426:
gives feedback on the adequacy of the students’ response. This sequence is considered structurally robust. Teachers can continuously go through interactional revision when continuing the conversation with a student using this sequence. This allows for methodical revision and negotiation between speakers. As the teacher analyses the student's replies and reformulates the following question, each question becomes a repair of the one before and thus becomes an interpretive resource based on the teacher's analysis and decisions derived from the prior exchange.
402:, sometimes including a repetition of the response for others to hear. Feedback is also important when students provide technically-correct answers but they are not what the teacher is looking for. An absence of feedback from the teacher can also be an indication to the student that his or her answer is wrong. IRF sequences in everyday discourse seldom include evaluative follow-ups, and responses in casual conversations often carry relational functions such as showing agreement or expressing a particular emotion.
219:
already know the answer to their own questions, but at the judge and jury. This kind of interaction can be seen as a display talk. Similarly in media interviews, the follow-up is usually left to the listener or viewer following the interviews, unlike situations like classrooms and quizzes where a follow-up from the questioner on whether the answer is correct is present.
406:
follow-ups are carried out by teachers, leading to learners having to take on the role of passive respondents without getting sufficient experience in performing requests and using listener follow-ups. This can be improved by allowing students to participate in peer-to-peer interactions as platforms to generate appropriate listener responses.
238:, and they promote greater ability in thinking by spurring students to have to back up their contribution. Utilising display questions that build on previous statements made by the students in a rephrased or simplified form facilitates the production of a more elaborate dialogue. As output is an important part of language learning,
425:
Display questions are mostly found in the classroom in the three-turn sequence of initiation-response-evaluation (IRE). In this sequence, the teacher asks a question in the first turn, following a reply from the students in the second turn. Upon going back to the teacher in the next turn, the teacher
278:
of mutual respect that is further studied by
Christoph & Nystrand (2001). It is stated that in a classroom with mutual respect, the teachers and students are not inclined to introduce new topics. Instead, they extend topical episodes by being invested in listening and responding to the utterances
273:
There is some evidence that imply that display questions are not as injurious as many think. Kachur & Prendergast (1997), cited in Boyd (2006), found that asking 70% of authentic questions resulted in a lack of student participation, while lowering the amount to 32% resulted in the students being
333:
In cases of classroom interaction where more display questions are used as opposed to referential questions, participation appears forced and unnatural. This was found to be true regardless of whether the teacher doing the asking is experienced or otherwise. The exclusive or excessive use of display
222:
Doctors also often use known-information questions when interacting with patients. Even though they usually already possess the information, these questions are asked only to evaluate the patient through their responses. While the doctor might ask the patient for something in particular, the patient
148:
Referential questions are employed at higher rates when brainstorming a topic and gathering responses. As there is no one fixed answer to referential questions, they can be used to instigate genuine communication, thereby facilitating less restricted discourse and promoting greater creativity in the
298:
Finding the correct answer to display questions involves higher-level cognitive thinking. Beyond eliciting known information (on the asker's part) and recognizing the content of questions (on the askee's part), answering display questions also involves active consideration and interpretation of the
166:
Display questions are mainly used as a means to evaluate whether the listener has understood what is needed. There is a tendency for display questions to be employed when addressing groups of people, such as in a classroom setting, and referential questions when addressing individuals. In addition,
171:
greatly affects the chances of being asked display questions by the teacher. Teachers are more likely to pose display questions to the student with a lower proficiency on the topic being discussed. The teachers' teaching skills also correlates to the frequency at which display questions are asked.
187:
A study by
Blanchette (2007) shows that in online communication, the teacher asked both referential and display questions while students asked only referential questions. This finding agrees with Markee's (1995) conclusion that the majority of student-initiated questions are referential. However,
302:
Questions that require lower cognitive levels to answer are seen as injurious, even though questioning holds a major role in classroom interaction. This type of question does not encourage participation nor does it stimulate student thinking. Studies by Barnes (1983), Fischer and Grant (1983) as
252:
are often seen as a way to add meaningful usage of a language. Output from the students solicited from referential questions appear three times as much than other question types, especially so for beginner classes, even though beginner language students were expected to interact less due to the
157:
Display questions work best for eliciting short and low-level answers that correspond to the answer already expected by the teacher. Since referential questions serve to request for new information, answers can be subjective and varied based on the students' opinions, judgement and experiences.
405:
There are opposing views on the use of IRF exchanges in the classroom setting. It has been seen as a poor and unproductive model for spoken interaction in the target language outside the classroom due to its failure in enabling students to learn the demands of everyday conversation. Too often,
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in the presence of an overhearing audience to assert their views or opinions. In a counsel-witness interaction, a counsel's question is directed at the witness with other participants acting as indirect receivers, and the witness's response is not in fact directed at the counsel, who typically
337:
Referential questions are seen as an effective method of increasing oral participation because it creates opportunities for students to voice their opinions. The added bonus that there is no one specific answer encourages students to be less afraid of making mistakes and be more productive.
324:
features heavily in communicative language teaching, as it provides an avenue for language learners to practice conversing in the target language without judgement. The type of questions used to steer interaction is critical as it determines the types of responses that will be garnered.
437:
It is often assumed that display questions are less engaging than referential questions. However, depending on the process of how the teacher uses the display questions, and what they achieve from those processes, display questions can become an effective teaching variable in lessons.
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also increased when responding to referential questions. Learners themselves are found to be more interested in referential question activity and agree that it is more conducive in bringing higher quality and quantity output, and also motivated interaction.
188:
this is not because the participants only asked questions for which they did not know the answer for. These questions can bring numerous possible responses and therefore it reflects the higher cognitive levels in the questions.
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However, there are also studies that found no increase in learner response with referential questions. Where learners have little collective knowledge, bombarding students with questions is unlikely to garner increased output.
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In the same vein, display questions do not always garner immediate responses because the language learner may have the knowledge but lack the vocabulary to express it, thereby contributing to a longer-wait-time.
354:
conversation, and the difference between sequences with evaluative follow-ups compared to those serving as acknowledgements has been regarded as a major difference between display and referential questions.
179:, about 80% of the questions asked by the teachers are to recall facts. Questions by teachers tend to be display questions while student-initiated questions are referential (Markee, 1995).
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information, which is at the lowest level of the hierarchy. In contrast, referential questions, in calling for evaluation or judgement, are associated with the highest cognitive levels.
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In contrast, typical IRF exchanges could still be useful in classroom situations where teachers assign the kind of interactional status that helps learners be actively involved in the
446:
Responses to display questions have been found to be rather prompt in requiring only factual recall. Referential questions are known to elicit higher-order responses resulting from
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consisting of an initiation, response, and follow-up (IRF). A follow-up with an evaluative function, commenting on the response to a question, is a distinguishing element of
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The use of referential questions in classroom discourse promotes a significantly higher number of speaking turns as compared to the usage of display questions.
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is necessary in classrooms to engage the students and encourage them to talk in the language they are learning. There is a need to determine the effects of the
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in terms of their requirement for short and limited answers and they can be classified under convergent questions. On the other hand, referential questions and
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requiring the other party to demonstrate their knowledge on a subject matter when the questioner already knows the answer. They are contrasted with
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on communicative classroom interaction and student output. Its effectiveness correlates to the authenticity in the second language classroom.
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However, responses to referential questions do not always take the form of complex utterances. The following example is a case in point:
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limited knowledge of the language. When learners were asked referential questions, responses are found to be significantly longer and
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would understand the content of the question but they might not understand the point of it since the doctor already knows the answer.
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in order to elicit language practice but the use of referential questions is generally preferred to the use of display questions in
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Pica, Teresa; Long, Michael (1986). "The linguistic and conversational performance of experienced and inexperienced teachers".
47:
1114:
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International
Journal of e-Learning & Distance Education / Revue internationale du e-learning et la formation Ă distance
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speech practices could be eventually achieved if teachers provide exposure to and guidance on the use of follow-ups.
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is important to a learner, so a teacher's follow-up would normally evaluate the learner's response with words like
955:
Drew, Paul; Heritage, John (1992). Drew, Paul; Heritage, John (eds.). "Analyzing talk at work: an introduction".
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are similar in their requirement for long, often varied, answers, and can be grouped under divergent questions.
347:
540:
Mehan, Hugh (1979). "'What time is it, Denise?": Asking known information questions in classroom discourse".
258:
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Epistemic questions are questions that seek information. Subcategories of it includes display, referential,
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Students answer referential questions with the goal of assisting teachers in filling the information gaps.
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Lee, Yo-An (2006-12-01). "Respecifying
Display Questions: Interactional Resources for Language Teaching".
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450:. Thus, there is typically a longer wait-time between turns where referential questions are involved.
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way the questions are organised as each display question is designed with a specific answer in mind.
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243:
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Brock, Cynthia A. (March 1986). "The
Effects of Referential Questions on ESL Classroom Discourse".
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39:), a type of question posed when the answer is not known by the questioner at the time of inquiry.
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Cambridge grammar of
English: a comprehensive guide: spoken and written English grammar and usage
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When pitted on an intellectual scale, display questions are deemed to be posed at low
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Classroom foreigner talk discourse: forms and functions of teachers' questions
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Second-language classroom interaction: questions and answers in ESL classes
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Kasper, G (2001-12-01). "Four perspectives on L2 pragmatic development".
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Towards an analysis of discourse: the
English used by teachers and pupils
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questions generally leads to lower instances of classroom communication.
28:
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Reflective
Language Teaching: Practical Applications for TESOL Teachers
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Richards and
Schmidt give the following example of a display question:
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talk as opposed to everyday interactions among participants of equal
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Questions for which the asker either already knows the answer or not
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Language
Education and Acquisition Research Network (LEARN) Journal
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Cullen, Richard (1998). "Teacher talk and the classroom context".
805:"EFL Learners' Speaking Development: Asking Referential Questions"
275:
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Classroom Discourse in EFL Teaching: A Cross-cultural Perspective
615:"Display and referential questions: Effects on student responses"
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levels because such questions require only basic recollection of
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O'Keeffe, Anne; McCarthy, Michael; Carter, Ronald (2007-05-03).
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1007:"The power of questioning: A case study of courtroom discourse"
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Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
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cited by Blanchette (2007) have found that instructors at the
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Less experienced teachers tend to ask more display questions.
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Omari gives the following examples of a referential question:
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Talking to learn: conversation in second language acquisition
1452:"Asking Effective Referential Questions in an EFL Classroom"
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From Corpus to Classroom: Language Use and Language Teaching
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doctor patient interaction discourse known answer questions.
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Both display and referential questions are subcategories of
390:, of which display questions are a distinguishing feature.
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Q: Which character in the story you admire most and why?
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level tend to ask questions of lower cognitive levels.
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Second Language Acquisition Processes in the Classroom
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Q: What would you do if you were in the judge’s place?
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Vivekmetakorn, Chirasiri K; Thamma, Meentra (2015).
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Talk at Work: Interaction in Institutional Settings
516:"'Teacher Questioning from a Discourse Perspective"
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358:An example of responding with an acknowledgement:
346:Display and referential questions form part of a
210:Display questions may sometimes be used by media
413:. Productive use of conversational responses in
386:The IRF sequence is commonly found in classroom
923:"Questions in the Online Learning Environment"
274:more engaged. This is explained as due to the
372:An example of responding with an evaluation:
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1459:The European Conference on Language Learning
1262:. Rowley, MA: Newbury House. pp. 85–98.
803:Bozorgian, Hossein; Fallah, Sakineh (2017).
653:: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of May 2024 (
1300:Sinclair, J. M.; Coulthard, R. M. (1975).
1040:. Cambridge : Cambridge University Press.
1036:Carter, Ronald; McCarthy, Michael (2006).
734:Long, Michael H; Sato, Charlene J (1983).
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889:Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences
883:Farahian, Majid; Rezaee, Mehrdad (2012).
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50:. Display questions bear similarities to
842:Boyd, Maureen; Rubin, Don (2006-06-01).
671:Erlinda, Rita; Dewi, Sari Rahma (2014).
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1191:TeachingEnglish | British Council | BBC
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175:A study by Barnes (1983) found that in
42:Both question types are used widely in
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376:Speaker A: What time is it, Denise?
362:Speaker A: What time is it, Denise?
587:. New York: Longman. p. 178.
199:conversation is characteristic of
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1005:Tkačuková, Tatiana (2010-12-30).
921:Blanchette, Judith (2007-08-10).
619:Nordic Journal of English Studies
583:; Schmidt, Richard, eds. (2009).
1073:Coherence in Psychotic Discourse
613:Wright, Brenda M. (2016-12-31).
1382:Ohta, Amy Snyder (2001-01-01).
1109:. University of Toronto Press.
757:Omari, Hamzah A. (2018-03-18).
98:(1983) first applied the terms
48:communicative language teaching
1361:. Cambridge University Press.
978:Strobelberger, Katrin (2012).
1:
738:. Rowley, MA: Newbury House.
90:Language education classrooms
37:information-seeking questions
1484:Language-teaching techniques
1105:Wintergerst, Ann C. (1994).
902:10.1016/j.sbspro.2012.06.631
848:Journal of Literacy Research
382:Speaker A: Very good, Denise
368:Speaker A: Thank you, Denise
192:Other institutional settings
153:Eliciting existing knowledge
1323:Coulthard, Malcolm (1977).
1304:. Oxford University Press.
824:10.17576/JPEN-2017-42.02-03
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861:10.1207/s15548430jlr3802_2
812:Jurnal Pendidikan Malaysia
25:known-information question
1450:Abhakorn, Jirapa (2014).
1011:Discourse and Interaction
710:. Bloomsbury Publishing.
554:10.1080/00405847909542846
227:Communicative performance
162:Checking on understanding
348:question-answer sequence
311:Pragmatics and discourse
259:Non-verbal communication
234:are more directive than
1429:10.1093/applin/22.4.502
635:(inactive 2024-05-16).
763:Modern Applied Science
457:Teacher: Can you swim?
442:Duration between turns
261:and the need to use a
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690:10.31958/jt.v17i2.271
480:Closed-ended question
316:Nature of interaction
250:Referential questions
104:referential questions
33:referential questions
1287:10.1093/elt/52.3.179
984:. Diplomica Verlag.
542:Theory into Practice
495:Language acquisition
460:Student: Yes, I can.
183:Online communication
169:language proficiency
128:A: Yes, it's a book.
79:expressive questions
1417:Applied Linguistics
776:10.5539/mas.v12n4p1
485:Open-ended question
475:Rhetorical question
236:authentic questions
216:courtroom attorneys
69:Epistemic questions
1479:Oral communication
1187:"Asking questions"
625:(4): 160–189–189.
430:Frequency of turns
125:Q: Is this a book?
44:language education
1489:Types of question
632:10.35360/njes.388
594:978-1-4082-0460-3
581:Richards, Jack C.
448:critical thinking
329:Forced vs Natural
283:Cognitive effects
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