:
3128:
3126:
3117:
3116:
3112:
3057:Current Biology
3050:
3049:
3045:
3035:
3033:
3025:
3024:
3020:
2982:
2981:
2977:
2925:
2924:
2920:
2858:
2857:
2853:
2843:
2841:
2831:
2830:
2826:
2779:
2778:
2774:
2714:
2713:
2709:
2657:
2656:
2652:
2647:
2643:
2614:Cerebral Cortex
2607:
2606:
2602:
2558:
2557:
2550:
2498:
2497:
2493:
2449:
2448:
2444:
2400:
2399:
2395:
2349:
2348:
2344:
2300:
2299:
2295:
2251:
2250:
2246:
2202:
2201:
2197:
2153:
2152:
2148:
2116:
2111:
2110:
2106:
2068:
2067:
2063:
2025:
2024:
2020:
1982:
1981:
1974:
1936:
1935:
1931:
1902:(11): 1169–70.
1893:
1892:
1888:
1852:
1851:
1847:
1832:
1811:
1810:
1806:
1768:
1767:
1760:
1722:
1721:
1708:
1702:Wayback Machine
1693:
1689:
1645:
1644:
1640:
1633:
1620:
1619:
1615:
1608:
1595:
1594:
1590:
1583:
1570:
1569:
1565:
1513:
1512:
1505:
1498:
1485:
1484:
1480:
1476:
1463:
1431:
1399:
1379:
1318:Brain organoids
1299:
1293:
1290:
1283:needs expansion
1268:
1255:
1250:
1245:
1244:
1226:neuroplasticity
1222:until recruited
1218:silent synapses
1191:
1183:
1175:neuroplasticity
1093:. For example:
1052:
1044:Main articles:
1042:
1026:
1010:
998:
966:
907:
895:
882:
865:
837:
824:
811:
795:
764:
759:
758:
757:
754:
751:
742:
739:
730:
727:
682:optical vesicle
678:rhombencephalon
658:
656:The early brain
562:
554:neural circuits
466:cerebral cortex
454:rhombencephalon
403:—the outermost
393:
376:
366:
334:differentiation
312:that occurs in
262:differentiation
211:
200:
194:
191:
148:
146:
136:
124:
109:
80:
34:Development of
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
4744:
4742:
4734:
4733:
4728:
4723:
4718:
4708:
4707:
4701:
4700:
4698:
4697:
4696:
4695:
4690:
4679:
4677:
4673:
4672:
4670:
4669:
4668:
4667:
4657:
4652:
4647:
4642:
4636:
4634:
4628:
4627:
4624:
4623:
4621:
4620:
4615:
4610:
4605:
4600:
4595:
4590:
4585:
4580:
4571:
4565:
4563:
4557:
4556:
4554:
4553:
4548:
4547:
4546:
4535:
4533:
4527:
4526:
4524:
4523:
4518:
4513:
4512:
4511:
4506:
4496:
4491:
4486:
4481:
4476:
4470:
4468:
4461:
4455:
4454:
4451:nervous system
4448:
4446:
4445:
4438:
4431:
4423:
4416:
4415:
4356:
4329:(1–2): 33–44.
4308:
4271:(2): 196–203.
4248:
4204:
4160:
4110:
4071:
4013:
3937:
3911:
3849:
3788:
3728:
3702:
3645:August 2022).
3636:
3610:
3585:
3528:
3485:
3425:
3399:
3342:
3293:
3267:
3224:
3222:
3221:
3136:
3110:
3043:
3018:
2975:
2918:
2873:(4): 421–432.
2851:
2824:
2789:(5): 505–517.
2772:
2707:
2670:(4): 443–454.
2650:
2641:
2600:
2548:
2491:
2462:(5): 725–734.
2442:
2393:
2342:
2293:
2244:
2195:
2146:
2104:
2061:
2040:10.1038/nrn845
2018:
1972:
1929:
1886:
1865:(1): 119–124.
1845:
1830:
1804:
1758:
1731:(2): 397–406.
1706:
1687:
1658:(3): 275–280.
1638:
1631:
1613:
1607:978-0071390118
1606:
1588:
1582:978-1605351926
1581:
1563:
1503:
1496:
1477:
1475:
1472:
1471:
1470:
1462:
1461:External links
1459:
1458:
1457:
1452:
1447:
1442:
1437:
1430:
1427:
1398:
1395:
1387:
1386:
1378:
1375:
1352:
1351:
1340:
1337:
1334:
1329:
1301:
1300:
1280:
1278:
1267:
1264:
1254:
1251:
1249:
1246:
1192:
1184:
1182:
1179:
1170:
1169:
1163:
1152:
1141:
1131:
1130:
1129:
1115:
1100:
1082:(PNS) and the
1041:
1038:
1025:
1022:
1009:
1006:
997:
994:
965:
962:
906:
903:
894:
891:
881:
878:
864:
861:
836:
833:
823:
820:
810:
807:
794:
791:
763:
760:
756:
755:
752:
745:
743:
740:
733:
731:
728:
721:
718:
717:
716:
674:prosencephalon
657:
654:
561:
558:
506:myelencephalon
438:prosencephalon
392:
389:
365:
362:
361:
360:
345:
325:
324:
317:
306:
299:
294:of the motile
284:
277:
243:nervous system
213:
212:
127:
125:
118:
111:
110:
108:
107:
100:
93:
85:
82:
81:
79:
78:
73:
68:
63:
61:Urinary system
58:
53:
48:
46:Nervous system
42:
39:
38:
31:
30:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4743:
4732:
4731:Human biology
4729:
4727:
4724:
4722:
4719:
4717:
4714:
4713:
4711:
4694:
4691:
4689:
4686:
4685:
4684:
4681:
4680:
4678:
4674:
4666:
4663:
4662:
4661:
4658:
4656:
4653:
4651:
4648:
4646:
4645:Optic vesicle
4643:
4641:
4638:
4637:
4635:
4633:
4629:
4619:
4616:
4614:
4611:
4609:
4606:
4604:
4601:
4599:
4596:
4594:
4591:
4589:
4586:
4584:
4581:
4579:
4575:
4572:
4570:
4567:
4566:
4564:
4562:
4558:
4552:
4549:
4545:
4542:
4541:
4540:
4537:
4536:
4534:
4532:
4528:
4522:
4519:
4517:
4514:
4510:
4509:Neural groove
4507:
4505:
4502:
4501:
4500:
4497:
4495:
4494:Neuroectoderm
4492:
4490:
4487:
4485:
4482:
4480:
4477:
4475:
4472:
4471:
4469:
4465:
4462:
4460:
4456:
4452:
4444:
4439:
4437:
4432:
4430:
4425:
4424:
4421:
4411:
4407:
4402:
4397:
4392:
4387:
4383:
4379:
4375:
4371:
4367:
4360:
4357:
4352:
4348:
4344:
4340:
4336:
4332:
4328:
4324:
4317:
4315:
4313:
4309:
4304:
4300:
4296:
4292:
4287:
4282:
4278:
4274:
4270:
4266:
4262:
4255:
4253:
4249:
4244:
4240:
4236:
4232:
4228:
4224:
4220:
4216:
4208:
4205:
4200:
4196:
4192:
4188:
4184:
4180:
4176:
4172:
4164:
4161:
4156:
4152:
4147:
4142:
4138:
4134:
4130:
4126:
4122:
4119:B.J. (2010).
4114:
4111:
4106:
4102:
4098:
4094:
4091:(8): 943–51.
4090:
4086:
4078:
4076:
4072:
4067:
4063:
4058:
4053:
4049:
4045:
4041:
4037:
4033:
4026:
4024:
4022:
4020:
4018:
4014:
4009:
4005:
4001:
3997:
3993:
3989:
3984:
3979:
3974:
3969:
3965:
3961:
3957:
3953:
3949:
3941:
3938:
3925:
3921:
3915:
3912:
3907:
3903:
3898:
3893:
3889:
3885:
3881:
3877:
3873:
3869:
3865:
3858:
3856:
3854:
3850:
3845:
3841:
3837:
3833:
3829:
3825:
3821:
3817:
3810:
3806:
3799:
3797:
3795:
3793:
3789:
3784:
3780:
3775:
3770:
3766:
3762:
3757:
3752:
3748:
3744:
3740:
3732:
3729:
3716:
3712:
3706:
3703:
3698:
3694:
3690:
3686:
3681:
3676:
3672:
3668:
3664:
3660:
3656:
3652:
3648:
3640:
3637:
3625:
3621:
3614:
3611:
3599:
3595:
3589:
3586:
3581:
3577:
3573:
3569:
3564:
3559:
3555:
3551:
3547:
3543:
3539:
3532:
3529:
3524:
3520:
3516:
3512:
3508:
3504:
3500:
3496:
3489:
3486:
3481:
3477:
3473:
3469:
3465:
3461:
3456:
3451:
3447:
3443:
3439:
3432:
3430:
3426:
3413:
3409:
3403:
3400:
3395:
3391:
3386:
3381:
3377:
3373:
3369:
3365:
3361:
3357:
3353:
3346:
3343:
3338:
3334:
3329:
3324:
3320:
3316:
3313:(2): 321–32.
3312:
3308:
3304:
3297:
3294:
3282:
3278:
3271:
3268:
3263:
3259:
3255:
3251:
3247:
3243:
3239:
3235:
3228:
3225:
3211:
3207:
3201:
3200:
3197:
3193:
3189:
3185:
3181:
3177:
3173:
3169:
3165:
3161:
3157:
3153:
3148:
3140:
3137:
3125:
3121:
3114:
3111:
3106:
3102:
3098:
3094:
3090:
3086:
3081:
3076:
3071:
3066:
3062:
3058:
3054:
3047:
3044:
3032:
3028:
3022:
3019:
3014:
3010:
3006:
3002:
2998:
2994:
2990:
2986:
2979:
2976:
2971:
2967:
2963:
2959:
2955:
2951:
2946:
2941:
2937:
2933:
2929:
2922:
2919:
2914:
2910:
2906:
2902:
2897:
2892:
2888:
2884:
2880:
2876:
2872:
2868:
2863:
2855:
2852:
2840:
2839:
2834:
2828:
2825:
2820:
2816:
2812:
2808:
2804:
2800:
2796:
2792:
2788:
2784:
2776:
2773:
2768:
2764:
2760:
2756:
2751:
2746:
2742:
2738:
2734:
2730:
2726:
2722:
2718:
2711:
2708:
2703:
2699:
2695:
2691:
2687:
2683:
2678:
2673:
2669:
2665:
2661:
2654:
2651:
2645:
2642:
2637:
2633:
2628:
2623:
2620:(6): 607–11.
2619:
2615:
2611:
2604:
2601:
2596:
2592:
2587:
2582:
2578:
2574:
2570:
2566:
2562:
2555:
2553:
2549:
2544:
2540:
2535:
2530:
2526:
2522:
2518:
2514:
2510:
2506:
2502:
2495:
2492:
2487:
2483:
2478:
2473:
2469:
2465:
2461:
2457:
2453:
2446:
2443:
2438:
2434:
2429:
2424:
2420:
2416:
2412:
2408:
2404:
2397:
2394:
2389:
2385:
2380:
2375:
2370:
2365:
2361:
2357:
2353:
2346:
2343:
2338:
2334:
2329:
2324:
2320:
2316:
2312:
2308:
2304:
2297:
2294:
2289:
2285:
2280:
2275:
2271:
2267:
2264:(2): 431–45.
2263:
2259:
2255:
2248:
2245:
2240:
2236:
2231:
2226:
2222:
2218:
2215:(7): 743–53.
2214:
2210:
2206:
2199:
2196:
2191:
2187:
2182:
2177:
2173:
2169:
2165:
2161:
2157:
2150:
2147:
2142:
2138:
2134:
2130:
2126:
2122:
2115:
2108:
2105:
2100:
2096:
2092:
2088:
2084:
2080:
2076:
2072:
2065:
2062:
2057:
2053:
2049:
2045:
2041:
2037:
2034:(6): 423–32.
2033:
2029:
2022:
2019:
2014:
2010:
2006:
2002:
1998:
1997:10.1038/83967
1994:
1991:(2): 143–50.
1990:
1986:
1979:
1977:
1973:
1968:
1964:
1960:
1956:
1952:
1948:
1944:
1940:
1933:
1930:
1925:
1921:
1917:
1913:
1909:
1905:
1901:
1897:
1890:
1887:
1882:
1878:
1873:
1868:
1864:
1860:
1856:
1849:
1846:
1841:
1837:
1833:
1827:
1823:
1819:
1815:
1808:
1805:
1800:
1796:
1792:
1788:
1784:
1780:
1776:
1772:
1765:
1763:
1759:
1754:
1750:
1746:
1742:
1738:
1734:
1730:
1726:
1719:
1717:
1715:
1713:
1711:
1707:
1703:
1699:
1696:
1691:
1688:
1683:
1679:
1674:
1669:
1665:
1661:
1657:
1653:
1649:
1642:
1639:
1634:
1628:
1624:
1617:
1614:
1609:
1603:
1599:
1592:
1589:
1584:
1578:
1574:
1567:
1564:
1559:
1555:
1550:
1545:
1541:
1537:
1533:
1529:
1525:
1521:
1517:
1510:
1508:
1504:
1499:
1497:9780073378251
1493:
1489:
1482:
1479:
1473:
1468:
1465:
1464:
1460:
1456:
1453:
1451:
1448:
1446:
1443:
1441:
1438:
1436:
1433:
1432:
1428:
1426:
1423:
1419:
1415:
1414:life stress.
1411:
1407:
1403:
1396:
1394:
1391:
1384:
1383:
1382:
1376:
1374:
1372:
1368:
1364:
1359:
1357:
1349:
1345:
1341:
1338:
1336:Model animals
1335:
1333:
1330:
1327:
1324:' (see also:
1323:
1319:
1316:
1315:
1314:
1312:
1308:
1307:organogenesis
1297:
1294:November 2022
1288:
1284:
1281:This section
1279:
1276:
1272:
1271:
1265:
1263:
1259:
1252:
1247:
1242:
1237:
1235:
1231:
1227:
1223:
1219:
1214:
1212:
1209:
1205:
1201:
1197:
1189:
1178:
1176:
1168:
1164:
1161:
1157:
1153:
1150:
1149:air pollution
1146:
1142:
1140:
1136:
1135:mental trauma
1132:
1127:
1123:
1122:
1120:
1116:
1113:
1109:
1105:
1101:
1099:
1096:
1095:
1094:
1092:
1087:
1085:
1081:
1077:
1073:
1069:
1065:
1061:
1057:
1056:remyelination
1051:
1047:
1039:
1037:
1034:
1030:
1023:
1021:
1019:
1015:
1007:
1005:
1003:
995:
993:
991:
987:
983:
979:
975:
971:
963:
961:
958:
953:
951:
947:
943:
939:
935:
931:
927:
923:
919:
915:
911:
904:
902:
900:
892:
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570:mesoderm
550:synapses
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353:synapses
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