List of diseases of the honey bee

907:. It causes mummification of the brood of a honey bee colony. The fungi are common soil inhabitants and are also pathogenic to other insects, birds, and mammals. The disease is difficult to identify in the early stages of infection. The spores of the different species have different colours and can also cause respiratory damage to humans and other animals. When bee larvae take in spores, they may hatch in the gut, growing rapidly to form a collar-like ring near the larval heads. After death, the larvae turn black and become difficult to crush, hence the name stonebrood. Eventually, the fungus erupts from the integument of the larvae and forms a false skin. In this stage, the larvae are covered with powdery fungal spores. Worker bees clean out the infected brood and the hive may recover depending on factors such as the strength of the colony, the level of infection, and hygienic habits of the strain of bees (variation in the trait occurs among different subspecies). 841: 1057:. Affected larvae change from pearly white to gray and finally black. Death occurs when the larvae are upright, just before pupation. Consequently, affected larvae are usually found in capped cells. Head development of diseased larvae is typically retarded. The head region is usually darker than the rest of the body and may lean toward the center of the cell. When affected larvae are carefully removed from their cells, they appear to be a sac filled with water. Typically, the scales are brittle but easy to remove. Sacbrood-diseased larvae have no characteristic odor. 155:

result of colony growth. Careful observation of a colony can help identify signs of disease often spread by mites. When the hive population growth is reduced in preparation for winter or due to poor late summer forage, the mite population growth can overtake that of the bees and can then destroy the hive. It has been observed diseased colonies may slowly die off and be unable to survive through winter even when adequate food stores are present. Often a colony will simply abscond (leave as in a swarm, but leaving no population behind) under such conditions.

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larva. Spores will not germinate in larvae over three days old. Infected larvae normally die after their cell is sealed. The vegetative form of the bacterium will die, but not before it produces many millions of spores. American foulbrood spores are extremely resistant to desiccation and can remain viable for 80 years in honey and beekeeping equipment. Each dead larva may contain as many as 100 million spores. This disease only affects the bee larvae, but is highly infectious and deadly to bee brood. Infected larvae darken and die.

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problems associated with spraying and the label instructions should be followed regardless of doing this. Sealing honey bees from flight on hot days can kill bees. Beekeeper notification does not offer any protection to bees, if the beekeeper cannot access them, or to wild native or feral honey bees. Thus, beekeeper notification as the sole protection procedure does not really protect all the pollinators of the area, and is, in effect, a circumventing of the label requirements. Pesticide losses are a major factor in

3019: 2944: 559: 550:(marketed as Combat Roach Gel) is commonly applied inside the corrugations of a piece of cardboard. Standard corrugations are large enough that a small hive beetle can enter the cardboard through the end, but small enough that honey bees cannot enter (thus are kept away from the pesticide). Alternative controls such as oil-based top-bar traps are also available, but they have had very little commercial success. 942:-affected bees are able to fly, but are almost hairless. They appear dark or black and look smaller. They have a relatively broad abdomen. They are often nibbled by older bees in the colony and this may be the cause of the hairlessness. They are hindered at the entrance to the hive by the guard bees. A few days after infection, trembling begins. They then become flightless and soon die. 439:

toxin-free pollen. The trial was then discontinued at an early stage. This effect was significantly more marked in the Bt-fed colonies. (The significant differences indicate an interaction of toxin and pathogen on the epithelial cells of the honeybee intestine. The underlying mechanism which causes this effect is unknown.)"

287:, who had much experience with bees said to have the Isle of Wight Disease, was that under the original and now quite properly discarded designation 'Isle of Wight Disease' were included several maladies having analogous superficial symptoms", the authors came to the firm conclusion that the IoWD was not caused by acarine ( 585:(greater wax moths) do not attack the bees directly, but feed on the shed exoskeletons of bee larvae and pollen that is found in dark brood comb, which was used by the bees to hold the developing bees. Their full development to adults requires access to used brood comb or brood cell cleanings—these contain 1261:

Chilled brood is not actually a disease, but can be a result of mistreatment of the bees by the beekeeper. It also can be caused by a pesticide hit that primarily kills off the adult population, or by a sudden drop in temperature during rapid spring build-up. The brood must be kept warm at all times;

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Because wax moths cannot survive a cold winter, they are usually not a problem for beekeepers in the northern U.S. or Canada, unless they survive winter in heated storage, or are brought from the south by purchase or migration of beekeepers. They thrive and spread most rapidly with temperatures above

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infection is also associated with black queen cell virus. It spreads via fecal to oral matter to infect bees. It is normally only a problem when the bees cannot leave the hive to eliminate waste (for example, during an extended cold spell in winter or when the hives are enclosed in a wintering barn).

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mites are preferentially attracted to the drone brood), powdered sugar dusting (which encourages cleaning behavior and dislodges some mites), screened bottom boards (so any dislodged mites fall through the bottom and away from the colony), brood interruption and, perhaps, downsizing of the brood cell

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According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, when used in beehives as directed, chemical treatments kill a large proportion of the mites while not substantially disrupting bee behavior or life span. Use of chemical controls is generally regulated and varies from country to country. With few

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Spores of the fungus can last for up to 15 years, which is why old equipment from a previously infected hive should not be used. These spores can last in pollen, honey, and wax. Even though Hornitzky's literature review of articles on chalkbrood disease concluded that there was no definitive cure or

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is not a spore-forming bacterium, but bacterial cells can survive for several months on wax foundation. Symptoms include dead and dying larvae which can appear curled upwards, brown or yellow, melted or deflated with tracheal tubes more apparent, or dried out and rubbery. method Scientific research

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Pesticide losses may be relatively easy to identify (large and sudden numbers of dead bees in front of the hive) or quite difficult, especially if the loss results from a gradual accumulation of pesticide brought in by the foraging bees. Quick-acting pesticides may deprive the hive of its foragers,

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when it parasitizes pupae. Bees infected as adults remain symptom-free, although they do display behavioral changes and have reduced life expectancy. Deformed bees are rapidly expelled from the colony, leading to a gradual loss of adult bees for colony maintenance. If this loss is excessive and can

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result in abnormal trembling of the wings and body. The bees cannot fly, and often crawl on the ground and up plant stems. In some cases, the crawling bees can be found in large numbers (1000+). The bees huddle together on the top of the cluster or on the top bars of the hive. They may have bloated

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causes a fungal disease that only affects bee brood, but adult bees can be carriers. It infests the gut of the larvae before the cell is sealed or soon after. The fungus competes with them for food, ultimately causing them to starve. The fungus then goes on to consume the rest of the larval bodies,

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To the untrained eye, these mites are generally not a very noticeable problem for a strongly growing hive- as the bees may appear strong in number, and may even be very effective at foraging. However, the mite reproduction cycle occurs inside the capped pupae, and the mite population can surge as a

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pollen and a control group with non-Bt corn pollen: "in the first year, the bee colonies happened to be infested with parasites (microsporidia). This infestation led to a reduction in the number of bees and subsequently to reduced broods in the Bt-fed colonies, as well as in the colonies fed on Bt

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reported the colony collapse mystery solved, quoting researcher Bromenshenk, a co-author of the study, " are both present in all these collapsed colonies." Evidence for this association, however, remains minimal and several authors have disputed the original methodology used to associate CCD with

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when it was identified in 1921 by Rennie. The IoWD disease quickly spread to the rest of Great Britain and Ireland, dealing a devastating blow to British and Irish beekeeping, being claimed as having wiped out the indigenous bee population of the British Isles. In 1991 Bailey and Ball stated "The

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will cluster over the brood to keep it at the right temperature. When a beekeeper opens the hive (to inspect, remove honey, check the queen, or just to look) and prevents the nurse bees from clustering on the frame for too long, the brood can become chilled, deforming or even killing some of the

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Occasional warm days in winter are critical for honey bee survival; dysentery problems increase in likelihood during periods of more than two or three weeks with temperatures below 50 °F (10 °C). When cleansing flights are few, bees are often forced out at times when the temperature is

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is a condition resulting from a combination of long periods of inability to make cleansing flights (generally due to cold weather) and food stores that contain a high proportion of indigestible matter. As a bee's gut becomes engorged with feces that cannot be voided in flight as preferred by the

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is a rod-shaped bacterium. Larvae up to three days old become infected by ingesting spores present in their food. Young larvae less than 24 hours old are most susceptible to infection. Spores germinate in the gut of the larva and the vegetative bacteria begin to grow, taking nourishment from the

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This study should be interpreted with caution given that no repetition of the experiment nor any attempt to find confounding factors was made. In addition, Bt toxin and transgenic Bt pollen showed no acute toxicity to any of the life stages of the bees examined, even when the Bt toxin was fed at

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Nosemosis can also be prevented or minimized by removing much of the honey from the beehive, then feeding the bees on sugar water in the late fall. Sugar water made from refined sugar has lower ash content than flower nectar, reducing the risk of dysentery. Refined sugar, however, contains fewer

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The Alexander-House-Miller treatment has also been shown to be effective against the disease. The method requires the hive to be strong and the queen to be prevented from laying for a week or so. A modified version of this method is given by Carr in his article. The queen is placed on frames of

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When honey supers are stored for the winter in a mild climate, or in heated storage, the wax moth larvae can destroy portions of the comb, though they will not fully develop. Damaged comb may be scraped out and replaced by the bees. Wax moth larvae and eggs are killed by freezing, so storage in

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Common mechanical controls generally rely on disruption of some aspect of the mites' lifecycle. These controls are generally intended not to eliminate all mites, but merely to maintain the infestation at a level which the colony can tolerate. Examples of mechanical controls include drone brood

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Some pesticide authorities recommend, and some jurisdictions require, that notice of spraying be sent to all known beekeepers in the area, so they can seal the entrances to their hives and keep the bees inside until the pesticide has had a chance to disperse. This, however, does not solve all

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Acarine mites are commonly controlled with grease patties (typically made from one part vegetable shortening mixed with three to four parts powdered sugar) placed on the top bars of the hive. The bees come to eat the sugar and pick up traces of shortening, which disrupts the mite's ability to

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is a parasitic mite that infests the trachea that lead from the first pair of thoracic spiracles. An unidentified bee illness was first reported on the Isle of Wight in England in 1904, becoming known as the 'Isle of Wight disease' (IoWD), which was initially thought to be caused by

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In very cold areas of North America and Europe, where honey bees are kept in ventilated buildings during the coldest part of winter, no cleansing flights are possible; under such circumstances, beekeepers commonly remove all honey from the hives and replace it with sugar water or

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causing them to appear white, hard, and "chalky". If fungal spores start to develop, the larva can also appear gray or black. One study suggested it could be economically devastating because not only does it weaken the hive, but it can cause honey reductions of 5–37%.

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Chalkbrood was first recognized in 1900s in Europe, and then spread to countries such as Argentina, Turkey, Philippines, Mexico, Chile, Central America and Japan. It was first recorded in the United States in the mid-1960s in Utah and spread across the US from there.

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Insecticides that are toxic to bees have label directions that protect the bees from poisoning as they forage. To comply with the label, applicators must know where and when bees forage in the application area, and the length of residual activity of the pesticide.

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A strong hive generally needs no treatment to control wax moths; the bees themselves kill and clean out the moth larvae and webs. Wax moth larvae may fully develop in cell cleanings when such cleanings accumulate thickly where they are not accessible to the bees.

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foundation below a queen excluder, and all of the brood frames are put above the excluder. Once all of the worker brood has emerged, these frames are removed from the hive and the old comb in them replaced with foundation ready for re-use.

1293:, can be especially pernicious since toxicity can take as long as two days to become evident, allowing infected pollen to be returned and distributed throughout the colony. Organophosphates and other insecticides are also known to 1245:

barely adequate for their wing muscles to function, and large quantities of bees may be seen dead in the snow around the hives. Colonies found dead in spring from dysentery have feces smeared over the frames and other hive parts.

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Grabensteiner, Elvira; Ritter, Wolfgang; Carter, Michael J.; Davison, Sean; Pechhacker, Hermann; Kolodziejek, Jolanta; Boecking, Otto; Derakhshifar, Irmgard; Moosbeckhofer, Rudolf; Licek, Elisabeth; Nowotny, Norbert (2001).

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are considered serious threats to honeybees. Although they are not currently found outside Asia, these mites have the potential to inflict serious damage to colonies due to their rapid reproduction inside the hive.

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Mature female acarine mites leave the bee's airway and climb out on a hair of the bee, where they wait until they can transfer to a young bee. Once on the new bee, they move into the airways and begin laying eggs.

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identify a young bee. Some of the mites waiting to transfer to a new host remain on the original host. Others transfer to a random bee—a proportion of which will die of other causes before the mite can reproduce.

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Leal, Walter S.; Bromenshenk, Jerry J.; Henderson, Colin B.; Wick, Charles H.; Stanford, Michael F.; Zulich, Alan W.; Jabbour, Rabih E.; Deshpande, Samir V.; McCubbin, Patrick E. (2010). Leal, Walter S. (ed.).

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in the ground outside of the hive. Controls to prevent ants from climbing into the hive are believed to also be effective against the hive beetle. Several beekeepers are experimenting with the use of

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European foulbrood is often considered a "stress" disease—dangerous only if the colony is already under stress for other reasons. An otherwise healthy colony can usually survive European foulbrood.

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Chalkbrood (ascosphaerosis larvae apium) is most commonly visible during wet springs. Hedtke et al. provided statistical evidence that chalkbrood outbreaks occurred in summer when there was a

1000:, as does the Acute bee paralysis virus. The virus is named after the place where it was first identified – its place of origin is unknown. It has been suggested as a marker associated with 613:, as unused combs are usually left in the hive during the winter. Since this type of hive is not used in severe wintering conditions, the bees are able to patrol and inspect the unused comb. 817:

may control an outbreak of the disease, but honey from treated colonies could have chemical residues from the treatment, and prophylactic treatments are not recommended as they may lead to

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Li, J. L.; Cornman, R. S.; Evans, J. D.; Pettis, J. S.; Zhao, Y.; Murphy, C.; Peng, W. J.; Wu, J.; Hamilton, M.; Boncristiani, H. F.; Zhou, L.; Hammond, J.; Chen, Y. P. (21 January 2014).

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30 °C (90 °F), so some areas with only occasional days that are hot rarely have a problem with wax moths, unless the colony is already weak due to stress from other factors.

180:, though it may cause bee mortality at high concentrations. Provisioning active colonies with crops of thyme may provide the colony with a non-interventional chemical defense against 2507: 1089:

virus 1 and Egypt bee virus. This deformity can clearly be seen on the honeybee's wings in the image. The deformities are produced almost exclusively due to DWV transmission by

980:. It is frequently detected in apparently healthy colonies. This virus seemingly plays a role in cases of sudden collapse of honey bee colonies infested with the parasitic mite 873:

control, there are a variety of prevention mechanisms. Improving genetic stock to be more hygienic, sterilization of old equipment, good ventilation and the replacement of old

2418: 1283:. Because the bees forage up to several miles from the hive, they may fly into areas actively being sprayed by farmers or they may collect pollen from contaminated flowers. 2976: 1012:

Kashmir bee virus is related to the preceding viruses. Discovered in 2004, it is currently only positively identifiable by a laboratory test. Little is known about it yet.

4469: 3367:"The complete genome sequence of Perina nuda picorna-like virus, an insect-infecting RNA virus with a genome organization similar to that of the mammalian picornaviruses" 1632:

Garrido, Paula Melisa; Porrini, Martín Pablo; Alberoni, Daniele; Baffoni, Loredana; Scott, Dara; Mifsud, David; Eguaras, Matín Javier; Di Gioia, Diana (13 January 2023).

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As with European foulbrood, research has been conducted using the "shook swarm" method to control American foulbrood, "the advantage being that chemicals are not used".

1079:(DWV) is the causative agent of the wing deformities and other body malformations typically seen in honeybee colonies that are heavily infested with the parasitic mite 3722:

Universal Protein Resource (UniProt); European Bioinformatics Institute (EBI), the Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics (SIB) and the Protein Information Resource (PIR).

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Universal Protein Resource (UniProt); European Bioinformatics Institute (EBI), the Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics (SIB) and the Protein Information Resource (PIR)

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Grabensteiner, E; Ritter, W; Carter, MJ; Davison, S; Pechhacker, H; Kolodziejek, J; Boecking, O; Derakhshifar, I; Moosbeckhofer, R; Licek, E; Nowotny, N (2001).

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Ravoet, Jorgen; et al. (2015). "Genome sequence heterogeneity of Lake Sinai Virus found in honey bees and Orf1/RdRP-based polymorphisms in a single host".

2342:"Reclassification of Paenibacillus larvae subsp. pulvifaciens and Paenibacillus larvae subsp. larvae as Paenibacillus larvae without subspecies differentiation" 1217:. LSV1, LSV2, LSV3, LSV4, LSV5, and LSV6 were described. LSV were detected in bees, mites and pollen. It only actively replicates in honey bees and mason bees ( 589:

essential for the larval development, in the form of brood cocoons. The destruction of the comb will spill or contaminate stored honey and may kill bee larvae.

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Natalia Damiani; Liesel B. Gende; Pedro Bailac; Jorge A. Marcangeli & Martín J. Eguaras (2009). "Acaricidal and insecticidal activity of essential oils on

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with pest-control characteristics,. In 2010, U.S. researchers announced they had identified a co-infection of invertebrate iridescent virus type 6 (IIV-6) and

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Prevalence and Phylogeny of Kakugo Virus, a Novel Insect Picorna-Like Virus That Infects the Honeybee (Apis mellifera L.), under Various Colony Conditions

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Lies uniformly flat on lower side of cell, adheres tightly to cell wall, fine, thread-like tongue of dead may be present, head lies flat, black in color

645:, with stored combs controlled wax moth and eliminate the need for hash chemicals. This has been confirmed more recently by others, such as Bergqvist. 1198:, a plant pathogen, was described to infect honeybees through infected pollen, but this unusual claim was soon challenged and remains to be confirmed. 1709:"A formal redefinition of the genera Nosema and Vairimorpha (Microsporidia: Nosematidae) and reassignment of species based on molecular phylogenetics" 1237:

bees, the bee voids within the hive. When enough bees do this, the hive population rapidly collapses and death of the colony results. Dark honeys and

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showed that the spread of the disease is density dependent. The higher the density of apiaries, the higher the probability of disease transmission.

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mites were first discovered in Southeast Asia in about 1904, but are now present on all continents except Australia. They were discovered in the

4325: 2679:"Assessment of losses in honey yield due to the chalkbrood disease, with reference to the determination of its economic injury levels in Egypt" 3550:"The 5' non-translated region of Varroa destructor virus 1 (genus Iflavirus): structure prediction and IRES activity in Lymantria dispar cell" 4793: 2124: 4293: 3227: 1037:

Cloudy wing virus is a little-studied, small, icosahedral virus commonly found in honey bees, especially in collapsing colonies infested by

487:, in 1996 was identified, and is believed to be the index case for the United States. By December 1999, small hive beetles were reported in 4130: 1616: 2890:

Koenig, John P.; Boush, G. Mallory; Erickson Jr., E. H. (1986). "Effect of Type of Brood Comb on Chalk Bee Disease in Honeybee Colonies".

1417:. Most new research suggests the neonicotinoid hypothesis was incorrect, however, and that pesticides play little role in CCD compared to 538:

around the hive as a way to disrupt the beetle's lifecycle. The diatoms abrade the insects' surfaces, causing them to dehydrate and die.

450:, as they spend an extensive time in their hives as they keep together for warmth and have little to no opportunities to eliminate waste. 2053:

Braglia, Chiara; Alberoni, Daniele; Porrini, Martin Pablo; Garrido, Paula Melisa; Baffoni, Loredana; Di Gioia, Diana (1 September 2021).

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The "shook swarm" method of bee husbandry can also effectively control the disease, with the advantage of avoiding the use of chemicals.

53: 2324: 4415: 1988:

Blot, Nicolas; Clémencet, Johanna; Jourda, Cyril; Lefeuvre, Pierre; Warrit, Natapot; Esnault, Olivier; Delatte, Hélène (26 July 2023).

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Blot, Nicolas; Clémencet, Johanna; Jourda, Cyril; Lefeuvre, Pierre; Warrit, Natapot; Esnault, Olivier; Delatte, Hélène (26 July 2023).

465: 4502: 4459: 2515: 4107: 2136: 1990:"Geographic population structure of the honeybee microsporidian parasite Vairimorpha (Nosema) ceranae in the South West Indian Ocean" 1878:"Geographic population structure of the honeybee microsporidian parasite Vairimorpha (Nosema) ceranae in the South West Indian Ocean" 5105: 2450:"High-resolution maps of Swiss apiaries and their applicability to study spatial distribution of bacterial honey bee brood diseases" 1707:

Tokarev, Yuri S.; Huang, Wei-Fone; Solter, Leellen F.; Malysh, Julia M.; Becnel, James J.; Vossbrinck, Charles R. (1 January 2020).

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colony abruptly disappear. CCD was originally discovered in Florida by David Hackenberg in western honey bee colonies in late 2006.

630:(moth crystals or urinal disks). If chemical methods are used, the combs must be well-aired for several days before use. The use of 2426: 2977:"Detection of Chronic bee paralysis virus (CBPV) genome and its replicative RNA form in various hosts and possible ways of spread" 5095: 5028: 3458:"Sacbrood Virus of the Honeybee (Apis mellifera): Rapid Identification and Phylogenetic Analysis Using Reverse Transcription-PCR" 3408:"Sacbrood Virus of the Honeybee (Apis mellifera): Rapid Identification and Phylogenetic Analysis Using Reverse Transcription-PCR" 4475: 2957: 5033: 844:

The entrance to this beehive is littered with chalkbrood mummies that have been expelled from the hive by hygienic worker bees.

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Southwick, Edward E.; Moritz, R.F.A. (1987). "Social control of air ventilation in colonies of honey bees, Apis mellifera".

343:, either allowed to vaporize from crystal form or mixed into the grease patties, is also often used to treat acarine mites. 4495: 1589: 1159: 617: 2117: 4970: 3793:"Interpretation of data underlying the link between colony collapse disorder (CCD) and an invertebrate iridescent virus" 1207: 117:

mites have led to the virtual elimination of feral bee colonies in many areas, and are a major problem for kept bees in

5085: 4998: 4723: 947: 244:(sold in liquid form or in gel strips as Mite Away Quick Strips and Formic Pro, but also used in other formulations). 1275:

Honey bees are susceptible to many of the chemicals used for agricultural spraying of other insects and pests. Many

4271:"'Gold standard' assessing neonicotinoids: Field bee hive studies find pesticides not major source of health issues" 3261: 3612: 1426: 1398: 1294: 484: 386:

disease is treated by increasing the ventilation through the hive. Some beekeepers treat hives with agents such as

5064: 5018: 1390: 1276: 1214: 480: 2718:"Evidence for emerging parasites and pathogens influencing outbreaks of stress-related diseases like chalkbrood" 2274:

de Guzman, Lilia; Williams, Geoffrey R.; Khongphinitbunjong, Kitiphong; Chantawannakul, Panuwan (8 March 2017).

4954: 4929: 4709: 4688: 4674: 4660: 4653: 3316: 3121: 2847:

Berry, J. A.; Delaplane, K. S. (2001). "Effect of comb age on honey bee colony growth and brood survivorship".

1322: 1280: 1250: 1127: 1001: 634:(mothballs) is discouraged because it accumulates in the wax, which can kill bees or contaminate honey stores. 162: 3248: 3212: 3032: 4196: 2919:"Detection of chronic honey bee (Apis mellifera L.) paralysis virus infection: application to a field survey" 794: 4993: 4848: 4751: 4730: 4716: 3950:

Miller, W. Allen; Carrillo-Tripp, Jimena; Bonning, Bryony C.; Dolezal, Adam G.; Toth, Amy L. (27 May 2014).

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infestation. Stress, genetics of the bees, and health can also be contribute to the presence of chalkbrood.

3018: 2943: 2140: 4744: 4737: 4695: 4667: 3159:"In vitro infection of pupae with IAPV suggests disturbance of transcriptional homeostasis in honey bees ( 1195: 1020: 977: 426: 2340:

Genersch, E; Forsgren, E; Pentikäinen, J; Ashiralieva, A; Rauch, S; Kilwinski, J; Fries, I (March 2006).

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Acute bee paralysis virus is considered to be a common infective agent of bees. It belongs to the family

5090: 5023: 5008: 2772: 2207: 1460: 1154:-based pathogen screening tools in 2010, researchers announced they had identified a co-infection of an 891: 642: 4439: 4153: 475:

is a small, dark-colored beetle that lives in beehives. Originally from Africa, the first discovery of

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that are damaging to bees. For example, bees infected during their development will often have visibly

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Ongus, Juliette R.; Roode, Els C.; Pleij, Cornelis W. A.; Vlak, Just M.; van Oers, Monique M. (2006).

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Carr, E. G. (February 1917). "Some New and Practical Methods for the Control of European Foulbrood".

2001: 1889: 1785: 1720: 1634:"Beneficial Bacteria and Plant Extracts Promote Honey Bee Health and Reduce Nosema ceranae Infection" 1328: 1238: 1206:

In 2015, Lake Sinai virus (LSV) genomes were assembled and three main domains were discovered: Orf1,

1085:. DWV is part of a complex of closely related virus strains/species that also includes Kakugo virus, 3135: 3050: 2392: 5100: 5049: 5013: 5003: 4949: 4840: 4681: 4615: 3903:"Systemic Spread and Propagation of a Plant-Pathogenic Virus in European Honeybees, Apis mellifera" 3599: 1425:

infestations. Other theories included radiation from cellular phones or other man-made devices and

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Higes, Mariano; García-Palencia, Pilar; Martín-Hernández, Raquel; Meana, Aránzazu (1 March 2007).

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Unsealed brood, some sealed brood in advanced cases with discolored, sunken or punctured cappings

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spores by spraying. It is a very effective biological control and has an excellent safety record.

236:(marketed as "ApiLife-VAR" and "Apiguard"), sucrose octanoate esters (marketed as "Sucrocide"), 4944: 4303: 4247: 3308: 3224: 3007: 2872: 2641: 1970: 1858: 1754: 1689: 1485: 1310: 1111:

infecting bees; varroa mites may mediate its prevalence. Kakugo virus appears to be a subtype of

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no longer be compensated by the emergence of healthy bees, the colony rapidly dwindles and dies.

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Celle, O; Blanchard, P; Olivier, V; Schurr, F; Cougoule, N; Faucon, JP; Ribière, M (May 2008).

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von Büren, Raphael S.; Oehen, Bernadette; Kuhn, Nikolaus J.; Erler, Silvio (31 January 2019).

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Hedtke, Kati; Jensen, Per Moestrup; Jensen, Annette Bruun; Genersch, Elke (1 November 2011).

2320: 1327:

Colony collapse disorder (CCD) is a poorly understood phenomenon in which worker bees from a

4800: 4383: 4373: 4067: 4030: 4020: 3979: 3963: 3922: 3914: 3873: 3863: 3814: 3804: 3763: 3753: 3673: 3663: 3561: 3522: 3477: 3469: 3427: 3419: 3378: 3300: 3235: 3184: 3174: 3093: 3085: 2991: 2930: 2899: 2864: 2810: 2737: 2617: 2561: 2479: 2461: 2380: 2353: 2289: 2179: 2084: 2066: 2025: 2009: 1954: 1913: 1897: 1840: 1793: 1728: 1671: 1653: 1645: 1469: 958: 849: 638: 468:

Comb slimed by hive beetle larvae: Hives infested at this level will drive out bee colonies.

3331: 1381:

Initial hypotheses were wildly different, including environmental change-related stresses,

726:

Usually young unsealed larvae, occasionally older sealed larvae, typically in coiled stage

4896: 4852: 4600: 4298: 3596: 3231: 2328: 2121: 1025: 996: 972: 936:

abdomens due to distension of the honey sac. The wings are partially spread or dislocated.

921: 818: 814: 4242: 3702: 2275: 4369: 3859: 3749: 3659: 3518: 3296: 3081: 2860: 2806: 2733: 2613: 2030: 2005: 1989: 1918: 1893: 1877: 1789: 1774:"Experimental infection of Apis mellifera honeybees with Nosema ceranae (Microsporidia)" 1724: 1676: 637:

Control of wax moths by other means includes the freezing of the comb for a few hours.

17: 4901: 4876: 4860: 4757: 4646: 4610: 4388: 4353: 4035: 4008: 3984: 3951: 3927: 3902: 3878: 3843: 3819: 3792: 3768: 3733: 3678: 3643: 3262:"Multiple Virus Infections in the Honey Bee and Genome Divergence of Honey Bee Viruses" 3189: 3158: 2828:

Gochnauer, T. A.; Furgala, B.; Shirnamuki, H. "Diseases and enemies of the honey bee".

2484: 2449: 2089: 2054: 1402: 1170: 1164: 1054: 447: 413: 360: 300: 273: 148: 99:

mites can be seen with the naked eye as a small red or brown spot on the bee's thorax.

4487: 3588:

Tomoko Fujiyuki, Seii Ohka, Hideaki Takeuchi, Masato Ono, Akio Nomoto, and Takeo Kubo

3098: 3065: 2677:

Zaghloul, O. A.; Mourad, A. K.; El Kady, Magda B.; Nemat, F. M.; Morsy, M. E. (2005).

802:

of bee larvae. European foulbrood is considered less serious than American foulbrood.

558: 5079: 4093: 3734:"Lack of evidence for an Association between Iridovirus and Colony Collapse Disorder" 3482: 3457: 3432: 3407: 3089: 2814: 1862: 1758: 1693: 760: 496: 295:

was always found to be present within the hive whenever CBPV symptoms were observed.

161:

in combination with viral vectors and bacteria have been theoretically implicated in

136: 3312: 3011: 2876: 1974: 1489: 5059: 4605: 4171: 4071: 3844:"The Effect of Using an Inappropriate Protein Database for Proteomic Data Analysis" 3732:

Tokarz, Rafal; Cadhla Firth; Craig Street; Diana Cox-Foster; W. Ian Lipkin (2011).

3589: 2995: 2903: 2868: 2645: 1546: 1521: 1414: 1410: 1406: 1382: 1140: 1102: 1050: 952: 610: 546:

Several pesticides are currently used against the small hive beetle. The chemical

512: 304: 296: 3281:"The epidemiology of cloudy wing virus infections in honey bee colonies in the UK" 1023:

causes the queen larva to turn black and die. It is thought to be associated with

4378: 3868: 3758: 3668: 3473: 3423: 3179: 2780:

Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation, NSW Agriculture. pp. 5, 10

291:) mites solely, but primarily by chronic bee paralysis virus (CBPV), even though 248:

exceptions, they are not intended for use during production of marketable honey.

4871: 4815: 4702: 4625: 4548: 3625: 2055:"Screening of Dietary Ingredients against the Honey Bee Parasite Nosema ceranae" 1367: 1347: 1184: 1066: 631: 407: 355: 241: 237: 211: 140: 2013: 1901: 1649: 1503: 738:

Usually twisted in cell, does not adhere to cell wall, rubbery, black in color

192:

A variety of chemical and mechanical treatments are used to attempt to control

52: 4906: 4891: 4886: 4866: 4773: 4538: 4453: 3526: 2741: 2621: 2112: 2071: 1845: 1828: 1797: 1733: 1708: 1473: 1374:, albeit to a lesser degree. Possible cases of CCD have also been reported in 1263: 1155: 1151: 874: 859: 706:

Dull white, becoming light brown, coffee brown to dark brown, or almost black

524: 504: 387: 315: 311: 219: 3975: 3952:"Conclusive Evidence of Replication of a Plant Virus in Honeybees Is Lacking" 2749: 2694: 2629: 2475: 2080: 2021: 1966: 1909: 1854: 1805: 1742: 1667: 1633: 4881: 4844: 4805: 4533: 4518: 4175: 3809: 3234:

Apiculture Factsheet #230, Ministry of Agriculture and Lands, Government of

2935: 2918: 2678: 2184: 2163: 1958: 1286: 1233: 1107: 520: 500: 464: 377: 215: 33: 4462:

at the British Columbia Ministry of Agriculture and Lands (via Web Archive)

4397: 4079: 4044: 3993: 3936: 3887: 3828: 3777: 3687: 3575: 3534: 3491: 3441: 3392: 3383: 3366: 3304: 3198: 3107: 3003: 2757: 2702: 2637: 2565: 2493: 2367: 2303: 2098: 2039: 1927: 1813: 1750: 1685: 1481: 1131:

induces paralysis to the anterior legs ten to twelve days after infection.

729:

Dull white, becoming yellowish white to brown, dark brown, or almost black

593:

unheated sheds or barns in higher latitudes is the only control necessary.

4096:. Penn State University College of Agricultural Sciences. 29 January 2007. 3967: 3918: 3719: 3566: 3549: 2358: 2341: 994:

Described in 2004 the Israeli acute paralysis virus belongs to the family

4810: 4778: 4456:

at the University of Georgia, with a large section on Honey Bee Disorders

4112: 3352: 2294: 2168:, Coleoptera: Nitidulidae): Gaps in our knowledge of an invasive species" 1386: 1359: 1290: 547: 79: 3064:

Bakonyi T, Grabensteiner E, Kolodziejek J, et al. (December 2002).

1942: 1941:

Higes, Mariano; Martín-Hernández, Raquel; Meana, Aranzazu (1 May 2010).

1658: 443:

concentrations 100 times that found in transgenic Bt pollen from maize.

4939: 4836: 4783: 4564: 2466: 1371: 1339: 1041:, providing circumstantial evidence that the mite may act as a vector. 976:, as does the Israel acute paralysis virus, Kashmir bee virus, and the 586: 575: 435: 340: 207: 29: 3505:

de Miranda, Joachim R.; Genersch, Elke (2010). "Deformed wing virus".

889:

Stonebrood (aspergillosis larvae apium) is a fungal disease caused by

121:. Some feral populations are now recovering—it appears they have been 4831: 4025: 3629: 1375: 1351: 1343: 1211: 799: 776:), is the most widespread and destructive of the bee brood diseases. 703:

Usually older sealed larvae or young pupae lying lengthwise in cells

233: 169: 118: 95: 4481: 4094:"Honey Bee Die-Off Alarms Beekeepers, Crop Growers and Researchers" 2419:"European Foulbrood: A Bacterial Disease Affecting Honey Bee Brood" 4788: 4354:"Iridovirus and Microsporidian Linked to Honey Bee Colony Decline" 3644:"Iridovirus and Microsporidian Linked to Honey Bee Colony Decline" 2315: 2313: 1363: 1355: 839: 557: 516: 492: 483:, in 1998. The next year, a specimen that had been collected from 463: 421: 395: 173: 144: 104: 90: 51: 2665:

The beekeeper's bible: Bees, honey, recipes & other home uses

2381:

Controlling American Foulbrood in Honeybees By Shook Swarm Method

2346:

International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology

616:

Wax moths can be controlled in stored comb by application of the

2773:"Literature review of chalkbrood: a fungal disease of honeybees" 2508:"Shook Swarm and OTC Antibiotics for European Foulbrood Control" 1594:

Office of Pesticide Programs; US Environmental Protection Agency

1394: 1168:

in all CCD colonies sampled. On the basis of this research, the

531: 508: 488: 86: 82: 4491: 417:. This parasite apparently also infects the western honey bee. 4856: 2683:

Communications in Agricultural and Applied Biological Sciences

3279:

Carreck, Norman L; Ball, Brenda V; Martin, Stephen J (2010).

2276:"Ecology, Life History, and Management of Tropilaelaps Mites" 2261:

Bee wax moth in Embu county, Kenya, the intruder in the hives

609:

Wax moth development in comb is generally not a problem with

3066:"Phylogenetic analysis of acute bee paralysis virus strains" 1571: 363:

that invades the intestinal tracts of adult bees and causes

324:

are believed to have entered the U.S. in 1984, from Mexico.

2200:"Combat Source Kill Max Gel Kills Large and Small Roaches" 1829:"Nosema ceranae disease of the honey bee (Apis mellifera)" 2263:(Thesis). Uppsala: SLU, Dept of Ecology. pp. 28, 29. 176:, naturally occurring in thyme honey, is a treatment for 4212:"Mysterious Honeybee Disappearance Linked to Rare Virus" 3332:"Infection and immunity in the honey bee Apis mellifera" 1943:"Nosema ceranae in Europe: an emergent type C nosemosis" 1301:

dropping them in the field before they can return home.

863:

infection earlier in the spring and there is an ongoing

700:

Sealed brood, discolored, sunken, or punctured cappings

4326:"GE and bee Colony Collapse Disorder – science needed!" 4292:

Geoffrey Lean & Harriet Shawcross (15 April 2007).

758:

American foulbrood (AFB), caused by the spore-forming

3045: 3043: 3041: 1338:

European beekeepers observed a similar phenomenon in

430:(Bt) production may weaken the bees' defense against 3365:

Wu, CY; Lo, CF; Huang, CJ; Yu, HT; Wang, CH (2002).

792:

European foulbrood (EFB) is caused by the bacterium

310:

Diagnosis for tracheal mites generally involves the

5042: 4984: 4963: 4915: 4824: 4766: 4593: 4557: 4526: 283:final opinion of Rennie (1923), a co-discoverer of 2596:Aronstein, K. A.; Murray, K. D. (1 January 2010). 398:, which causes some controversy among beekeepers. 446:Nosema disease is very common when bees get into 4484:Honey bee diseases website by Dr. Guido Cordoni. 4416:Essential Oils for Varroa, Tracheal, AFB Control 4243:"Virus Is Seen as Suspect in Death of Honeybees" 2541:. Medina, Ohio: A. I. Root Company. p. 311. 2248:. Medina, Ohio: A. I. Root Company. p. 231. 2233:. Medina, Ohio: A. I. Root Company. p. 676. 1241:have greater quantities of indigestible matter. 1504:"Apivar official webpage – Véto-pharma website" 222:(marketed as "Bayvarol" and "Polyvar Yellow"). 4472:Food and Environment Research Agency in the UK 3602:, December 2006, pp. 11528–38, Vol. 80, No. 23 3157:Humberto F. Boncristiani; et al. (2013). 434:. In relation to feeding a group of bees with 93:bees. When the hive is very heavily infested, 4503: 4149:La mort des abeilles met la planète en danger 3703:"Scientists and Soldiers Solve a Bee Mystery" 3412:Clinical and Diagnostic Laboratory Immunology 2306:– via Entomological Society of America. 1366:, and initial reports have also come in from 303:developed a resistant bee breed known as the 8: 4133:(in German). sueddeutsche.de. Archived from 4007:Daughenbaugh, Katie F.; et al. (2015). 3720:Invertebrate iridescent virus type 6 (IIV-6) 2560:(1). Entomological Society of America: 200. 2137:"Effects of Bt maize pollen on the honeybee" 1253:, which have nearly no indigestible matter. 1146:Invertebrate iridescent virus type 6 (IIV-6) 626:Wax moths can be controlled chemically with 2663:Jones, R., & Sweeney-Lynch, S. (2011). 4510: 4496: 4488: 4116:, 29 August 2007. Retrieved 10 July 2020. 3842:Knudsen, Giselle; Robert Chalkley (2011). 877:are all techniques that can be attempted. 670: 566:)—more often associated with bumble bees ( 4443:, US Department of Agriculture, July 2000 4387: 4377: 4034: 4024: 3983: 3926: 3877: 3867: 3818: 3808: 3767: 3757: 3677: 3667: 3565: 3481: 3431: 3382: 3188: 3178: 3097: 2934: 2483: 2465: 2357: 2293: 2183: 2088: 2070: 2029: 1917: 1844: 1732: 1675: 1657: 4294:"Are mobile phones wiping out our bees?" 4197:"Colony Collapse Disorder Working Group" 4172:"The mysterious deaths of the honeybees" 4009:"Honey Bee Infecting Lake Sinai Viruses" 732:Watery, rarely sticky or ropy, granular 4437:Shimanuki, Hachiro and Knox, David A., 2164:"The biology of the small hive beetle ( 1607:Bailey L & Ball BV (January 1991). 1442: 641:found that placing a spider, such as a 401:In 1996, a similar type of organism to 4476:Diseases and Afflictions of Honey Bees 530:The lifecycle of this beetle includes 479:in the Western Hemisphere was made in 405:was discovered on the Asian honey bee 85:that feed on the fat bodies of adult, 4241:Andrew C. Refkin (7 September 2007). 4218:. Scientific American. Archived from 2917:Ribière M, Faucon J, Pépin M (2000). 2659: 2657: 2655: 2591: 2589: 2587: 2585: 2583: 2581: 2579: 2577: 2575: 2125:Albert Ludwigs University of Freiburg 1638:Probiotics and Antimicrobial Proteins 36:or abnormal hive conditions include: 7: 2771:Hornitzky, Michael (November 2001). 2319:Shimanuki, Hachiro; Knox, David A. 307:, which is now available worldwide. 4129:Petra Steinberger (12 March 2007). 3797:Molecular & Cellular Proteomics 1827:Goblirsch, Mike (1 February 2018). 950:was reported for the first time in 712:Slightly to pronounced putrid odor 318:of a sample of bees from the hive. 232:"Soft" chemical treatments include 206:"Hard" chemical treatments include 2898:(1). Taylor & Francis: 58–62. 2598:"Chalkbrood disease in honey bees" 372:When the bees are unable to void ( 367:disease, also known as nosemosis. 25: 4594:Subspecies, Breeds and Phenotypes 3628:Instituto de Ecología AC (INECOL) 3507:Journal of Invertebrate Pathology 2722:Journal of Invertebrate Pathology 2602:Journal of Invertebrate Pathology 2393:"American and European Foulbrood" 2139:. 12 October 2005. Archived from 1778:Journal of Invertebrate Pathology 1713:Journal of Invertebrate Pathology 3330:Gliński, Z.; Jarosz, J. (2001). 3134:Fox, Maggie (6 September 2007). 3090:10.1128/AEM.68.12.6446-6450.2002 3017: 2942: 2855:(1). Taylor & Francis: 3–8. 4440:Diagnosis of Honey Bee Diseases 4328:. 21 March 2005. Archived from 4108:Les abeilles malades de l'homme 3701:Kirk Johnson (6 October 2010). 3285:Journal of Apicultural Research 3136:"New virus may be killing bees" 2892:Journal of Apicultural Research 2849:Journal of Apicultural Research 2321:Diagnosis of Honey Bee Diseases 1611:. Academic Press. p. 119. 1590:Formic Acid (214900) Fact Sheet 4580:Bee learning and communication 4478:, Kohala.net (via Web Archive) 4269:Jon Entine (12 October 2018). 4210:JR Minkel (7 September 2007). 4072:10.1016/j.virusres.2015.02.019 2996:10.1016/j.virusres.2007.12.011 2904:10.1080/00218839.1986.11100694 2869:10.1080/00218839.2001.11101042 2667:. Stewart, Tabori & Chang. 2554:Journal of Economic Entomology 2281:Journal of Economic Entomology 709:Soft, becoming sticky to ropy 1: 4423:The ABC and XYZ of Beekeeping 3238:, Jul 2004, accessed Jan 2007 2958:"Chronic Bee Paralysis Virus" 1433:in all CCD colonies sampled. 1160:invertebrate iridescent virus 990:Israeli acute paralysis virus 815:oxytetracycline hydrochloride 735:Slightly to penetrating sour 240:(marked as "Api-bioxal") and 4379:10.1371/journal.pone.0013181 3869:10.1371/journal.pone.0020873 3759:10.1371/journal.pone.0021844 3669:10.1371/journal.pone.0013181 3474:10.1128/CDLI.8.1.93-104.2001 3424:10.1128/CDLI.8.1.93-104.2001 3180:10.1371/journal.pone.0073429 2815:10.1016/0022-1910(87)90130-2 2795:Journal of Insect Physiology 2162:Neumann P, Elzen PJ (2004). 1391:Israel acute paralysis virus 1208:RNA-dependent RNA polymerase 956:and another species of ant, 424:pollen containing genes for 103:mites are carriers for many 4724:Apis mellifera sinisxinyuan 4170:Amy Sahba (29 March 2007). 1522:"Véto-pharma – ApiLife Var" 948:chronic bee paralysis virus 927:Chronic bee paralysis virus 5122: 4273:. Genetic Literacy Project 2830:The Hive and the Honey Bee 2539:ABC and XYZ of Bee Culture 2246:ABC and XYZ of Bee Culture 2231:ABC and XYZ of Bee Culture 2014:10.1038/s41598-023-38905-0 1902:10.1038/s41598-023-38905-0 1650:10.1007/s12602-022-10025-7 1547:"Véto-pharma – Api-Bioxal" 1427:genetically modified crops 1320: 1182: 1138: 1064: 919: 751: 686:Consistency of dead brood 573: 485:Charleston, South Carolina 457: 62: 5065:Honeybee Discovery Center 4976:Diseases of the honey bee 4703:Apis mellifera scutellata 4521:types and characteristics 3527:10.1016/j.jip.2009.06.012 2742:10.1016/j.jip.2011.08.006 2622:10.1016/j.jip.2009.06.018 2259:Bergqvist, Sanna (2019). 2072:10.3390/pathogens10091117 1846:10.1007/s13592-017-0535-1 1798:10.1016/j.jip.2006.11.001 1734:10.1016/j.jip.2019.107279 1572:"NOD Apiary Products Ltd" 1474:10.1007/s00436-009-1639-y 1389:(i.e., disease including 966:Acute bee paralysis virus 677:Appearance of brood comb 481:St. Lucie County, Florida 218:(marketed as CheckMite), 214:(marketed as "Apistan"), 172:, a compound produced by 59:mite on a honey bee larva 5106:Lists of animal diseases 5043:Museums and insectariums 4955:Colony collapse disorder 4930:Varroa sensitive hygiene 4710:Apis mellifera siciliana 4689:Apis mellifera monticola 4675:Apis mellifera pomonella 4661:Apis mellifera artemisia 4654:Apis mellifera adansonii 4433:The Beekeeper's Handbook 3791:Foster, Leonard (2011). 3070:Appl. Environ. Microbiol 2120:14 February 2007 at the 1458:(Hymenoptera: Apidae)". 1323:Colony collapse disorder 1317:Colony collapse disorder 1251:high-fructose corn syrup 1128:slow bee paralysis virus 1121:Slow bee paralysis virus 1002:colony collapse disorder 813:Chemical treatment with 764:(formerly classified as 268:Acarine (tracheal) mites 210:(marketed as "Apivar"), 163:colony collapse disorder 18:Diseases of the honeybee 5096:Western honey bee pests 4849:Horizontal top-bar hive 4752:Apis mellifera unicolor 4731:Apis mellifera sossimai 4717:Apis mellifera simensis 4421:Morse, Roger (editor), 4414:Canadian Honey Council 3810:10.1074/mcp.m110.006387 2327:9 December 2006 at the 1454:(Acari: Varroidae) and 1295:kill honey bee clusters 795:Melissococcus plutonius 656:Tropilaelaps mercedesae 411:and subsequently named 394:nutrients than natural 316:microscopic examination 252:"Mechanical" treatments 4916:Parasites and diseases 4745:Apis mellifera taurica 4738:Apis mellifera syriaca 4696:Apis mellifera remipes 4668:Apis mellifera litorea 4131:"Das spurlose Sterben" 3462:Clin Diagn Lab Immunol 3384:10.1006/viro.2001.1344 3305:10.3896/ibra.1.49.1.09 1196:tobacco ringspot virus 1190:Tobacco ringspot virus 1125:As the name suggests, 1021:Black queen cell virus 1016:Black queen cell virus 978:black queen cell virus 845: 692:Scale characteristics 571: 523:, and it was found in 469: 427:Bacillus thuringiensis 60: 4460:Apiculture Factsheets 3968:10.1128/mBio.00985-14 3919:10.1128/mBio.00898-13 3567:10.1099/vir.0.82122-0 2936:10.1051/apido:2000147 2359:10.1099/ijs.0.63928-0 2185:10.1051/apido:2004010 1959:10.1051/apido/2010019 1461:Parasitology Research 892:Aspergillus fumigatus 843: 601:Control and treatment 561: 467: 55: 5055:Bee Museum of Rhodes 4971:Topics in beekeeping 4570:Honey bee life cycle 4222:on 26 September 2007 3595:25 July 2011 at the 3560:(Pt 11): 3397–3407. 3319:on 22 December 2010. 3230:2 March 2007 at the 2566:10.1093/jee/10.1.197 2397:Bee Health eXtension 1289:pesticides, such as 761:Paenibacillus larvae 683:Color of dead brood 376:), they can develop 5050:Malacca Bee Gallery 4950:Deformed wing virus 4841:BS National Beehive 4682:Apis mellifera meda 4616:Carniolan honey bee 4370:2010PLoSO...513181B 4306:on 29 November 2007 3860:2011PLoSO...620873K 3750:2011PLoSO...621844T 3660:2010PLoSO...513181B 3600:Journal of Virology 3519:2010JInvP.103S..48D 3297:2010JApiR..49...66C 3082:2002ApEnM..68.6446B 2861:2001JApiR..40....3B 2807:1987JInsP..33..623S 2734:2011JInvP.108..167H 2614:2010JInvP.103S..20A 2537:Root, A.I. (1978). 2244:Root, A.I. (1978). 2229:Root, A.I. (1978). 2006:2023NatSR..1312122B 1894:2023NatSR..1312122B 1790:2007JInvP..94..211H 1725:2020JInvP.16907279T 1609:Honey Bee Pathology 1162:type 6 (IIV-6) and 1114:Deformed wing virus 1077:Deformed wing virus 1072:Deformed wing virus 1053:-like virus causes 819:resistant bacteria. 774:larvae/pulvifaciens 741:European foulbrood 718:American foulbrood 689:Odor of dead brood 673: 628:paradichlorobenzene 618:aizawai variety of 582:Galleria mellonella 40:Pests and parasites 5086:Agricultural pests 4945:American foulbrood 4427:Sammataro, Diana; 4248:The New York Times 3803:(3): M110.006387. 3707:The New York Times 2518:on 5 February 2013 2467:10.7717/peerj.6393 2429:on 24 January 2010 2295:10.1093/jee/tow304 2143:on 26 January 2007 1994:Scientific Reports 1882:Scientific Reports 1397:, or the class of 1378:since April 2007. 1311:pollinator decline 1297:in treated areas. 846: 788:European foulbrood 754:American foulbrood 748:American foulbrood 680:Age of dead brood 671: 667:Bacterial diseases 572: 536:diatomaceous earth 477:small hive beetles 470: 123:naturally selected 61: 5073: 5072: 4935:Small hive beetle 4924:Varroa destructor 4641:Western honey bee 4636:Russian honey bee 4631:Maltese honey bee 4621:European dark bee 4544:Laying worker bee 4418:(via Web Archive) 4157:, 20 August 2007 3624:Williams, Trevor 3353:Cloudy Wing Virus 3225:Kashmir Bee Virus 3051:"Dicistroviridae" 2836:. AGRIS: 615–622. 2111:Ritter, Wolfgang 1452:Varroa destructor 1333:western honey bee 1215:protein sequences 1033:Cloudy wing virus 1008:Kashmir bee virus 798:that infects the 745: 744: 695:Infectious agent 460:Small hive beetle 454:Small hive beetle 374:cleansing flights 168:It is known that 71:Varroa destructor 65:Varroa destructor 16:(Redirected from 5113: 4801:Honey extraction 4794:Alcoholic drinks 4512: 4505: 4498: 4489: 4402: 4401: 4391: 4381: 4348: 4342: 4341: 4339: 4337: 4332:on 27 April 2007 4322: 4316: 4315: 4313: 4311: 4302:. Archived from 4289: 4283: 4282: 4280: 4278: 4266: 4260: 4259: 4257: 4255: 4238: 4232: 4231: 4229: 4227: 4207: 4201: 4200: 4193: 4187: 4186: 4184: 4182: 4167: 4161: 4160: 4145: 4139: 4138: 4137:on 6 April 2008. 4126: 4120: 4119: 4104: 4098: 4097: 4090: 4084: 4083: 4055: 4049: 4048: 4038: 4028: 4026:10.3390/v7062772 4019:(6): 3285–3309. 4004: 3998: 3997: 3987: 3962:(3): e00985-14. 3947: 3941: 3940: 3930: 3913:(1): e00898–13. 3898: 3892: 3891: 3881: 3871: 3839: 3833: 3832: 3822: 3812: 3788: 3782: 3781: 3771: 3761: 3729: 3723: 3717: 3711: 3710: 3698: 3692: 3691: 3681: 3671: 3638: 3632: 3622: 3616: 3609: 3603: 3586: 3580: 3579: 3569: 3545: 3539: 3538: 3502: 3496: 3495: 3485: 3452: 3446: 3445: 3435: 3403: 3397: 3396: 3386: 3362: 3356: 3350: 3344: 3343: 3327: 3321: 3320: 3315:. Archived from 3276: 3270: 3269: 3258: 3252: 3245: 3239: 3236:British Columbia 3222: 3216: 3209: 3203: 3202: 3192: 3182: 3154: 3148: 3147: 3145: 3143: 3131: 3125: 3118: 3112: 3111: 3101: 3061: 3055: 3054: 3047: 3036: 3029: 3023: 3022: 3021: 3015: 2981: 2972: 2966: 2965: 2954: 2948: 2947: 2946: 2940: 2938: 2914: 2908: 2907: 2887: 2881: 2880: 2844: 2838: 2837: 2825: 2819: 2818: 2790: 2784: 2783: 2777: 2768: 2762: 2761: 2713: 2707: 2706: 2674: 2668: 2661: 2650: 2649: 2593: 2570: 2569: 2549: 2543: 2542: 2534: 2528: 2527: 2525: 2523: 2514:. Archived from 2504: 2498: 2497: 2487: 2469: 2445: 2439: 2438: 2436: 2434: 2425:. Archived from 2415: 2409: 2408: 2406: 2404: 2399:. 20 August 2019 2389: 2383: 2378: 2372: 2371: 2361: 2352:(Pt 3): 501–11. 2337: 2331: 2317: 2308: 2307: 2297: 2271: 2265: 2264: 2256: 2250: 2249: 2241: 2235: 2234: 2226: 2220: 2219: 2217: 2215: 2206:. Archived from 2196: 2190: 2189: 2187: 2159: 2153: 2152: 2150: 2148: 2133: 2127: 2109: 2103: 2102: 2092: 2074: 2050: 2044: 2043: 2033: 1985: 1979: 1978: 1938: 1932: 1931: 1921: 1873: 1867: 1866: 1848: 1824: 1818: 1817: 1769: 1763: 1762: 1736: 1704: 1698: 1697: 1679: 1661: 1629: 1623: 1622: 1618:978-0-12073481-8 1604: 1598: 1597: 1586: 1580: 1579: 1568: 1562: 1561: 1559: 1557: 1543: 1537: 1536: 1534: 1532: 1518: 1512: 1511: 1500: 1494: 1493: 1447: 1405:, which include 1279:are known to be 1271:Pesticide losses 1202:Lake Sinai virus 1055:sacbrood disease 959:Camponotus vagus 850:Ascosphaera apis 674: 620:B. thuringiensis 564:Aphomia sociella 226:"Soft" chemicals 200:"Hard" chemicals 143:in 2000, and in 21: 5121: 5120: 5116: 5115: 5114: 5112: 5111: 5110: 5076: 5075: 5074: 5069: 5038: 4986: 4980: 4959: 4911: 4897:Honey extractor 4853:Langstroth hive 4820: 4762: 4601:Africanized bee 4589: 4553: 4522: 4516: 4454:Beekeeping page 4450: 4411: 4409:Further reading 4406: 4405: 4350: 4349: 4345: 4335: 4333: 4324: 4323: 4319: 4309: 4307: 4299:The Independent 4291: 4290: 4286: 4276: 4274: 4268: 4267: 4263: 4253: 4251: 4240: 4239: 4235: 4225: 4223: 4209: 4208: 4204: 4195: 4194: 4190: 4180: 4178: 4169: 4168: 4164: 4158: 4146: 4142: 4128: 4127: 4123: 4117: 4106:Gaëlle Dupont, 4105: 4101: 4092: 4091: 4087: 4057: 4056: 4052: 4006: 4005: 4001: 3949: 3948: 3944: 3900: 3899: 3895: 3841: 3840: 3836: 3790: 3789: 3785: 3731: 3730: 3726: 3718: 3714: 3700: 3699: 3695: 3640: 3639: 3635: 3623: 3619: 3610: 3606: 3597:Wayback Machine 3587: 3583: 3547: 3546: 3542: 3504: 3503: 3499: 3454: 3453: 3449: 3405: 3404: 3400: 3364: 3363: 3359: 3351: 3347: 3329: 3328: 3324: 3278: 3277: 3273: 3260: 3259: 3255: 3246: 3242: 3232:Wayback Machine 3223: 3219: 3210: 3206: 3156: 3155: 3151: 3141: 3139: 3133: 3132: 3128: 3119: 3115: 3076:(12): 6446–50. 3063: 3062: 3058: 3049: 3048: 3039: 3030: 3026: 3016: 2979: 2974: 2973: 2969: 2962:globalnet.co.uk 2956: 2955: 2951: 2941: 2916: 2915: 2911: 2889: 2888: 2884: 2846: 2845: 2841: 2827: 2826: 2822: 2792: 2791: 2787: 2775: 2770: 2769: 2765: 2715: 2714: 2710: 2676: 2675: 2671: 2662: 2653: 2595: 2594: 2573: 2551: 2550: 2546: 2536: 2535: 2531: 2521: 2519: 2506: 2505: 2501: 2447: 2446: 2442: 2432: 2430: 2417: 2416: 2412: 2402: 2400: 2391: 2390: 2386: 2379: 2375: 2339: 2338: 2334: 2329:Wayback Machine 2318: 2311: 2273: 2272: 2268: 2258: 2257: 2253: 2243: 2242: 2238: 2228: 2227: 2223: 2213: 2211: 2210:on 28 June 2014 2198: 2197: 2193: 2161: 2160: 2156: 2146: 2144: 2135: 2134: 2130: 2122:Wayback Machine 2110: 2106: 2052: 2051: 2047: 1987: 1986: 1982: 1940: 1939: 1935: 1875: 1874: 1870: 1826: 1825: 1821: 1771: 1770: 1766: 1706: 1705: 1701: 1631: 1630: 1626: 1619: 1606: 1605: 1601: 1596:(Report). 2005. 1588: 1587: 1583: 1570: 1569: 1565: 1555: 1553: 1545: 1544: 1540: 1530: 1528: 1520: 1519: 1515: 1502: 1501: 1497: 1449: 1448: 1444: 1439: 1325: 1319: 1273: 1259: 1231: 1204: 1192: 1187: 1181: 1158:; specifically 1148: 1143: 1137: 1123: 1100: 1074: 1069: 1063: 1047: 1035: 1018: 1010: 997:Dicistroviridae 992: 973:Dicistroviridae 968: 929: 924: 922:Dicistroviridae 918: 916:Dicistroviridae 913: 887: 838: 833: 831:Fungal diseases 790: 766:Bacillus larvae 756: 750: 669: 653: 643:daddy-long-legs 603: 578: 556: 544: 462: 456: 448:winter clusters 352: 334: 270: 190: 67: 50: 42: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 5119: 5117: 5109: 5108: 5103: 5098: 5093: 5088: 5078: 5077: 5071: 5070: 5068: 5067: 5062: 5057: 5052: 5046: 5044: 5040: 5039: 5037: 5036: 5031: 5029:United Kingdom 5026: 5021: 5016: 5011: 5006: 5001: 4996: 4990: 4988: 4982: 4981: 4979: 4978: 4973: 4967: 4965: 4961: 4960: 4958: 4957: 4952: 4947: 4942: 4937: 4932: 4927: 4919: 4917: 4913: 4912: 4910: 4909: 4904: 4902:Queen excluder 4899: 4894: 4889: 4884: 4879: 4877:Wax foundation 4874: 4869: 4864: 4861:Stewarton hive 4834: 4828: 4826: 4822: 4821: 4819: 4818: 4813: 4808: 4803: 4798: 4797: 4796: 4786: 4781: 4776: 4770: 4768: 4764: 4763: 4761: 4760: 4758:Honey bee race 4755: 4748: 4741: 4734: 4727: 4720: 4713: 4706: 4699: 4692: 4685: 4678: 4671: 4664: 4657: 4650: 4647:Apis laboriosa 4643: 4638: 4633: 4628: 4623: 4618: 4613: 4611:Cape honey bee 4608: 4603: 4597: 4595: 4591: 4590: 4588: 4587: 4582: 4577: 4572: 4567: 4561: 4559: 4555: 4554: 4552: 4551: 4546: 4541: 4536: 4530: 4528: 4524: 4523: 4517: 4515: 4514: 4507: 4500: 4492: 4486: 4485: 4479: 4473: 4463: 4457: 4449: 4448:External links 4446: 4445: 4444: 4435: 4425: 4419: 4410: 4407: 4404: 4403: 4364:(10): e13181. 4343: 4317: 4284: 4261: 4233: 4202: 4188: 4162: 4140: 4121: 4099: 4085: 4060:Virus Research 4050: 3999: 3942: 3893: 3834: 3783: 3724: 3712: 3693: 3654:(10): e13181. 3633: 3617: 3604: 3581: 3540: 3497: 3447: 3398: 3357: 3345: 3322: 3271: 3253: 3240: 3217: 3204: 3161:Apis mellifera 3149: 3126: 3113: 3056: 3037: 3024: 2984:Virus Research 2967: 2949: 2909: 2882: 2839: 2820: 2801:(9): 623–626. 2785: 2763: 2728:(3): 167–173. 2708: 2689:(4): 703–714. 2669: 2651: 2571: 2544: 2529: 2499: 2440: 2410: 2384: 2373: 2332: 2309: 2288:(2): 319–332. 2266: 2251: 2236: 2221: 2204:combatbugs.com 2191: 2166:Aethina tumida 2154: 2128: 2114:Nosema ceranae 2104: 2045: 1980: 1953:(3): 375–392. 1933: 1868: 1839:(1): 131–150. 1819: 1784:(3): 211–217. 1764: 1699: 1644:(1): 259–274. 1624: 1617: 1599: 1581: 1563: 1538: 1513: 1495: 1468:(1): 145–152. 1456:Apis mellifera 1441: 1440: 1438: 1435: 1403:neonicotinoids 1321:Main article: 1318: 1315: 1272: 1269: 1258: 1255: 1230: 1227: 1203: 1200: 1194:The RNA virus 1191: 1188: 1183:Main article: 1180: 1177: 1171:New York Times 1147: 1144: 1139:Main article: 1136: 1133: 1122: 1119: 1099: 1096: 1073: 1070: 1065:Main article: 1062: 1059: 1046: 1045:Sacbrood virus 1043: 1034: 1031: 1017: 1014: 1009: 1006: 991: 988: 967: 964: 944: 943: 937: 928: 925: 920:Main article: 917: 914: 912: 911:Viral diseases 909: 886: 883: 837: 834: 832: 829: 789: 786: 752:Main article: 749: 746: 743: 742: 739: 736: 733: 730: 727: 724: 720: 719: 716: 713: 710: 707: 704: 701: 697: 696: 693: 690: 687: 684: 681: 678: 668: 665: 652: 647: 602: 599: 574:Main article: 555: 552: 543: 540: 473:Aethina tumida 458:Main article: 455: 452: 361:microsporidian 351: 345: 333: 330: 322:Acarapis woodi 301:Buckfast Abbey 293:Acarapis woodi 289:Acarapis woodi 285:Acarapis woodi 280:Acarapis woodi 274:Acarapis woodi 269: 266: 256: 255: 253: 230: 229: 227: 204: 203: 201: 189: 186: 149:United Kingdom 109:deformed wings 63:Main article: 49: 43: 41: 38: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5118: 5107: 5104: 5102: 5099: 5097: 5094: 5092: 5089: 5087: 5084: 5083: 5081: 5066: 5063: 5061: 5058: 5056: 5053: 5051: 5048: 5047: 5045: 5041: 5035: 5034:United States 5032: 5030: 5027: 5025: 5022: 5020: 5017: 5015: 5012: 5010: 5007: 5005: 5002: 5000: 4997: 4995: 4992: 4991: 4989: 4983: 4977: 4974: 4972: 4969: 4968: 4966: 4962: 4956: 4953: 4951: 4948: 4946: 4943: 4941: 4938: 4936: 4933: 4931: 4928: 4926: 4925: 4921: 4920: 4918: 4914: 4908: 4905: 4903: 4900: 4898: 4895: 4893: 4890: 4888: 4885: 4883: 4880: 4878: 4875: 4873: 4870: 4868: 4865: 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4390: 4385: 4380: 4375: 4371: 4367: 4363: 4359: 4355: 4347: 4344: 4331: 4327: 4321: 4318: 4305: 4301: 4300: 4295: 4288: 4285: 4272: 4265: 4262: 4250: 4249: 4244: 4237: 4234: 4221: 4217: 4213: 4206: 4203: 4198: 4192: 4189: 4177: 4173: 4166: 4163: 4156: 4155: 4150: 4144: 4141: 4136: 4132: 4125: 4122: 4115: 4114: 4109: 4103: 4100: 4095: 4089: 4086: 4081: 4077: 4073: 4069: 4065: 4061: 4054: 4051: 4046: 4042: 4037: 4032: 4027: 4022: 4018: 4014: 4010: 4003: 4000: 3995: 3991: 3986: 3981: 3977: 3973: 3969: 3965: 3961: 3957: 3953: 3946: 3943: 3938: 3934: 3929: 3924: 3920: 3916: 3912: 3908: 3904: 3897: 3894: 3889: 3885: 3880: 3875: 3870: 3865: 3861: 3857: 3854:(6): e20873. 3853: 3849: 3845: 3838: 3835: 3830: 3826: 3821: 3816: 3811: 3806: 3802: 3798: 3794: 3787: 3784: 3779: 3775: 3770: 3765: 3760: 3755: 3751: 3747: 3744:(6): e21844. 3743: 3739: 3735: 3728: 3725: 3721: 3716: 3713: 3708: 3704: 3697: 3694: 3689: 3685: 3680: 3675: 3670: 3665: 3661: 3657: 3653: 3649: 3645: 3637: 3634: 3631: 3627: 3621: 3618: 3614: 3608: 3605: 3601: 3598: 3594: 3591: 3585: 3582: 3577: 3573: 3568: 3563: 3559: 3555: 3551: 3544: 3541: 3536: 3532: 3528: 3524: 3520: 3516: 3512: 3508: 3501: 3498: 3493: 3489: 3484: 3479: 3475: 3471: 3468:(1): 93–104. 3467: 3463: 3459: 3451: 3448: 3443: 3439: 3434: 3429: 3425: 3421: 3418:(1): 93–104. 3417: 3413: 3409: 3402: 3399: 3394: 3390: 3385: 3380: 3377:(2): 312–23. 3376: 3372: 3368: 3361: 3358: 3354: 3349: 3346: 3341: 3337: 3333: 3326: 3323: 3318: 3314: 3310: 3306: 3302: 3298: 3294: 3290: 3286: 3282: 3275: 3272: 3267: 3263: 3257: 3254: 3250: 3244: 3241: 3237: 3233: 3229: 3226: 3221: 3218: 3214: 3208: 3205: 3200: 3196: 3191: 3186: 3181: 3176: 3173:(9): e73429. 3172: 3168: 3164: 3162: 3153: 3150: 3137: 3130: 3127: 3123: 3117: 3114: 3109: 3105: 3100: 3095: 3091: 3087: 3083: 3079: 3075: 3071: 3067: 3060: 3057: 3052: 3046: 3044: 3042: 3038: 3034: 3028: 3025: 3020: 3013: 3009: 3005: 3001: 2997: 2993: 2989: 2985: 2978: 2971: 2968: 2963: 2959: 2953: 2950: 2945: 2937: 2932: 2929:(5): 567–77. 2928: 2924: 2920: 2913: 2910: 2905: 2901: 2897: 2893: 2886: 2883: 2878: 2874: 2870: 2866: 2862: 2858: 2854: 2850: 2843: 2840: 2835: 2831: 2824: 2821: 2816: 2812: 2808: 2804: 2800: 2796: 2789: 2786: 2781: 2774: 2767: 2764: 2759: 2755: 2751: 2747: 2743: 2739: 2735: 2731: 2727: 2723: 2719: 2712: 2709: 2704: 2700: 2696: 2692: 2688: 2684: 2680: 2673: 2670: 2666: 2660: 2658: 2656: 2652: 2647: 2643: 2639: 2635: 2631: 2627: 2623: 2619: 2615: 2611: 2607: 2603: 2599: 2592: 2590: 2588: 2586: 2584: 2582: 2580: 2578: 2576: 2572: 2567: 2563: 2559: 2555: 2548: 2545: 2540: 2533: 2530: 2517: 2513: 2512:extension.org 2509: 2503: 2500: 2495: 2491: 2486: 2481: 2477: 2473: 2468: 2463: 2459: 2455: 2451: 2444: 2441: 2428: 2424: 2423:extension.org 2420: 2414: 2411: 2398: 2394: 2388: 2385: 2382: 2377: 2374: 2369: 2365: 2360: 2355: 2351: 2347: 2343: 2336: 2333: 2330: 2326: 2322: 2316: 2314: 2310: 2305: 2301: 2296: 2291: 2287: 2283: 2282: 2277: 2270: 2267: 2262: 2255: 2252: 2247: 2240: 2237: 2232: 2225: 2222: 2209: 2205: 2201: 2195: 2192: 2186: 2181: 2178:(3): 229–47. 2177: 2173: 2169: 2167: 2158: 2155: 2142: 2138: 2132: 2129: 2126: 2123: 2119: 2116: 2115: 2108: 2105: 2100: 2096: 2091: 2086: 2082: 2078: 2073: 2068: 2064: 2060: 2056: 2049: 2046: 2041: 2037: 2032: 2027: 2023: 2019: 2015: 2011: 2007: 2003: 1999: 1995: 1991: 1984: 1981: 1976: 1972: 1968: 1964: 1960: 1956: 1952: 1948: 1944: 1937: 1934: 1929: 1925: 1920: 1915: 1911: 1907: 1903: 1899: 1895: 1891: 1887: 1883: 1879: 1872: 1869: 1864: 1860: 1856: 1852: 1847: 1842: 1838: 1834: 1830: 1823: 1820: 1815: 1811: 1807: 1803: 1799: 1795: 1791: 1787: 1783: 1779: 1775: 1768: 1765: 1760: 1756: 1752: 1748: 1744: 1740: 1735: 1730: 1726: 1722: 1718: 1714: 1710: 1703: 1700: 1695: 1691: 1687: 1683: 1678: 1673: 1669: 1665: 1660: 1655: 1651: 1647: 1643: 1639: 1635: 1628: 1625: 1620: 1614: 1610: 1603: 1600: 1595: 1591: 1585: 1582: 1577: 1576:nodglobal.com 1573: 1567: 1564: 1552: 1548: 1542: 1539: 1527: 1523: 1517: 1514: 1509: 1505: 1499: 1496: 1491: 1487: 1483: 1479: 1475: 1471: 1467: 1463: 1462: 1457: 1453: 1446: 1443: 1436: 1434: 1432: 1428: 1424: 1420: 1416: 1412: 1408: 1404: 1400: 1396: 1392: 1388: 1384: 1379: 1377: 1373: 1369: 1365: 1361: 1357: 1353: 1349: 1345: 1341: 1336: 1334: 1330: 1324: 1316: 1314: 1312: 1306: 1302: 1298: 1296: 1292: 1288: 1284: 1282: 1281:toxic to bees 1278: 1270: 1268: 1265: 1257:Chilled brood 1256: 1254: 1252: 1246: 1242: 1240: 1235: 1228: 1226: 1224: 1221:) and not in 1220: 1219:Osmia cornuta 1216: 1213: 1209: 1201: 1199: 1197: 1189: 1186: 1178: 1176: 1173: 1172: 1167: 1166: 1161: 1157: 1153: 1145: 1142: 1134: 1132: 1130: 1129: 1120: 1118: 1116: 1115: 1110: 1109: 1104: 1097: 1095: 1092: 1091:V. destructor 1088: 1087:V. destructor 1084: 1083: 1082:V. destructor 1078: 1071: 1068: 1060: 1058: 1056: 1052: 1044: 1042: 1040: 1039:V. destructor 1032: 1030: 1028: 1027: 1022: 1015: 1013: 1007: 1005: 1003: 999: 998: 989: 987: 985: 984: 983:V. destructor 979: 975: 974: 965: 963: 961: 960: 955: 954: 949: 946:In 2008, the 941: 938: 934: 931: 930: 926: 923: 915: 910: 908: 906: 905: 900: 899: 894: 893: 884: 882: 878: 876: 870: 868: 867: 866:V. destructor 862: 861: 855: 852: 851: 842: 835: 830: 828: 824: 821: 820: 816: 811: 808: 805: 801: 797: 796: 787: 785: 782: 779: 775: 771: 767: 763: 762: 755: 747: 740: 737: 734: 731: 728: 725: 722: 721: 717: 714: 711: 708: 705: 702: 699: 698: 694: 691: 688: 685: 682: 679: 676: 675: 666: 664: 661: 657: 651: 648: 646: 644: 640: 635: 633: 629: 624: 622: 621: 614: 612: 611:top bar hives 607: 600: 598: 594: 590: 588: 584: 583: 577: 569: 565: 560: 553: 551: 549: 541: 539: 537: 533: 528: 526: 522: 518: 514: 510: 506: 502: 498: 497:Massachusetts 494: 490: 486: 482: 478: 474: 466: 461: 453: 451: 449: 444: 440: 437: 433: 429: 428: 423: 418: 416: 415: 410: 409: 404: 399: 397: 391: 389: 385: 381: 379: 375: 370: 366: 362: 358: 357: 349: 346: 344: 342: 338: 331: 329: 325: 323: 319: 317: 313: 308: 306: 302: 298: 294: 290: 286: 281: 276: 275: 267: 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