381:
138:. In distillation, a mixture is heated until the more volatile components boil off, the vapors are condensed, and collected in a separate container. In reflux, a reaction involving volatile liquids is carried out at their boiling point, to speed it up; and the vapors that inevitably come off are condensed and returned to the reaction vessel. In Soxhlet extraction, a hot solvent is infused onto some powdered material, such as ground seeds, to leach out some poorly soluble component; the solvent is then automatically distilled out of the resulting solution, condensed, and infused again.
462:
414:
709:
721:
450:
764:(1869â1951) who invented it in 1904, consists of a wide glass tube with multiple internal glass "fingers" that point downwards. Each "finger" is created by melting a small section of the wall and pushing the soft glass inwards. The vapor that enters from the lower opening condenses on the fingers and drips down from them. It is usually air-cooled, but may have an outer glass jacket for forced fluid cooling.
438:
426:
581:
Gall, archivist of the
Institute of Science and Technology, Sheffield, England, the 1981 catalog of Adolf Gallenkamp & Co. of London (makers of scientific apparatus) states that the Davies condenser was invented by James Davies, a director of the Gallenkamp company. In 1904, Gallenkamp was offering "Davies' Condensers" for sale:. In 1920, Gallenkamp listed "J. Davies" as a director of the company.
89:
36:
474:
353:
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insulating dead air chamber (shaded). Vapor rises from a boiling flask into space (1), proceeds up through the space between tubes #2 and #3, then down the space between tubes #1 and #2, and finally up between tube #1 and the central rod. Arriving at space (3), vapor is then directed via a distillation head (glass branching adapter) to cooling and collection.
683:, who published a design for this type of condenser in 1912. It consists of a large water-cooled finger tightly fitted inside a wide cylindrical housing. The finger has a helical ridge along its length, so as to leave a narrow helical path for the vapor. This arrangement forces the vapor to spend a long time in contact with the finger.
635:, is somewhat similar to the coil condenser; it has an internal double spiral through which coolant flows such that the coolant inlet and outlet are both at the top. The vapors travel through the jacket from bottom to top. Dimroth condensers are more effective than conventional coil condensers. They are often found in
697:
371:
The neck of the retort is a classical example of a straight tube condenser. However, this kind of condenser may also be a separate piece of equipment. Straight tube condensers are no longer widely used in research laboratories, but may be used in special applications and simple school demonstrations.
234:
at that pressure. In most designs, the liquid is only a thin film on the inner surface of the condenser, so its temperature is essentially the same as of that surface. Therefore, the primary consideration in the design or choice of a condenser is to ensure that its inner surface is below the liquid's
813:
in the early 1920s, combining a
Golodetz-type arrangement of concentric tubes and the Dufton-type rod-with-spiral core. It consists of four concentric glass tubes and a central glass rod, with a thinner glass rod coiled around it to increase the surface area. The two outer tubes (#3 and #4) form an
654:
is a cooling device in the form of a vertical tube that is cooled from the inside, that is to be immersed in the vapor while supported at the upper end only. This may be either flow-cooled, with both coolant ports at the top, or open-topped where liquid or solid coolant is simply placed inside. The
580:
condenser, is similar to the Liebig condenser, but with three concentric glass tubes instead of two. The coolant circulates in both the outer jacket and the central tube. This increases the cooling surface, so that the condenser can be shorter than an equivalent Liebig condenser. According to Alan
299:
Moreover, if the gas is not pure vapor, condensation will create a layer of gas with even lower vapor contents right next to the condensing surface, further lowering the boiling point. Therefore, the condenser's design must be such that the gas is well-mixed and/or that all of it is forced to pass
141:
Many different types of condensers have been developed for different applications and processing volumes. The simplest and oldest condenser is just a long tube through which the vapors are directed, with the outside air providing the cooling. More commonly, a condenser has a separate tube or outer
776:
is a wide glass tube divided into sections (usually 3 to 6) by horizontal glass partitions or constrictions. Each partition has a hole, into which seats a hollow glass bead with an inverted "teardrop" shape. Vigreux-like glass "fingers" limit the vertical motion of each bead. These floating glass
396:
is another ancient type of air-cooled condenser. It consists of a roughly globular vessel with an opening at the bottom, through which the vapor is introduced. The vapor condenses on the inner wall of the vessel, and drips along it, collecting at the bottom of the head and then draining through a
516:
and popularized it. It consists of two concentric straight glass tubes, the inner one being longer and protruding at both extremities. The ends of the outer tube are sealed (usually by a blown glass ring seal), forming a water jacket, and is fitted with side ports near the ends for cooling fluid
335:
condensers are intended to return the liquid toward the source of the vapor, as required in reflux and fractional distillation. They are usually mounted vertically, above the source of the vapor, that enters them from the bottom. In both cases, the condensed liquid is allowed to flow back to the
213:
Designing and maintaining systems and processes using condensers requires that the heat of the entering vapor never overwhelm the ability of the chosen condenser and cooling mechanism; as well, the thermal gradients and material flows established are critical aspects, and as processes scale from
597:
has a coolant-jacketed spiral coil running the length of the condenser serving as the vaporâcondensate path. This is not to be confused with the coil condenser. The coiled condenser tubes inside will provide more surface area for cooling and for this reason it is most favorable to use but the
397:
tube to a collecting vessel below. A raised lip around the input opening prevents the liquid from spilling through it. As in the tube condenser, the heat of condensation is carried away by natural convection. Any vapor that does not condense in the head may still condense in the neck.
1015:
Heinz G. O. Becker, Werner Berger, GĂŒnter
Domschke, Egon FanghĂ€nel, JĂŒrgen Faust, Mechthild Fischer, Frithjof Gentz, Karl Gewald, Reiner Gluch, Roland Mayer, Klaus MĂŒller, Dietrich Pavel, Hermann Schmidt, Karl Schollberg, Klaus Schwetlick, Erika Seiler & GĂŒnter Zeppenfeld, 1973,
952:
Condensers with forced-circulation cooling usually employ water as the cooling fluid. The flow may be open, from a tap to a sink, and driven only by the water pressure in the tap. Alternatively, a closed system may be used, in which the water is drawn by a pump from a tank, possibly
655:
vapor is meant to condense on the rod and drip down from the free end, and eventually reach the collecting vessel. A cold finger may be a separate piece of equipment, or may be only a part of a condenser of another type. Cold fingers are also used to condense vapors produced by
263:
The condenser must also be dimensioned so that the condensed liquid can flow out at the maximum rate (mass over time) that the vapor is expected to enter it. Care must also be taken to prevent the boiling liquid to enter the condenser as splattering from
327:
condensers receive the vapor through one port and deliver the liquid through another port, as required in simple distillation. They are usually mounted vertically or tilted, with the vapor input at the top and the liquid output at the bottom.
614:
is essentially a Graham condenser with an inverted coolantâvapor configuration. It has a spiral coil running the length of the condenser through which coolant flows, and this coolant coil is jacketed by the vaporâcondensate path.
312:), one must consider the vapor pressure and the percentage of the gas for each component, which depends on the composition of the liquid as well as its temperature; and all these parameters typically vary along the condenser.
639:
which may use a more elaborate arrangement with several spirals. There also exists a version of
Dimroth condenser with an external jacket, like in a Davies condenser, to further increase the cooling surface.
927:. They are highly efficient for fractionating but they have significant holdup (the amount of liquid in the column during use) and their complexity makes them one of the more expensive types of glass column.
1560:
Johann
Friedrich Göttling (1794), "Beschreibung einer sehr bequemen KĂŒhlanstalt bey Destillationenen aus der Blase" (Description of a very convenient cooling apparatus during distillations from retorts),
957:, and returned to it. Water-cooled condensers are suitable for liquids with boiling points well above 0 °C, and can easily condense vapours with boiling points much higher than that of the water.
205:, all in the late 18th century. Several designs that are still in common use were developed and became popular in the 19th century, when chemistry became a widely practiced scientific discipline.
598:
drawback of this condenser is that as the vapors get condensed, it tends to move them up in the tube to evaporate which will also lead to the flooding of solution mixture. It may also be called
532:
is variant of the Liebig type, with a more slender design, with cone and socket. The fused-on narrower coolant jacket may render more efficient cooling with respect to coolant consumption.
276:
Additional considerations apply if the gas inside the condenser is not pure vapor of the desired liquid, but a mixture with gases that have a much lower boiling point (as may occur in
960:
Other cooling fluids may be used instead of water. Air with forced circulation can be effective enough for situations with high boiling point and low condensation rate. Conversely,
520:
Compared to the simple air-cooled tube, the Liebig condenser is more efficient at removing the heat of condensation and at maintaining the inner surface a stable low temperature.
364:, cooled only by the surrounding air. The tube is held in a vertical or oblique position, and the vapor is fed through the upper end. The heat of condensation is carried away by
100:. The vapor is then cooled as it goes through the inner tube of the condenser. There it becomes liquid again, and drips into the smaller collecting flask at right, immersed in a
841:. The tube can be the inner conduit of some other type, such as Liebig or Allhin. These columns can achieve theoretical plate counts of 1â2 per 5 cm of packed length.
663:, where the liquid or solid condensate is not intended to return to the source of the vapor (often used to protect vacuum pumps and/or prevent venting of harmful gasses).
400:
Still head type condensers are now rarely used in laboratories, and are usually topped by some other type of reflux condenser where most of the condensation takes place.
1059:
Ludwig's
Applied Process Design for Chemical and Petrochemical Plants: Volume 2: Distillation, packed towers, petroleum fractionation, gas processing and dehydration
255:
of the condensation surface, by making the wall thinner, and/or by providing a sufficiently effective heat sink (such as circulating water) on the other side of it.
2043:
984:â23.6 °C). Open-topped cold fingers can use a wider variety of coolants since they allow solids to be inserted, and can be used with water ice, dry ice, and
251:
quickly enough to keep the temperature low enough, at the maximum rate of condensation that is expected to occur. This concern can be addressed by increasing the
3272:
3251:
46:
1188:
Stage, F. (1947). "Die
Kolonnen zur Laboratoriumsdestillation. Eine Ăbersicht ĂŒber den Entwicklungsstand der Kolonnen zur Destillation im Laboratorium".
508:
is the simplest design with circulating coolant, easy to build and inexpensive. It is named after Justus von Liebig, who perfected an earlier design by
3361:
380:
384:
A glass still head, upside down. The rounded part was meant to be fitted on the top of the boiling flask. Black-and-white photo of object at the
284:
of its vapor must be considered when obtaining its condensation temperature. For example, if the gas entering the condenser is a mixture of 25%
2887:
917:
uses a spinning helical band (spun by a motor) inside a straight tube to increase the mixing of the upgoing vapor and downcoming reflux liquid.
556:. A series of bulbs on the tube increases the surface area upon which the vapor constituents may condense. Ideally suited for laboratory-scale
169:
of an appropriate material is often used instead. The condenser may also be fused to a boiling flask as a single glassware item, as in the old
2010:
1727:
1373:
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1178:
1157:
1136:
1110:
1089:
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stoppers act as check valves, closing and opening with vapor flow, and enhancing vapor-condensate mixing. A Snyder column can be used with a
513:
202:
2036:
2948:
1025:
1006:
75:
57:
2925:
1100:
296:(typical atmospheric pressure), the condensation surface must be kept below 48 °C, the boiling point of ethanol at 25 kPa.
92:
A distillation setup using a Liebig-type condenser (the tilted double-walled tube at the center). A liquid (not visible) in the
1698:
656:
1431:" Proceedings of the Second Conference of State Highway Testing Engineers and Chemists, Washington, D.C., Feb. 23-27, 1920.
247:, that tends to raise the temperature of the condenser's inner surface. Therefore, a condenser must be able to remove that
3380:
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2446:
2029:
50:
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680:
509:
190:
1020:(1st English ed., P.A. Ongly, Ed., B.J. Hazzard, Transl., cf. 5th German edn., 1965), Reading, Mass.:Addison-Wesley,
1846:
Gunther, F.A.; Blinn, R.C.; Kolbezen, M.J.; Barkley, J.H.; Harris, W.D.; Simon, H.G. (1951). "Microestimation of 2-(
2996:
2965:
2877:
913:
844:
A large variety of packing materials and object shapes has been used, including beads, rings, or helices (such as
3120:
2451:
1267:
2522:
56:
Help add sources such as review articles, monographs, or textbooks. Please also establish the relevance for any
104:. The two hoses connected to the condenser circulate water through the space between the inner and outer walls.
2125:
149:
for chemical resistance, for ease of cleaning, and to allow visual monitoring of the operation; specifically,
1783:
1428:
214:
laboratory to pilot plant and beyond, the design of condenser systems becomes a precise engineering science.
2955:
2872:
2336:
1813:
1497:
834:
309:
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2275:
790:
549:
461:
413:
1599:
2548:
2426:
2138:
1621:
1056:
Coker, A. Kayode; Ludwig, Ernest E. (2010). "Distillation (Chapter 10) and Packed Towers (Chapter 14)".
884:
837:. Its main component is a tube filled with small objects to increase the surface area and the number of
782:
1644:
John
Andraos, Comments received from named scientists, 2005 e-mail from Gall, p. 28 ; posted at:
1074:
pp 1â268 (Ch. 10), 679-686 (Ch. 10 refs.), 483-678 (Ch. 14), 687-690 (Ch. 14 refs.), 691-696 (Biblio.).
517:
inflow and outflow. The ends of the inner tube, that carries the vapor and condensed liquid, are open.
308:
Finally, if the input to the condenser is a mixture of two or more miscible liquids (as is the case in
1719:
Elsevier's
Dictionary of Chemoetymology: The Whys and Whences of Chemical Nomenclature and Terminology
1522:
1476:
194:
142:
chamber through which water (or some other fluid) is circulated, to provide a more effective cooling.
2844:
2504:
2346:
1450:
1330:
1197:
244:
174:
900:
793:
but higher boiling extract components (e.g., after the extraction of organic contaminants in soil).
778:
2532:
2341:
2256:
2193:
892:
818:
806:
754:
696:
845:
817:
A so-called modified Widmer column design was reported as being in wide use, but undocumented, by
708:
3059:
3042:
2981:
2882:
2806:
2742:
2737:
2655:
2476:
1676:
896:
838:
786:
162:
150:
93:
659:
in which case the result is a solid that adheres to the finger and must be scraped off, or as a
3327:
3317:
3125:
3115:
2892:
2696:
2686:
2681:
2527:
2441:
2436:
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2006:
1830:
1764:
1723:
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1570:
1369:
1316:
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1174:
1173:. Techniques and instrumentation in Analytical Chemistry (2nd ed.). Amsterdam: Elsevier.
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1021:
1002:
720:
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186:
135:
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2612:
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2291:
2183:
1978:
1951:
1924:
1916:
1915:(Ph.D.) (in German). ZĂŒrich, der Schweiz: der Eidgenössischen Technischen Hochschule (ETH).
1891:
1863:
1795:
1756:
1548:
1534:
1458:
1338:
1226:
1205:
499:
281:
277:
1882:
Wauchope, R. Don. (1975). "Solvent recovery and reuse with the
Kuderna-Danish evaporator".
1407:
1170:
Handbook of Laboratory Distillation: With an Introduction into the Pilot Plant Distillation
157:
and uneven heating by the condensing vapor. Some condensers for dedicated operations (like
3342:
3069:
2935:
2717:
2691:
2466:
2361:
1626:
985:
872:
158:
123: – that is, turn them into liquids – by cooling them down.
1454:
1334:
1242:
Laboratory Text for Organic Chemistry: A Source Book of Chemical and Physical Techniques
1201:
3337:
3287:
3177:
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3095:
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2178:
2143:
2105:
2090:
1321:
1291:
1240:
977:
385:
289:
248:
227:
1547:). The condenser's construction is explained on pp. 8â9 and in a footnote on page 11;
3374:
3282:
3161:
2991:
2660:
2597:
2261:
2095:
1942:
Widmer, Gustav (1924). "Ăber die fraktionierte Destillation kleiner Substanzmengen".
1910:
954:
852:
848:
748:
231:
198:
154:
97:
1744:
1565:(Pocket book for analysts and apothecaries), 15th ed. (Hoffmannische Buchhandlung,
1362:
Ludwig, Ernest E (1997). "Distillation (Chapter 8), and Packed Towers (Chapter 9)".
339:
The classification is not exclusive, since several types can be used in both modes.
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3110:
3074:
3001:
2897:
2867:
2862:
2790:
2625:
2411:
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2234:
2213:
2203:
2133:
2115:
961:
924:
759:
751:
632:
553:
127:
117:
101:
1745:"Lesson Learned from a Fire during Distillation: Choose the Appropriate Condenser"
1540:
449:
2000:
1717:
1363:
1168:
1147:
1126:
1118:
1079:
1057:
1036:
1029:
1010:
17:
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2816:
2785:
2770:
2765:
2727:
2602:
2566:
2416:
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2173:
888:
650:
165:
for airtight connection to the vapor source and the liquid receptacle; however,
1928:
1645:
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425:
88:
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2592:
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2431:
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2331:
2301:
2198:
2100:
2052:
1521:
chemical distillation apparatuses], (Berlin, Germany: Julius Springer, 1911),
973:
810:
365:
293:
161:) may be made of metal. In professional laboratories, condensers usually have
1982:
1955:
1920:
1768:
1760:
1230:
1209:
3332:
3130:
2780:
2393:
2208:
2168:
2110:
856:
660:
557:
352:
109:
473:
60:
cited. Unsourced or poorly sourced material may be challenged and removed.
3277:
3156:
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2902:
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2775:
2456:
2406:
876:
860:
223:
1895:
1867:
1799:
1429:
Standard and tentative methods of sampling and testing highway materials
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3090:
2747:
2722:
2712:
2640:
2461:
2421:
2021:
1302:
969:
965:
937:, which are just a straight tube, can be used as a crude reflux column.
880:
552:(1854â1915). The Allihn-condenser consists of a long glass tube with a
356:
Distillation setup using a retort and tube condenser, from a 1921 book.
285:
1365:
Applied Process Design for Chemical and Petrochemical Plants: Volume 2
2650:
2005:(7th ed.). Oxford, U.K.: Butterworth-Heinemann. pp. 10â12.
1566:
1462:
1342:
868:
864:
170:
131:
1041:(7th ed.). Oxford, U.K.: Butterworth-Heinemann. pp. 8â14.
1297:. McGraw-Hill series in advanced chemistry. New York: McGraw Hill.
3267:
3246:
1544:
997:
Heinz G. O. Becker, Werner Berger, GĂŒnter Domschke, et al., 2009,
379:
351:
146:
120:
87:
1441:
Jensen, William B. (2006). "The Origin of the Liebig Condenser".
1368:(3rd ed.). New York: Elsevier-Gulf Professional Publishing.
1062:(4th ed.). New York: Elsevier-Gulf Professional Publishing.
2821:
2120:
976:
additives, can be used for liquids with low boiling point (like
943:
consist of multiple bulbous segments shaped like inverted pears.
252:
166:
3203:
3022:
2842:
2502:
2063:
2025:
1816:("Excelsior condenser and Excelsior distillation attachment").
126:
Condensers are routinely used in laboratory operations such as
230:
of the adjacent liquid; that is, the liquid must be below its
29:
1519:
Zur Geschichte der Pharmazeutisch-Chemischen Destilliergerate
1001:(23rd German edn., compl. rev. updated), Weinheim:Wiley-VCH,
222:
In order for a substance to condense from a pure vapor, the
1408:"Design methods for [industrial] reflux condensers"
1128:
Reactions and Syntheses in the Organic Chemistry Laboratory
1912:Ăber die fraktionierte Destillation kleiner Substanzmengen
1602:(Reflux condenser for analytical extraction apparatuses),
1585:(Reflux condenser for analytical extraction apparatuses),
1500:(The history of the invention of the "Liebig" condenser),
1854:-Butylphenoxy)isopropyl-2-chloroethyl Sulfite Residues".
1831:"Excelsior condenser and Excelsior distillation column,"
1498:"Geschichte der Erfindung des "Liebig'schen KĂŒhlapparat"
805:
was developed as a doctoral research project by student
1583:"RĂŒckflusskĂŒhler fĂŒr analytische Extractions-Apparate"
243:
As the vapor condenses, it releases the corresponding
1600:"RĂŒckflusskĂŒhler fĂŒr analytische Extractionsapparate"
320:
Most condensers can be divided in two broad classes.
185:
The water-cooled condenser, which was popularized by
1814:"Excelsior-KĂŒhler und Excelsior-Destillationaufsatz"
3310:
3260:
3214:
3170:
3139:
3083:
3035:
2974:
2934:
2911:
2855:
2799:
2756:
2705:
2674:
2611:
2580:
2557:
2541:
2515:
2381:
2315:
2227:
2152:
2074:
1357:
1355:
1353:
1351:
1078:Leonard, John; Lygo, Barry; Procter, Garry (1994).
781:concentrator to efficiently separate a low boiling
602:due to the application for which it was developed.
1290:
1239:
1018:Organicum: Practical Handbook of Organic Chemistry
923:have the same theory of operation as industrial
1102:Vogel's textbook of practical organic chemistry
1994:
1992:
1481:Berichte der Deutschen Chemischen Gesellschaft
1427:United States Bureau of Public Roads (1921): "
1319:(2006), "The Origin of the Liebig Condenser",
999:Organikum: organisch-chemisches Grundpraktikum
2037:
1563:Taschenbuch fĂŒr ScheidekĂŒnstler und Apotheker
687:Refluxing and fractional distillation columns
8:
96:at left is heated by the blue mantle to the
27:Laboratory apparatus used to condense vapors
2997:Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) instrument
1969:Kyrides, L. P. (1940). "Fumaryl Chloride".
1217:Kyrides, L. P. (1940). "Fumaryl Chloride".
1149:The Manipulation of Air-Sensitive Compounds
1084:(2nd ed.). Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
891:), etc. Specific combinations are known as
732:Some common fractional distillation columns
3224:
3211:
3200:
3032:
3019:
2852:
2839:
2512:
2499:
2071:
2060:
2044:
2030:
2022:
1999:Armarego, W.L.F.; Chai, Christina (2012).
1131:(1st ed.). University Science Books.
1105:(5th ed.). Longman or Prentice Hall.
145:Laboratory condensers are usually made of
1743:Ding, Yilun; Feng, Hongyan (2023-03-27).
1658:"Messrs. A. Gallenkamp and Co., Limited,"
1293:Laboratory Technique in Organic Chemistry
1246:. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall.
1238:Pasto, Daniel J; Johnson, Carl R (1979).
1125:Tietze, Lutz F; Eicher, Theophil (1986).
1035:Armarego, W.L.F; Chai, Christina (2012).
76:Learn how and when to remove this message
3362:Instruments used in medical laboratories
1788:Journal of the American Chemical Society
1784:"Some new forms of laboratory apparatus"
1589:(Chemist's Newspaper), 10 (4) : 52.
1536:Observationes chemicae et mineralogicale
1477:"Der sogenannte Liebig'sche KĂŒhlapparat"
1284:
1282:
1146:Shriver, D. F.; Drezdzon, M. A. (1986).
300:very close to the condensation surface.
2878:Inductively coupled plasma (ICP) device
1551:is Fig. 2 on the last page of the book.
1278:
2926:Transmission electron microscope (TEM)
1380:pp 1-229 (Ch. 8) and 230-415 (Ch. 9),
487:The blue areas are circulating coolant
268:, or droplets created as bubbles pop.
226:of the latter must be higher than the
981:
7:
2002:Purification of Laboratory Chemicals
1533:Christian Ehrenfried Weigel (1771),
1099:Vogel, A.I.; Tatchell, A.R. (1996).
1081:Advanced Practical Organic Chemistry
1038:Purification of Laboratory Chemicals
564:often means this type specifically.
360:The simplest type of condenser is a
1152:. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
2921:Scanning electron microscope (SEM)
1604:Zeitschrift fĂŒr analytische Chemie
1479:(The so-called Liebig condenser),
25:
1716:Senning, Alexander (2006-10-30).
1699:"Application of Graham Condenser"
1687: : ccciv (5 February 1920).
2966:Thermogravimetric analyzer (TGA)
2776:Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)
1820:, volume 28, issue 58, page 686.
1749:ACS Chemical Health & Safety
719:
707:
695:
472:
460:
448:
436:
424:
412:
116:is laboratory apparatus used to
34:
1834:Journal of the Chemical Society
1703:All Stuff of Physical Chemistry
1697:Shah, Mehwish (2 August 2016).
675:(sometimes incorrectly spelled
1410:. Chemical Processing (online)
1:
1677:(Advertisement by Gallenkamp)
1475:Kahlbaum, Georg W. A. (1896)
1443:Journal of Chemical Education
1406:Zhi Hua (Frank) Yang (2005).
51:secondary or tertiary sources
1031:, accessed 25 February 2015.
1012:, accessed 25 February 2015.
681:Fritz Walter Paul Friedrichs
1667: : 691 (21 May 1904).
1289:Wiberg, Kenneth B. (1960).
3397:
1782:Friedrichs, Fritz (1912).
914:Spinning band distillation
887:), stainless steel gauze (
497:
336:source by its own weight.
3359:
3227:
3210:
3199:
3121:Time-domain reflectometer
3031:
3018:
2888:Liquid chromatograph (LC)
2851:
2838:
2511:
2498:
2070:
2059:
1722:. Elsevier. p. 115.
1268:Condenser (heat transfer)
280:, for example). Then the
58:primary research articles
1983:10.15227/orgsyn.020.0051
1956:10.1002/hlca.19240070107
1921:10.3929/ethz-a-000090805
1761:10.1021/acs.chas.2c00053
1231:10.15227/orgsyn.020.0051
1210:10.1002/ange.19470190701
962:low-temperature coolants
600:Inland Revenue condenser
43:This scientific article
2956:Melting-point apparatus
2337:Cryogenic storage dewar
1909:Widmer, Gustav (1923).
835:fractional distillation
833:is a condenser used in
485:Some common condensers.
310:fractional distillation
175:microscale distillation
2893:Mass spectrometer (MS)
2883:Gas chromatograph (GC)
1944:Helvetica Chimica Acta
1836:, volume 86, page 611.
1812:Vigreux, Henri (1904)
1661:Pharmaceutical Journal
1620:Sella, Andrea (2010).
972:or chilled water with
389:
357:
316:Coolant flow direction
105:
3268:Acid-resistant gloves
2949:differential scanning
1167:Krell, Erich (1982).
383:
355:
343:Historical condensers
91:
3381:Laboratory glassware
2845:Analytical chemistry
2347:Laminar flow cabinet
2053:Laboratory equipment
1884:Analytical Chemistry
1856:Analytical Chemistry
1622:"Allihn's Condenser"
948:Alternative coolants
673:Friedrichs condenser
550:Felix Richard Allihn
245:heat of vaporization
3217:Personal protective
2126:MekerâFisher burner
1929:20.500.11850/132964
1896:10.1021/ac60361a033
1868:10.1021/ac60060a033
1800:10.1021/ja02212a012
1517:Schelenz, Hermann,
1496:Speter, Max (1908)
1455:2006JChEd..83...23J
1335:2006JChEd..83...23J
1202:1947AngCh..19..175S
885:Podbielniak columns
560:; indeed, the term
201:, and perfected by
173:and in devices for
163:ground glass joints
3060:Function generator
3043:Bench power supply
2982:Analytical balance
2743:Ostwald viscometer
2738:Graduated cylinder
2477:Inoculation needle
1598:Allihn, F. (1886)
1581:Allihn, F. (1886)
1317:Jensen, William B.
839:theoretical plates
787:methylene chloride
783:extraction solvent
747:, named after the
679:) was invented by
637:rotary evaporators
627:, also known as a
576:, also known as a
390:
358:
292:(by moles) at 100
209:General principles
189:, was invented by
159:water distillation
151:borosilicate glass
106:
3368:
3367:
3355:
3354:
3351:
3350:
3328:Fire extinguisher
3318:Biosafety cabinet
3306:
3305:
3195:
3194:
3191:
3190:
3126:Transistor tester
3116:Spectrum analyzer
3014:
3013:
3010:
3009:
2834:
2833:
2830:
2829:
2706:Measuring devices
2528:Soxhlet extractor
2494:
2493:
2490:
2489:
2442:Spectrophotometer
2437:Pipeclay triangle
2189:Mortar and pestle
2012:978-0-12-382162-1
1971:Organic Syntheses
1862:(12): 1835â1842.
1794:(11): 1509â1514.
1729:978-0-08-048881-3
1382:esp. pp. 255, 277
1375:978-0-08-052737-6
1253:978-0-13-521302-5
1219:Organic Syntheses
1190:Angewandte Chemie
1180:978-0-444-99723-4
1159:978-0-471-86773-9
1138:978-0-935702-50-7
1112:978-0-582-46236-6
1091:978-0-7487-4071-0
1069:978-0-08-094209-4
1048:978-0-12-382162-1
921:Oldershaw columns
855:rings) of glass,
625:Dimroth condenser
595:Grahams condenser
404:Modern condensers
266:explosive boiling
187:Justus von Liebig
86:
85:
78:
45:needs additional
18:Dimroth condenser
16:(Redirected from
3388:
3225:
3212:
3201:
3106:Network analyzer
3033:
3020:
2853:
2840:
2513:
2500:
2482:Inoculation loop
2352:Microtiter plate
2292:Test tube holder
2184:Magnetic stirrer
2072:
2061:
2046:
2039:
2032:
2023:
2017:
2016:
1996:
1987:
1986:
1966:
1960:
1959:
1939:
1933:
1932:
1906:
1900:
1899:
1879:
1873:
1871:
1843:
1837:
1827:
1821:
1818:Chemiker-Zeitung
1810:
1804:
1803:
1779:
1773:
1772:
1740:
1734:
1733:
1713:
1707:
1706:
1694:
1688:
1674:
1668:
1655:
1649:
1642:
1636:
1635:
1617:
1611:
1596:
1590:
1587:Chemiker Zeitung
1579:
1573:
1558:
1552:
1549:the illustration
1531:
1525:
1515:
1509:
1502:Chemiker Zeitung
1494:
1488:
1473:
1467:
1466:
1463:10.1021/ed083p23
1438:
1432:
1425:
1419:
1418:
1416:
1415:
1403:
1397:
1379:
1359:
1346:
1345:
1343:10.1021/ed083p23
1313:
1307:
1306:
1296:
1286:
1257:
1245:
1234:
1213:
1184:
1163:
1142:
1116:
1095:
1073:
1052:
983:
763:
723:
711:
699:
629:spiral condenser
574:Davies condenser
562:reflux condenser
542:Allihn-condenser
506:Liebig condenser
500:Liebig condenser
476:
464:
452:
440:
428:
416:
282:partial pressure
278:dry distillation
81:
74:
70:
67:
61:
38:
37:
30:
21:
3396:
3395:
3391:
3390:
3389:
3387:
3386:
3385:
3371:
3370:
3369:
3364:
3347:
3343:Solvent cabinet
3302:
3273:Eyewash station
3256:
3221:
3219:equipment (PPE)
3218:
3206:
3187:
3166:
3135:
3079:
3070:Pulse generator
3036:Control devices
3027:
3006:
2970:
2936:Thermochemistry
2930:
2907:
2847:
2826:
2795:
2752:
2718:Conical measure
2701:
2670:
2607:
2576:
2553:
2537:
2507:
2486:
2467:Test tube brush
2377:
2362:Picotiter plate
2325:
2311:
2307:Lab drying rack
2266:Extension clamp
2242:
2223:
2162:
2148:
2084:
2066:
2055:
2050:
2020:
2013:
1998:
1997:
1990:
1968:
1967:
1963:
1941:
1940:
1936:
1908:
1907:
1903:
1881:
1880:
1876:
1845:
1844:
1840:
1829:A. McK. (1904)
1828:
1824:
1811:
1807:
1781:
1780:
1776:
1742:
1741:
1737:
1730:
1715:
1714:
1710:
1696:
1695:
1691:
1675:
1671:
1656:
1652:
1643:
1639:
1627:Chemistry World
1619:
1618:
1614:
1597:
1593:
1580:
1576:
1559:
1555:
1532:
1528:
1516:
1512:
1508:(1) : 3â5.
1495:
1491:
1474:
1470:
1440:
1439:
1435:
1426:
1422:
1413:
1411:
1405:
1404:
1400:
1376:
1361:
1360:
1349:
1315:
1314:
1310:
1288:
1287:
1280:
1276:
1264:
1254:
1237:
1216:
1187:
1181:
1166:
1160:
1145:
1139:
1124:
1113:
1098:
1092:
1077:
1070:
1055:
1049:
1034:
994:
992:Further reading
986:liquid nitrogen
950:
909:
883:wires (akin to
873:stainless steel
827:
799:
770:
757:
741:
736:
735:
734:
733:
729:
728:
727:
724:
716:
715:
712:
704:
703:
700:
689:
669:
646:
621:
608:
587:
570:
548:is named after
538:
526:
502:
496:
491:
490:
489:
488:
486:
482:
481:
480:
477:
469:
468:
465:
457:
456:
453:
445:
444:
441:
433:
432:
429:
421:
420:
417:
406:
378:
350:
345:
318:
306:
304:Liquid mixtures
274:
261:
241:
235:boiling point.
220:
211:
183:
167:flexible tubing
82:
71:
65:
62:
55:
39:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3394:
3392:
3384:
3383:
3373:
3372:
3366:
3365:
3360:
3357:
3356:
3353:
3352:
3349:
3348:
3346:
3345:
3340:
3338:Safety cabinet
3335:
3330:
3325:
3320:
3314:
3312:
3308:
3307:
3304:
3303:
3301:
3300:
3298:Safety goggles
3295:
3293:Safety glasses
3290:
3288:Nitrile gloves
3285:
3283:Medical gloves
3280:
3275:
3270:
3264:
3262:
3258:
3257:
3255:
3254:
3249:
3244:
3239:
3234:
3228:
3222:
3215:
3208:
3207:
3204:
3197:
3196:
3193:
3192:
3189:
3188:
3186:
3185:
3180:
3178:Alligator clip
3174:
3172:
3168:
3167:
3165:
3164:
3159:
3154:
3152:Soldering iron
3149:
3143:
3141:
3137:
3136:
3134:
3133:
3128:
3123:
3118:
3113:
3108:
3103:
3098:
3096:Logic analyzer
3093:
3087:
3085:
3081:
3080:
3078:
3077:
3072:
3067:
3062:
3057:
3056:
3055:
3053:Voltage source
3050:
3048:Current source
3039:
3037:
3029:
3028:
3023:
3016:
3015:
3012:
3011:
3008:
3007:
3005:
3004:
2999:
2994:
2989:
2987:Colony counter
2984:
2978:
2976:
2972:
2971:
2969:
2968:
2963:
2958:
2953:
2952:
2951:
2940:
2938:
2932:
2931:
2929:
2928:
2923:
2917:
2915:
2909:
2908:
2906:
2905:
2900:
2895:
2890:
2885:
2880:
2875:
2870:
2865:
2859:
2857:
2849:
2848:
2843:
2836:
2835:
2832:
2831:
2828:
2827:
2825:
2824:
2819:
2814:
2809:
2803:
2801:
2797:
2796:
2794:
2793:
2788:
2783:
2778:
2773:
2768:
2762:
2760:
2754:
2753:
2751:
2750:
2745:
2740:
2735:
2730:
2725:
2720:
2715:
2709:
2707:
2703:
2702:
2700:
2699:
2694:
2689:
2684:
2678:
2676:
2672:
2671:
2669:
2668:
2663:
2658:
2653:
2648:
2643:
2638:
2633:
2628:
2626:Vacuum (Dewar)
2623:
2617:
2615:
2609:
2608:
2606:
2605:
2600:
2595:
2590:
2584:
2582:
2578:
2577:
2575:
2574:
2569:
2563:
2561:
2555:
2554:
2552:
2551:
2545:
2543:
2539:
2538:
2536:
2535:
2530:
2525:
2519:
2517:
2509:
2508:
2503:
2496:
2495:
2492:
2491:
2488:
2487:
2485:
2484:
2479:
2474:
2469:
2464:
2459:
2454:
2449:
2444:
2439:
2434:
2429:
2424:
2419:
2414:
2409:
2404:
2399:
2396:
2391:
2385:
2383:
2379:
2378:
2376:
2375:
2372:
2369:
2364:
2359:
2354:
2349:
2344:
2339:
2334:
2328:
2326:
2324:
2323:
2320:
2316:
2313:
2312:
2310:
2309:
2304:
2299:
2297:Test tube rack
2294:
2289:
2286:
2281:
2278:
2273:
2272:Funnel support
2270:
2267:
2264:
2259:
2254:
2249:
2245:
2243:
2241:
2240:
2237:
2232:
2228:
2225:
2224:
2222:
2221:
2216:
2211:
2206:
2201:
2196:
2191:
2186:
2181:
2179:Liquid whistle
2176:
2171:
2165:
2163:
2161:
2160:
2157:
2153:
2150:
2149:
2147:
2146:
2144:Vacuum dry box
2141:
2136:
2131:
2128:
2123:
2118:
2113:
2108:
2106:Heating mantle
2103:
2098:
2093:
2091:Alcohol burner
2087:
2085:
2083:
2082:
2079:
2075:
2068:
2067:
2064:
2057:
2056:
2051:
2049:
2048:
2041:
2034:
2026:
2019:
2018:
2011:
1988:
1961:
1934:
1901:
1874:
1838:
1822:
1805:
1774:
1735:
1728:
1708:
1689:
1669:
1650:
1637:
1612:
1591:
1574:
1553:
1526:
1510:
1489:
1487: : 69â71.
1468:
1433:
1420:
1398:
1374:
1347:
1322:J. Chem. Educ.
1308:
1277:
1275:
1272:
1271:
1270:
1263:
1260:
1259:
1258:
1252:
1235:
1214:
1196:(7): 175â183.
1185:
1179:
1164:
1158:
1143:
1137:
1122:
1111:
1096:
1090:
1075:
1068:
1053:
1047:
1032:
1013:
993:
990:
978:dimethyl ether
949:
946:
945:
944:
938:
935:air condensers
928:
918:
908:
905:
826:
823:
798:
795:
779:Kuderna-Danish
769:
766:
745:Vigreux column
740:
737:
731:
730:
725:
718:
717:
713:
706:
705:
701:
694:
693:
692:
691:
690:
688:
685:
668:
665:
645:
642:
631:, named after
620:
617:
612:coil condenser
607:
604:
586:
583:
578:double surface
569:
566:
546:bulb condenser
537:
534:
530:West condenser
525:
522:
498:Main article:
495:
492:
484:
483:
478:
471:
470:
466:
459:
458:
454:
447:
446:
442:
435:
434:
430:
423:
422:
418:
411:
410:
409:
408:
407:
405:
402:
386:Wellcome Trust
377:
374:
349:
346:
344:
341:
333:countercurrent
317:
314:
305:
302:
290:carbon dioxide
288:vapor and 75%
273:
270:
260:
257:
240:
237:
228:vapor pressure
219:
216:
210:
207:
182:
179:
84:
83:
42:
40:
33:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3393:
3382:
3379:
3378:
3376:
3363:
3358:
3344:
3341:
3339:
3336:
3334:
3331:
3329:
3326:
3324:
3321:
3319:
3316:
3315:
3313:
3309:
3299:
3296:
3294:
3291:
3289:
3286:
3284:
3281:
3279:
3276:
3274:
3271:
3269:
3266:
3265:
3263:
3259:
3253:
3252:Safety shower
3250:
3248:
3245:
3243:
3240:
3238:
3235:
3233:
3230:
3229:
3226:
3223:
3220:
3213:
3209:
3202:
3198:
3184:
3181:
3179:
3176:
3175:
3173:
3169:
3163:
3162:Wire stripper
3160:
3158:
3155:
3153:
3150:
3148:
3145:
3144:
3142:
3138:
3132:
3129:
3127:
3124:
3122:
3119:
3117:
3114:
3112:
3109:
3107:
3104:
3102:
3099:
3097:
3094:
3092:
3089:
3088:
3086:
3082:
3076:
3073:
3071:
3068:
3066:
3063:
3061:
3058:
3054:
3051:
3049:
3046:
3045:
3044:
3041:
3040:
3038:
3034:
3030:
3026:
3021:
3017:
3003:
3000:
2998:
2995:
2993:
2992:Spiral plater
2990:
2988:
2985:
2983:
2980:
2979:
2977:
2973:
2967:
2964:
2962:
2959:
2957:
2954:
2950:
2947:
2946:
2945:
2942:
2941:
2939:
2937:
2933:
2927:
2924:
2922:
2919:
2918:
2916:
2914:
2910:
2904:
2901:
2899:
2896:
2894:
2891:
2889:
2886:
2884:
2881:
2879:
2876:
2874:
2871:
2869:
2866:
2864:
2861:
2860:
2858:
2856:Compositional
2854:
2850:
2846:
2841:
2837:
2823:
2820:
2818:
2815:
2813:
2810:
2808:
2805:
2804:
2802:
2798:
2792:
2789:
2787:
2784:
2782:
2779:
2777:
2774:
2772:
2769:
2767:
2764:
2763:
2761:
2759:
2755:
2749:
2746:
2744:
2741:
2739:
2736:
2734:
2731:
2729:
2726:
2724:
2721:
2719:
2716:
2714:
2711:
2710:
2708:
2704:
2698:
2695:
2693:
2690:
2688:
2685:
2683:
2680:
2679:
2677:
2673:
2667:
2664:
2662:
2659:
2657:
2654:
2652:
2649:
2647:
2644:
2642:
2639:
2637:
2634:
2632:
2629:
2627:
2624:
2622:
2619:
2618:
2616:
2614:
2610:
2604:
2601:
2599:
2596:
2594:
2591:
2589:
2586:
2585:
2583:
2579:
2573:
2570:
2568:
2565:
2564:
2562:
2560:
2556:
2550:
2547:
2546:
2544:
2540:
2534:
2531:
2529:
2526:
2524:
2521:
2520:
2518:
2514:
2510:
2506:
2501:
2497:
2483:
2480:
2478:
2475:
2473:
2470:
2468:
2465:
2463:
2460:
2458:
2455:
2453:
2450:
2448:
2445:
2443:
2440:
2438:
2435:
2433:
2430:
2428:
2425:
2423:
2420:
2418:
2415:
2413:
2410:
2408:
2405:
2403:
2400:
2398:Balance brush
2397:
2395:
2392:
2390:
2387:
2386:
2384:
2380:
2374:Weighing dish
2373:
2371:Weighing boat
2370:
2368:
2365:
2363:
2360:
2358:
2355:
2353:
2350:
2348:
2345:
2343:
2340:
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2335:
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2330:
2329:
2327:
2321:
2318:
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2314:
2308:
2305:
2303:
2300:
2298:
2295:
2293:
2290:
2287:
2285:
2282:
2279:
2277:
2274:
2271:
2268:
2265:
2263:
2262:Burette clamp
2260:
2258:
2255:
2253:
2250:
2247:
2246:
2244:
2238:
2236:
2233:
2230:
2229:
2226:
2220:
2217:
2215:
2212:
2210:
2207:
2205:
2202:
2200:
2197:
2195:
2192:
2190:
2187:
2185:
2182:
2180:
2177:
2175:
2172:
2170:
2167:
2166:
2164:
2158:
2155:
2154:
2151:
2145:
2142:
2140:
2137:
2135:
2132:
2129:
2127:
2124:
2122:
2119:
2117:
2114:
2112:
2109:
2107:
2104:
2102:
2099:
2097:
2096:Bunsen burner
2094:
2092:
2089:
2088:
2086:
2080:
2077:
2076:
2073:
2069:
2062:
2058:
2054:
2047:
2042:
2040:
2035:
2033:
2028:
2027:
2024:
2014:
2008:
2004:
2003:
1995:
1993:
1989:
1984:
1980:
1976:
1972:
1965:
1962:
1957:
1953:
1949:
1945:
1938:
1935:
1930:
1926:
1922:
1918:
1914:
1913:
1905:
1902:
1897:
1893:
1889:
1885:
1878:
1875:
1869:
1865:
1861:
1857:
1853:
1849:
1842:
1839:
1835:
1832:
1826:
1823:
1819:
1815:
1809:
1806:
1801:
1797:
1793:
1789:
1785:
1778:
1775:
1770:
1766:
1762:
1758:
1754:
1750:
1746:
1739:
1736:
1731:
1725:
1721:
1720:
1712:
1709:
1704:
1700:
1693:
1690:
1686:
1682:
1678:
1673:
1670:
1666:
1662:
1659:
1654:
1651:
1647:
1641:
1638:
1633:
1629:
1628:
1623:
1616:
1613:
1609:
1605:
1601:
1595:
1592:
1588:
1584:
1578:
1575:
1572:
1568:
1564:
1557:
1554:
1550:
1546:
1542:
1538:
1537:
1530:
1527:
1524:
1520:
1514:
1511:
1507:
1503:
1499:
1493:
1490:
1486:
1482:
1478:
1472:
1469:
1464:
1460:
1456:
1452:
1448:
1444:
1437:
1434:
1430:
1424:
1421:
1409:
1402:
1399:
1395:
1391:
1387:
1383:
1377:
1371:
1367:
1366:
1358:
1356:
1354:
1352:
1348:
1344:
1340:
1336:
1332:
1328:
1324:
1323:
1318:
1312:
1309:
1304:
1300:
1295:
1294:
1285:
1283:
1279:
1273:
1269:
1266:
1265:
1261:
1255:
1249:
1244:
1243:
1236:
1232:
1228:
1224:
1220:
1215:
1211:
1207:
1203:
1199:
1195:
1191:
1186:
1182:
1176:
1172:
1171:
1165:
1161:
1155:
1151:
1150:
1144:
1140:
1134:
1130:
1129:
1123:
1120:
1114:
1108:
1104:
1103:
1097:
1093:
1087:
1083:
1082:
1076:
1071:
1065:
1061:
1060:
1054:
1050:
1044:
1040:
1039:
1033:
1030:
1027:
1026:0-201-05504-X
1023:
1019:
1014:
1011:
1008:
1007:3-527-32292-2
1004:
1000:
996:
995:
991:
989:
987:
979:
975:
971:
967:
963:
958:
956:
947:
942:
939:
936:
932:
931:Straight tube
929:
926:
925:plate columns
922:
919:
916:
915:
911:
910:
906:
904:
902:
898:
894:
890:
886:
882:
878:
874:
870:
866:
862:
858:
854:
850:
847:
842:
840:
836:
832:
831:packed column
824:
822:
820:
819:L. P. Kyrides
815:
812:
808:
807:Gustav Widmer
804:
803:Widmer column
796:
794:
792:
788:
784:
780:
775:
774:Snyder column
767:
765:
761:
756:
755:Henri Vigreux
753:
750:
746:
738:
722:
710:
698:
686:
684:
682:
678:
674:
666:
664:
662:
658:
653:
652:
643:
641:
638:
634:
630:
626:
618:
616:
613:
605:
603:
601:
596:
592:
584:
582:
579:
575:
567:
565:
563:
559:
555:
551:
547:
543:
535:
533:
531:
523:
521:
518:
515:
511:
507:
501:
493:
475:
463:
451:
439:
427:
415:
403:
401:
398:
395:
387:
382:
375:
373:
369:
367:
363:
362:straight tube
354:
348:Straight tube
347:
342:
340:
337:
334:
329:
326:
321:
315:
313:
311:
303:
301:
297:
295:
291:
287:
283:
279:
272:Carrier gases
271:
269:
267:
259:Material flow
258:
256:
254:
250:
246:
238:
236:
233:
232:boiling point
229:
225:
217:
215:
208:
206:
204:
200:
196:
192:
188:
180:
178:
176:
172:
168:
164:
160:
156:
155:thermal shock
152:
148:
143:
139:
137:
133:
129:
124:
122:
119:
115:
111:
103:
99:
98:boiling point
95:
90:
80:
77:
69:
66:February 2015
59:
53:
52:
48:
41:
32:
31:
19:
3323:Fire blanket
3261:Eye and hand
3247:Rubber apron
3111:Oscilloscope
3075:Potentiostat
3002:Plate reader
2898:pH indicator
2868:CHN analyzer
2863:AutoAnalyzer
2656:Round-bottom
2558:
2549:Boston round
2412:Filter paper
2367:Refrigerator
2284:Retort stand
2252:Clamp holder
2248:Beaker clamp
2214:Vortex mixer
2209:Stirring rod
2204:Static mixer
2134:Teclu burner
2001:
1974:
1970:
1964:
1950:(1): 59â61.
1947:
1943:
1937:
1911:
1904:
1890:(11): 1879.
1887:
1883:
1877:
1859:
1855:
1851:
1847:
1841:
1833:
1825:
1817:
1808:
1791:
1787:
1777:
1755:(2): 49â53.
1752:
1748:
1738:
1718:
1711:
1702:
1692:
1684:
1680:
1672:
1664:
1660:
1653:
1640:
1631:
1625:
1615:
1610: : 36.
1607:
1603:
1594:
1586:
1577:
1571:pp. 129â135.
1562:
1556:
1535:
1529:
1518:
1513:
1505:
1501:
1492:
1484:
1480:
1471:
1446:
1442:
1436:
1423:
1412:. Retrieved
1401:
1393:
1389:
1385:
1381:
1364:
1326:
1320:
1311:
1292:
1241:
1222:
1218:
1193:
1189:
1169:
1148:
1127:
1101:
1080:
1058:
1037:
1017:
998:
959:
955:refrigerated
951:
941:Pear columns
940:
934:
930:
920:
912:
846:Fenske rings
843:
830:
828:
816:
802:
800:
773:
771:
752:glass blower
744:
742:
676:
672:
670:
649:
647:
633:Otto Dimroth
628:
624:
622:
611:
609:
599:
594:
590:
588:
577:
573:
571:
561:
554:water jacket
545:
541:
539:
529:
527:
519:
505:
503:
399:
393:
391:
370:
361:
359:
338:
332:
330:
324:
322:
319:
307:
298:
275:
262:
242:
221:
212:
184:
144:
140:
128:distillation
125:
113:
107:
102:cooling bath
72:
63:
44:
3311:Other items
3237:Face shield
3084:Measurement
3065:Galvanostat
3025:Electronics
2975:Other items
2961:Thermometer
2944:Calorimeter
2873:Colorimeter
2817:Gas syringe
2800:Other items
2728:Eye dropper
2603:Watch glass
2588:Evaporating
2567:Cold finger
2382:Other items
2288:Screw clamp
2280:Pinch clamp
2269:Flask clamp
2219:Wash bottle
2174:Homogenizer
1119:4th edition
889:Dixon rings
758: [
677:Friedrich's
657:sublimation
651:cold finger
644:Cold finger
479:Cold finger
249:heat energy
218:Temperature
3242:Respirator
3183:Test probe
3101:Multimeter
2913:Microscopy
2733:Eudiometer
2697:Separatory
2666:Volumetric
2631:Erlenmeyer
2559:Condensers
2523:DeanâStark
2472:Wire brush
2432:Microscope
2427:Centrifuge
2402:Cork borer
2357:Petri dish
2332:Agar plate
2319:Containers
2302:Wire gauze
2139:Water bath
2101:Desiccator
1646:CareerChem
1523:pp. 84-88.
1414:2015-02-02
1329:(83): 23,
1303:B0007ENAMY
1274:References
974:antifreeze
968:cooled by
964:, such as
811:ETH Zurich
667:Friedrichs
467:Friedrichs
394:still head
376:Still head
366:convection
325:concurrent
195:Poisonnier
153:to resist
136:extraction
3333:Fume hood
3278:Glove box
3131:Voltmeter
2516:Apparatus
2505:Glassware
2394:Autoclave
2389:Aspirator
2342:Incubator
2276:Iron ring
2199:Sonicator
2169:Chemostat
2111:Hot plate
1769:1871-5532
1541:Göttingen
1449:(1): 23.
903:columns.
857:porcelain
821:in 1940.
661:cold-trap
558:refluxing
239:Heat flow
114:condenser
110:chemistry
47:citations
3375:Category
3232:Lab coat
3157:Tweezers
3147:Heat gun
2903:pH meter
2812:Bell jar
2692:Dropping
2646:Florence
2636:Fernbach
2598:Syracuse
2457:Scoopula
2407:Crucible
2116:Lab oven
1634:(5): 66.
1262:See also
877:nichrome
861:aluminum
791:volatile
785:such as
514:Göttling
224:pressure
203:Göttling
118:condense
3171:General
3091:Ammeter
2791:Thistle
2748:Pipette
2723:Cuvette
2713:Burette
2682:BĂŒchner
2675:Funnels
2661:Schlenk
2641:Fleaker
2621:BĂŒchner
2542:Bottles
2462:Spatula
2452:Stopper
2422:Forceps
2322:Storage
2239:Holders
2159:Shakers
2130:Striker
2078:Heaters
2065:General
1705:(Blog).
1451:Bibcode
1331:Bibcode
1198:Bibcode
970:dry ice
966:acetone
901:Stedman
881:inconel
853:Lessing
849:Raschig
739:Vigreux
702:Vigreux
619:Dimroth
455:Dimroth
388:museum.
286:ethanol
199:Gadolin
181:History
3205:Safety
2807:Beaker
2786:Thiele
2771:Cragie
2766:Drying
2687:Hirsch
2651:Retort
2613:Flasks
2581:Dishes
2572:Liebig
2533:Kipp's
2447:Splint
2257:Tripod
2235:Clamps
2231:Stands
2194:Shaker
2156:Mixers
2081:Dryers
2009:
1977:: 51.
1767:
1726:
1681:Nature
1567:Weimar
1394:, 1-14
1372:
1301:
1250:
1225:: 51.
1177:
1156:
1135:
1109:
1088:
1066:
1045:
1028:, see
1024:
1009:, see
1005:
899:, and
893:Hempel
869:nickel
865:copper
825:Packed
797:Widmer
768:Snyder
749:French
726:Widmer
714:Snyder
591:Graham
585:Graham
568:Davies
536:Allihn
510:Weigel
494:Liebig
443:Graham
431:Allihn
419:Liebig
197:, and
191:Weigel
171:retort
134:, and
132:reflux
121:vapors
3140:Tools
2758:Tubes
2593:Petri
1545:Latin
1543:; in
1390:, 230
1386:, 247
933:, or
907:Other
871:, or
789:from
762:]
147:glass
94:flask
2822:Vial
2781:Test
2417:File
2121:Kiln
2007:ISBN
1852:tert
1765:ISSN
1724:ISBN
1632:2010
1370:ISBN
1327:2006
1299:ASIN
1248:ISBN
1175:ISBN
1154:ISBN
1133:ISBN
1107:ISBN
1086:ISBN
1064:ISBN
1043:ISBN
1022:ISBN
1003:ISBN
982:b.p.
897:Todd
879:and
801:The
772:The
743:The
671:The
606:Coil
540:The
528:The
524:West
512:and
504:The
392:The
331:The
323:The
253:area
112:, a
1979:doi
1952:doi
1925:hdl
1917:doi
1892:doi
1864:doi
1796:doi
1757:doi
1685:104
1569:),
1459:doi
1339:doi
1227:doi
1206:doi
1117:or
851:or
809:at
593:or
544:or
294:kPa
108:In
49:to
3377::
1991:^
1975:20
1973:.
1946:.
1923:.
1888:47
1886:.
1860:23
1858:.
1792:34
1790:.
1786:.
1763:.
1753:30
1751:.
1747:.
1701:.
1683:,
1679:,
1665:72
1663:,
1630:.
1624:.
1608:25
1606:,
1506:32
1504:,
1485:29
1483:,
1457:.
1447:83
1445:.
1392:ff
1384:ff
1350:^
1337:,
1325:,
1281:^
1223:20
1221:.
1204:.
1194:19
1192:.
988:.
980:,
895:,
875:;
867:,
863:,
859:,
829:A
760:fr
648:A
623:A
610:A
589:A
572:A
368:.
193:,
177:.
130:,
2045:e
2038:t
2031:v
2015:.
1985:.
1981::
1958:.
1954::
1948:7
1931:.
1927::
1919::
1898:.
1894::
1872:.
1870:.
1866::
1850:-
1848:p
1802:.
1798::
1771:.
1759::
1732:.
1648:.
1539:(
1465:.
1461::
1453::
1417:.
1396:.
1388:f
1378:,
1341::
1333::
1305:.
1256:.
1233:.
1229::
1212:.
1208::
1200::
1183:.
1162:.
1141:.
1121:.
1115:,
1094:.
1072:,
1051:.
79:)
73:(
68:)
64:(
54:.
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
