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3 km. As the plume moves vertically, it will dissolve at least partially due to convective mass transfer with the passing seawater. Dissolution is increased by increased currents perpendicular to the vertical water column containing the plume because of the increase convective mass transfer. For sinking plumes, minimal horizontal currents are desired so that the plume can sink to the ocean floor for longer term sequestration. The opposite is desired for rising plumes, which similarly to other previously mentioned dilute ocean storage techniques, relies on the dispersal to make the change in carbon dioxide concentration in the ocean low enough to not affect the marine biosphere significantly.
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place, making it difficult to detect these effects precisely. There is very limited knowledge as to what organisms and ecosystems exist in this unexplored area and the interdependence of such ecosystems. The following is specifically pertaining to deep ocean sequestration through dilute injection, but touches on alternate methods (injection by towed pipeline, injection by stationary pipeline, use of hydrates). Due to the size of the ocean, the predictions and conclusions regarding the environmental risk of this sequestration process are based on small-scale experiments that have been extrapolated to show possible results on a scale as large as the ocean.
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matter that descends from the surface water of the ocean and its ecosystems. Deep sea ecosystems do not have rapid reproduction rates nor give birth to many offspring because of their limited access to oxygen and nutrients. In particular, species that inhabit the 2000–3000 m deep range of the ocean have small, diverse populations. Introducing lethal amounts of carbon dioxide into the environment of such a species can have a serious impact on the population size and will take longer to recover relative to surface water species.
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to the injection of carbon dioxide has not been investigated and the hypothesis that they will evolve in time lacks scientific support. Scientific research shows that sites of injection are spatially specific and ecosystems that happen to inhabit the site of injection can suffer immediate consequences. Affected areas will experience acidification, due to the augmented bicarbonate levels, and in turn a decrease in calcium carbonate levels. This will cause sediments and shells of organisms to more quickly dissolve.
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injected carbon dioxide spread throughout the ocean floor. This rate proved to minimize impact on deep sea organisms. The intactness of the hydrates relies heavily on the ocean current's magnitude at the site of injection. The carbon dioxide dissolved into surface waters before the hydrate was able to sink to the deep ocean (10–55% of carbon dioxide remained stuck to the hydrate at depths of 1500m into the ocean). In laboratory experiments, continuous streams of hydrates have not yet been achieved.
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terms of consequences due to prolonged carbon dioxide exposure and have been proven to experience reduced calcification and damage to their skeletons. This more seriously affects shelled animals' mortality and growth rate. Adult fish showed remarkable tolerance to elevated carbon dioxide levels, only when dissolution of carbon dioxide occurred at a slow rate. Developing fish showed less tolerance than their adult fish counterparts.
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hydrates that will slow dissolution of carbon dioxide into the above ocean. Convective motion over the surface of the lake due to ocean bottom storms or normal sea currents will increase dissolution. Without any bulk flow over the lake, the storage timeline of the carbon dioxide is 10,000 years for a 50 m deep lake. This number is decreased by more than 25 times with currents from ocean bottom storms.
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sensitive species inhabiting the region. There is consensus among scientists that ocean sequestration of carbon dioxide is not a long-term plan to be relied on, but may solve immediate atmospheric concerns if implemented temporarily. Scientists believe that it is possible to engineer ways to discharge carbon dioxide at rates that resemble the natural fluctuation of carbon dioxide in the oceans.
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918:. The solid state density of carbon dioxide is approximately 1.5 times greater than seawater and thus tends to sink to the ocean floor. The dissolving rate at the surface is about 0.2 cm/hr such that a small quantity of carbon dioxide can be completely dissolved before reaching the sea floor. In addition to solid carbon dioxide injection, carbon dioxide
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travel through pipes. Given that 100% efficiency is extremely difficult to achieve, in reality, both laboratory and field experiments suggest that sinking reaction efficiency is approximately 15–25%. Any kind of instability of hydrates is likely to cause dissolution and dispersion during the descending or injection process.
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Researchers have been able to show in lab and in small in situ experiments that carbon dioxide can be injected into oceans as rising or sinking plumes. The plume will sink if it is more dense than seawater. This should occur if the plume, a mix of carbon dioxide and seawater, is injected at depths of
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Although the long-term effects are the most relevant to understand, they are also the most difficult to predict accurately due to the scale of the ocean and the diversity in species sensitivity to elevated carbon dioxide levels. Surface sea organisms have been better studied than deep-sea animals in
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does not undergo changes in the way that surface waters do. Due to its limited contact with the atmosphere, most organisms have evolved with very little physical and chemical disturbance and exposed to minimal levels of carbon dioxide. Most of their energy is obtained from feeding off of particulate
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Researchers are studying how ecosystems are affected before and after injection of liquid carbon dioxide through "process studies, surveys of biogeochemical tracers, and ocean bottom studies." The challenge comes from the spatial range of the ocean and the time-scale at which effects would be taking
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mixed with seawater. Plumes can be engineered to dissolve at different rates based on the size, concentration, and rate of injection of the carbon dioxide/seawater droplets. For rising plumes which rely on dissolution to sequester carbon dioxide, a smaller droplet with a greater rate of injection is
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The overall molecular stability relies on the temperature and pressure of the environment, and hydrates only dissociate when placed in direct contact with additional heat and water at concentrations below its equilibrium concentration. However, due to its crystalline structure, pure hydrate does not
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and ocean mixing. Upon injection, waters interact and mix based on density and dilute the concentration of carbon dioxide. Boat based carbon dioxide injection distributes low carbon dioxide concentrations in open waters while moving to increase carbon dioxide dispersal area. Carbon dioxide dispersal
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Supporters of ocean sequestration argue that because of the ocean's size, diluted carbon dioxide injections will not be enough to create an actual impact on ecosystems and that species can evolve to these increased levels of carbon dioxide eventually. The capacity of deep-sea organisms to acclimate
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If deep-sea ocean sequestration becomes a common practice, long term effects will continue to be investigated to predict future scenarios of deep sea impacts by carbon dioxide. Ocean sequestration of liquid carbon dioxide would not only impact deep-sea ecosystems, but in the long-run would begin to
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O (n ≈ 5.75). The resulting density is denser than seawater by approximately 10%. Compared to liquid carbon dioxide, the hydrate form dissolves significantly slower in seawater, at about 0.2 cm/hr as well. Additionally, the hydrate remains immobile on the seafloor and forms hydrate cap,
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Carbon dioxide lakes will form on ocean floors in depressions or trenches in the seabed. These lakes sequester carbon dioxide through isolation. The deep ocean has a very slow rate of mixing with the surface ocean. Additionally, the surface of the carbon dioxide lake will form a layer of crystal
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can be implemented in order to reduce speed of dissolution of carbon dioxide. The hydrates give carbon dioxide a negative buoyancy, allowing injection to occur at surface levels rather than through pipelines. Experiments showed that the use of clathrate hydrates minimized the rate at which the
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Studies show that delivering liquid carbon dioxide by a towed pipeline (attached to boat traveling perpendicular to the current), can minimize clumps of highly concentrated carbon dioxide levels. Delivery by fixed pipe would be confined to a small region of the ocean and in turn instantly kill
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The challenges were summarized in 2006 as follows: "unknown biological impacts, high costs, impermanence of ocean storage, and concerns regarding public acceptance". The issue of impermanence is due to the fact that over a few hundred years, the injected
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Hassanpouryouzband, Aliakbar; Joonaki, Edris; Vasheghani
Farahani, Mehrdad; Takeya, Satoshi; Ruppel, Carolyn; Yang, Jinhai; J. English, Niall; M. Schicks, Judith; Edlmann, Katriona; Mehrabian, Hadi; M. Aman, Zachary; Tohidi, Bahman (2020).
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was a (now abandoned) technology proposal with the aim to remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere by direct injection into the deep ocean to store it there for centuries. At the ocean bottom, the pressures would be great enough for
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in 1976. It was thought that dilute carbon dioxide injection at 0.37 GTC/yr would have a negligible effect on ocean pH. Dilute ocean injection requires little infrastructure in comparison to other forms of ocean injection.
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The IEA Greenhouse Gas R&D Programme estimated that dilute carbon dioxide injection would cost $ 70 per tonne of carbon dioxide including costs of carbon capture, transport, and storage before boat dispersal.
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is around 30% and 400 meters below sea level. Hydrates form as an external layer around liquid carbon dioxide droplets or as a solid mass. The molecular composition is composed of carbon dioxide and water, carbon
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via boat can also occur by a pipe attached to the ship injecting a dilute carbon dioxide mixture into the water column. The carbon dioxide would be injected at 1000 m depth to reduce carbon dioxide
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emissions on surface ocean biology but at the expense of effects on deep-ocean biology." Furthermore, it was regarded as doubtful whether the public would accept this technology as part of a
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Azeem, Babar; KuShaari, KuZilati; Man, Zakaria B.; Basit, Abdul; Thanh, Trinh H. (May 2014). "Review on materials & methods to produce controlled release coated urea fertilizer".
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1254:. Prepared by Working Group III of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, 442 pp.
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Climate Change 2022: Mitigation of
Climate Change. Contribution of Working Group III to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
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Climate Change 2014: Mitigation of
Climate Change. Contribution of Working Group III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
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A special IPCC report in 2005 summarized the research status at that time. Back then, it was found that "Deep ocean storage could help reduce the impact of CO
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deposits that could increase the rate of carbon mineralization. Some sites proposed for storage at depths greater than 6 km include the
Indonesian
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better because it leads to faster dissolution. Sinking plumes ideally form lakes of carbon dioxide on the ocean floor for more long term sequestration.
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dissolves into the water. Due to this mechanism, more than 500 Gtons of carbon dioxide (amounting to a total of 140 Gtons of carbon) of anthropogenic
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876:, due to the unknown impacts on deep marine life and any legal implications. This criticism was regarded as a showstopper from about 2003 onwards.
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Climate Change 2007: Mitigation. Contribution of
Working Group III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
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disposal are unwarranted; it would be too expensive, too controversial, and technically challenging to transfer large quantities of CO
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Ocean sequestration in deep sea sediments has the potential to impact deep sea life. The chemical and physical composition of the
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Santillo, David., Johnston, Paul. (3 December 2018). "Carbon
Capture and Sequestration: Potential Environmental Impacts".
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per hour now being transferred from air to sea. Nonetheless, urgent discussions surrounding the concept of direct ocean CO
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1153:"Carbon Dioxide Capture and Storage: An Overview With Emphasis on Capture and Storage in Deep Geological Formations"
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to great depth. But in any case such efforts would be dwarfed by the approximately 1 million tons of fossil fuel CO
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This article is about an abandoned idea to store carbon in the ocean. For ongoing storage by ocean organisms, see
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833:. Therefore, increasing carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere decreases ocean pH in a process called
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An assessment in 2013 summarised the state of the art as follows: Objectively the fears over direct ocean CO
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Sites would be chosen based on ocean floor depth, seismic and volcanic activity, and the presence of CaCO
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is another popular method for storage. Hydrate formation takes place when the dissolved concentration of
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Dilute carbon dioxide injection requires injection at depths where carbon dioxide can be dispersed by
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cover slightly more than 70% of the total surface area of the Earth, and play a major role in Earth's
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to be in its liquid phase. The idea behind ocean injection was to have stable, stationary pools of CO
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After atmospheric carbon dioxide dissolves into the ocean, part of the carbon dioxide reacts with
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released over the past 200 years have been absorbed by the oceans. With increasing atmospheric CO
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1944:"An updated assessment of the acute impacts of ocean carbon sequestration by direct injection"
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1553:"An updated assessment of the acute impacts of ocean carbon sequestration by direct injection"
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net injected. This cost estimate was "including offshore transportation of 100 to 500 km".
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escape. As injected carbon dioxide bubbles rise, dispersal increases up the water column.
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disposal greatly aided the modern scientific understanding of the impacts of elevated CO
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at the ocean floor. The ocean could potentially hold over a thousand billion tons of CO
2002:"A short history of ocean acidification science in the 20th century: a chemist's view"
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A cost estimate from 2007 put the costs for this technology at 5-30 US$ per ton of CO
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The concept of purposefully injecting carbon dioxide into the deeper parts of the
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concentrations released due to human activities as compared to levels before the
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1285:. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA.
1272:, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA.
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1119: – Actions to reduce net greenhouse gas emissions to limit climate change
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2027:
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1316:, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA
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2018:
1481:
A Research
Strategy for Ocean-based Carbon Dioxide Removal and Sequestration
822:
2082:
1630:
1506:
856:, an international project agreement was signed for the study of direct CO
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1775:"Two-phase, near-field modeling of purposefully released CO2in the ocean"
1774:
1125: – Deliberate and large-scale intervention in Earth's climate system
1074:
814:
2433:
2033:
1861:
Brewer, Peter G. "Direct
Injection of Carbon Dioxide into the Oceans."
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919:
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530:
313:
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1306:
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872:." There was, however criticism from various organizations, including
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1408:, vol. 4, October 2008, pp. 319–324., doi:10.2113/gselements.4.5.319.
692:
1809:
1152:
91:
in its report on climate change mitigation methods. The most recent
1551:
Israelsson, Peter H.; Chow, Aaron C.; Eric Adams, E. (2009-02-01).
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852:
A review in 2022 explained that: "In 1997 in Kyoto, during UNFCCC
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1863:
The Carbon
Dioxide Dilemma: Promising Technlogoies and Policies.
810:, oceans are currently absorbing 7 Gt carbon dioxide per annum.
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2828:
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2300:
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821:. As carbonic acid continues to interact with water molecules,
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Proposal to deliberately store more carbon dioxide in the ocean
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Major components after carbon dioxide dissolution in the ocean
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Cooperative
Mechanisms under Article 6 of the Paris Agreement
2037:
Text was copied from this source, which is available under a
1942:
Israelsson, Peter H.; Chow, Aaron C.; Eric Adams, E. (2009).
866:
New Energy and Industrial Technology Development Organization
50:, high costs and concerns about its stability or permanence.
75:
However nowadays that term is used more widely as part of
3526:
Illustrative model of greenhouse effect on climate change
1252:
IPCC Special Report on Carbon Dioxide Capture and Storage
932:
forcing liquid carbon dioxide to only move laterally.
2039:
Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License
1400:
Adams, E. Eric, and Ken Caldeira. “Ocean Storage of CO
23:. For current work on permanently storing carbon, see
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United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
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1113: – Storage of carbon dioxide in the North Sea
792:concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere
786:naturally dissolves in oceanic waters to form an
3567:Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
1734:Without Ocean Acidification: A Discussion Paper"
1131: – Ocean/atmosphere carbon exchange process
948:The proposed method of injection is droplets of
825:is formed, which increases the concentration of
910:Carbon dioxide ocean storage can occur through
95:in 2022 also no longer includes any mention of
1773:Alendal, Guttorm; Drange, Helge (2001-01-15).
2312:History of climate change policy and politics
2107:
734:
8:
1730:"Potential for Very Deep Ocean Storage of CO
1528:Herzog, Howard; Caldeira, Ken; Adams, Eric.
2429:Atlantic meridional overturning circulation
1530:"Carbon Sequestration via Direct Injection"
885:Dilute carbon dioxide injection and storage
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3194:Adaptation strategies on the German coast
2337:United Nations Climate Change conferences
2017:
1959:
1916:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
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1620:
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2898:Co-benefits of climate change mitigation
1834:"Storing Carbon Dioxide under the Ocean"
1025:will re-equilibrate with the atmosphere.
906:Release of solid carbon dioxide at depth
844:was first proposed by Italian physicist
31:Direct deep-sea carbon dioxide injection
3254:National Adaptation Programme of Action
3043:Land use, land-use change, and forestry
1989:. IEA Greenhouse Gas R&D Programme.
1877:
1875:
1873:
1871:
1779:Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans
1595:"Gas hydrates in sustainable chemistry"
1296:Chapter 12: Cross sectoral perspectives
1151:Benson, S.M.; Surles, T. (2006-10-01).
1140:
1107: – Storing carbon in a carbon pool
678:Territorialisation of carbon governance
122:
68:in 2007 referred to this technology as
2903:Economics of climate change mitigation
2866:Gold Standard (carbon offset standard)
2217:Scientific consensus on climate change
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683:Total Carbon Column Observing Network
103:. Instead there is now more focus on
87:in 2014 no longer mentioned the term
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3584:Representative Concentration Pathway
2535:Tipping points in the climate system
2211:Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere
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1262:
1260:
3355:Nationally determined contributions
3065:Individual action on climate change
2280:World energy supply and consumption
3494:Fixed anvil temperature hypothesis
1191:from the original on June 11, 2020
860:injection, with sponsors from the
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3421:Satellite temperature measurement
3026:forestry for carbon sequestration
2317:History of climate change science
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3635:
3624:
3623:
3611:
3272:Climate Change Performance Index
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1728:Goldthorpe, Steve (2017-07-01).
1661:HYDRATE AND UNDERGROUND STORAGE"
1418:Marchetti, Cesare (March 1977).
708:
707:
130:
107:management in coastal zones.
3411:Instrumental temperature record
3362:Sustainable Development Goal 13
1111:Carbon storage in the North Sea
101:Carbon Dioxide Removal taxonomy
83:in the ocean. For example, the
3479:Climate variability and change
2520:Retreat of glaciers since 1850
1684:Capron, Mark (July 26, 2013).
1087:affect surface-water species.
829:in the ocean and consequently
643:Climate reconstruction proxies
1:
3589:Shared Socioeconomic Pathways
3124:Climate emergency declaration
2067:10.1016/j.jconrel.2014.02.020
2055:Journal of Controlled Release
1751:10.1016/j.egypro.2017.03.1686
1420:"On geoengineering and the CO
1334:be stored in the deep ocean?"
66:IPCC Fourth Assessment Report
3572:IPCC Sixth Assessment Report
2798:Middle East and North Africa
1961:10.1016/j.egypro.2009.02.324
1570:10.1016/j.egypro.2009.02.324
950:supercritical carbon dioxide
613:Carbonate compensation depth
278:Particulate inorganic carbon
93:IPCC Sixth Assessment Report
85:IPCC Fifth Assessment Report
1686:"Secure Seafloor Storage CO
778:. Due to the solubility of
3692:
3406:Global surface temperature
3297:Popular culture depictions
3209:Ecosystem-based adaptation
2939:Carbon capture and storage
2861:Carbon offsets and credits
1057:
870:Norwegian Research Council
790:. With an increase in the
760:
668:Carbon capture and storage
272:Particulate organic carbon
266:Dissolved inorganic carbon
77:carbon capture and storage
18:
3618:Climate change portal
3605:
3511:Extreme event attribution
3394:
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3134:School Strike for Climate
3102:
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3013:Climate-smart agriculture
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2824:
2397:
2384:
2307:
2296:
2190:
2177:
2160:Climate change adaptation
2155:Climate change mitigation
2150:Effects of climate change
2140:
2129:
1169:10.1109/JPROC.2006.883718
1117:Climate change mitigation
985:Use of clathrate hydrates
916:hydrate of carbon dioxide
862:U.S. Department of Energy
673:Carbon cycle re-balancing
59:climate change mitigation
3521:Global warming potential
3328:International agreements
2975:Preserving and enhancing
2419:Arctic methane emissions
2341:Years in climate change
2248:Greenhouse gas emissions
2145:Causes of climate change
1599:Chemical Society Reviews
800:carbon dioxide emissions
648:Carbon-to-nitrogen ratio
608:Carbonate–silicate cycle
576:Carbon dioxide clathrate
571:Clathrate gun hypothesis
399:Net ecosystem production
260:Dissolved organic carbon
3552:Climate change scenario
3204:Disaster risk reduction
2856:Carbon emission trading
2666:U.S. insurance industry
2646:Civilizational collapse
2493:sea surface temperature
2019:10.5194/bg-10-7411-2013
1301:13 October 2022 at the
1157:Proceedings of the IEEE
658:Deep Carbon Observatory
118:Part of a series on the
3676:Carbon dioxide removal
3545:Research and modelling
3229:Nature-based solutions
3049:Nature-based solutions
2991:Carbon dioxide removal
2908:Fossil fuel divestment
2893:Climate risk insurance
2803:Small island countries
2424:Arctic sea ice decline
2000:Brewer, P. G. (2013).
1905:Cite journal requires
758:
478:Continental shelf pump
254:Total inorganic carbon
220:Satellite measurements
3506:Earth's energy budget
3389:Background and theory
3277:Climate crisis (term)
2949:Fossil fuel phase-out
2843:Economics and finance
2808:by individual country
2750:By country and region
2725:Security and conflict
2720:Psychological impacts
2409:Abrupt climate change
2332:Charles David Keeling
2165:By country and region
1838:MIT Technology Review
1655:ROCHELLE, C. (2003).
1312:2 August 2022 at the
1058:Further information:
1054:Environmental impacts
940:Carbon dioxide plumes
924:liquid carbon dioxide
763:Earth's energy budget
756:
663:Global Carbon Project
394:Ecosystem respiration
3335:Glasgow Climate Pact
2996:Carbon sequestration
2571:Mass mortality event
1976:"Ocean Storage of CO
1800:10.1029/1999jc000290
1129:Oceanic carbon cycle
1105:Carbon sequestration
957:Carbon dioxide lakes
492:Carbon sequestration
248:Total organic carbon
81:carbon sequestration
25:Carbon sequestration
3474:Climate sensitivity
3249:The Adaptation Fund
2705:Infectious diseases
2612:Social and economic
1791:2001JGR...106.1085A
1443:1977ClCh....1...59M
1123:Climate engineering
1060:Ocean acidification
835:ocean acidification
539:Atmospheric methane
505:Soil carbon storage
355:Reverse Krebs cycle
210:Ocean acidification
3045:(LULUCF and AFOLU)
3017:Forest management
3001:Direct air capture
2966:Sustainable energy
2923:Net zero emissions
2918:Low-carbon economy
2913:Green Climate Fund
2700:Indigenous peoples
2603:Plant biodiversity
2391:Effects and issues
1612:10.1039/C8CS00989A
1451:10.1007/bf00162777
991:clathrate hydrates
979:Puerto Rico trench
868:of Japan, and the
759:
618:Great Calcite Belt
566:Aerobic production
386:Carbon respiration
328:Metabolic pathways
288:Primary production
3663:
3662:
3601:
3600:
3597:
3596:
3536:Radiative forcing
3379:
3378:
3375:
3374:
3199:Adaptive capacity
3084:
3083:
3080:
3079:
2944:Energy transition
2820:
2819:
2816:
2815:
2540:Tropical cyclones
2466:Urban heat island
2380:
2379:
2292:
2291:
2288:
2287:
2253:Carbon accounting
2207:Greenhouse effect
2173:
2172:
2012:(11): 7411–7422.
1785:(C1): 1085–1096.
1605:(15): 5225–5309.
1498:978-0-309-08761-2
1163:(10): 1795–1805.
1082:Long term effects
808:Industrialization
751:
750:
549:Methane emissions
205:In the atmosphere
3683:
3651:
3650:
3639:
3638:
3627:
3626:
3616:
3615:
3614:
3579:Paleoclimatology
3396:
3385:
3146:Ecological grief
3129:Climate movement
3104:
3090:
3070:Plant-based diet
2961:Renewable energy
2839:
2826:
2661:Economic impacts
2593:Invasive species
2449:Coastal flooding
2399:
2386:
2322:Svante Arrhenius
2298:
2268:from agriculture
2258:Carbon footprint
2243:Greenhouse gases
2192:
2179:
2131:
2116:
2109:
2102:
2093:
2087:
2086:
2050:
2041:
2036:
2031:
2021:
1997:
1991:
1990:
1984:
1972:
1966:
1965:
1963:
1939:
1922:
1921:
1914:
1908:
1903:
1901:
1893:
1891:
1879:
1866:
1859:
1848:
1847:
1845:
1844:
1829:
1823:
1822:
1812:
1802:
1770:
1764:
1763:
1753:
1725:
1716:
1715:
1713:
1711:
1705:
1699:. Archived from
1697:Published Thesis
1694:
1681:
1672:
1671:
1668:Published Thesis
1665:
1652:
1643:
1642:
1624:
1614:
1589:
1583:
1582:
1572:
1563:(1): 4929–4936.
1548:
1537:
1536:
1534:
1525:
1519:
1518:
1477:
1471:
1470:
1428:
1415:
1409:
1398:
1383:
1382:
1376:
1368:
1366:
1365:
1359:
1353:. Archived from
1352:
1344:
1338:
1337:
1326:
1317:
1292:
1286:
1279:
1273:
1266:
1255:
1248:
1201:
1200:
1198:
1196:
1148:
846:Cesare Marchetti
831:reduces ocean pH
743:
736:
729:
716:
711:
710:
515:pelagic sediment
409:Soil respiration
404:Photorespiration
134:
115:
3691:
3690:
3686:
3685:
3684:
3682:
3681:
3680:
3666:
3665:
3664:
3659:
3612:
3610:
3593:
3540:
3531:Orbital forcing
3425:
3390:
3371:
3345:Paris Agreement
3323:
3319:Warming stripes
3258:
3224:Managed retreat
3219:Loss and damage
3180:
3114:Business action
3098:
3076:
3053:
2976:
2970:
2927:
2888:Climate finance
2833:
2812:
2744:
2607:
2583:Extinction risk
2559:Flora and fauna
2554:
2515:Permafrost thaw
2510:Ozone depletion
2439:Extreme weather
2393:
2376:
2303:
2284:
2221:
2186:
2169:
2136:
2125:
2120:
2090:
2052:
2051:
2044:
1999:
1998:
1994:
1982:
1979:
1974:
1973:
1969:
1948:Energy Procedia
1941:
1940:
1925:
1915:
1904:
1894:
1889:10.1.1.577.6246
1881:
1880:
1869:
1860:
1851:
1842:
1840:
1832:Bullis, Kevin.
1831:
1830:
1826:
1772:
1771:
1767:
1738:Energy Procedia
1733:
1727:
1726:
1719:
1709:
1707:
1706:on July 5, 2016
1703:
1692:
1689:
1683:
1682:
1675:
1663:
1660:
1654:
1653:
1646:
1591:
1590:
1586:
1557:Energy Procedia
1550:
1549:
1540:
1532:
1527:
1526:
1522:
1499:
1479:
1478:
1474:
1431:Climatic Change
1426:
1423:
1417:
1416:
1412:
1403:
1399:
1386:
1369:
1363:
1361:
1357:
1350:
1348:"Archived copy"
1346:
1345:
1341:
1333:
1328:
1327:
1320:
1314:Wayback Machine
1303:Wayback Machine
1293:
1289:
1280:
1276:
1267:
1258:
1249:
1204:
1194:
1192:
1150:
1149:
1142:
1138:
1101:
1084:
1071:
1062:
1056:
1049:
1045:
1041:
1037:
1033:
1024:
1018:
1005:
1000:
987:
973:, the Japanese
968:
959:
942:
930:
908:
887:
882:
859:
805:
797:
785:
769:
747:
706:
699:
698:
697:
637:
629:
628:
627:
592:
582:
581:
580:
533:
523:
522:
521:
510:Marine sediment
494:
484:
483:
482:
443:Solubility pump
431:Biological pump
425:
415:
414:
413:
388:
378:
377:
376:
360:Carbon fixation
345:
330:
320:
319:
318:
299:
283:
236:
234:Forms of carbon
226:
225:
224:
199:
189:
188:
187:
142:
113:
56:
45:
41:
37:
28:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3689:
3687:
3679:
3678:
3668:
3667:
3661:
3660:
3658:
3657:
3645:
3633:
3621:
3606:
3603:
3602:
3599:
3598:
3595:
3594:
3592:
3591:
3586:
3581:
3576:
3575:
3574:
3564:
3559:
3554:
3548:
3546:
3542:
3541:
3539:
3538:
3533:
3528:
3523:
3518:
3513:
3508:
3503:
3498:
3497:
3496:
3486:
3484:Cloud feedback
3481:
3476:
3471:
3466:
3465:
3464:
3459:
3454:
3449:
3439:
3433:
3431:
3427:
3426:
3424:
3423:
3418:
3413:
3408:
3402:
3400:
3392:
3391:
3388:
3381:
3380:
3377:
3376:
3373:
3372:
3370:
3369:
3364:
3359:
3358:
3357:
3352:
3342:
3340:Kyoto Protocol
3337:
3331:
3329:
3325:
3324:
3322:
3321:
3316:
3315:
3314:
3309:
3304:
3294:
3292:Media coverage
3289:
3284:
3282:Climate spiral
3279:
3274:
3268:
3266:
3260:
3259:
3257:
3256:
3251:
3246:
3241:
3236:
3231:
3226:
3221:
3216:
3211:
3206:
3201:
3196:
3190:
3188:
3182:
3181:
3179:
3178:
3173:
3171:Public opinion
3168:
3163:
3158:
3153:
3148:
3143:
3138:
3137:
3136:
3126:
3121:
3119:Climate action
3116:
3110:
3108:
3100:
3099:
3093:
3086:
3085:
3082:
3081:
3078:
3077:
3075:
3074:
3073:
3072:
3061:
3059:
3055:
3054:
3052:
3051:
3046:
3040:
3039:
3038:
3033:
3031:REDD and REDD+
3028:
3023:
3015:
3010:
3008:Carbon farming
3005:
3004:
3003:
2998:
2988:
2982:
2980:
2972:
2971:
2969:
2968:
2963:
2958:
2953:
2952:
2951:
2941:
2935:
2933:
2929:
2928:
2926:
2925:
2920:
2915:
2910:
2905:
2900:
2895:
2890:
2885:
2880:
2875:
2870:
2869:
2868:
2858:
2853:
2847:
2845:
2835:
2834:
2829:
2822:
2821:
2818:
2817:
2814:
2813:
2811:
2810:
2805:
2800:
2795:
2790:
2785:
2780:
2775:
2770:
2765:
2760:
2754:
2752:
2746:
2745:
2743:
2742:
2740:Water security
2737:
2735:Water scarcity
2732:
2730:Urban flooding
2727:
2722:
2717:
2712:
2707:
2702:
2697:
2692:
2691:
2690:
2680:
2675:
2670:
2669:
2668:
2658:
2653:
2648:
2643:
2638:
2633:
2632:
2631:
2626:
2615:
2613:
2609:
2608:
2606:
2605:
2600:
2595:
2590:
2588:Forest dieback
2585:
2580:
2575:
2574:
2573:
2562:
2560:
2556:
2555:
2553:
2552:
2547:
2542:
2537:
2532:
2527:
2525:Sea level rise
2522:
2517:
2512:
2507:
2506:
2505:
2500:
2498:stratification
2495:
2490:
2485:
2480:
2470:
2469:
2468:
2463:
2453:
2452:
2451:
2441:
2436:
2431:
2426:
2421:
2416:
2411:
2405:
2403:
2395:
2394:
2389:
2382:
2381:
2378:
2377:
2375:
2374:
2373:
2372:
2367:
2362:
2357:
2352:
2347:
2339:
2334:
2329:
2324:
2319:
2314:
2308:
2305:
2304:
2301:
2294:
2293:
2290:
2289:
2286:
2285:
2283:
2282:
2277:
2276:
2275:
2270:
2265:
2263:Carbon leakage
2260:
2255:
2245:
2240:
2235:
2229:
2227:
2223:
2222:
2220:
2219:
2214:
2204:
2202:Climate system
2198:
2196:
2188:
2187:
2182:
2175:
2174:
2171:
2170:
2168:
2167:
2162:
2157:
2152:
2147:
2141:
2138:
2137:
2134:
2127:
2126:
2123:Climate change
2121:
2119:
2118:
2111:
2104:
2096:
2089:
2088:
2042:
2006:Biogeosciences
1992:
1977:
1967:
1923:
1907:|journal=
1867:
1849:
1824:
1765:
1731:
1717:
1687:
1673:
1658:
1644:
1584:
1538:
1520:
1497:
1489:10.17226/26278
1472:
1421:
1410:
1401:
1384:
1339:
1331:
1318:
1287:
1274:
1256:
1202:
1139:
1137:
1134:
1133:
1132:
1126:
1120:
1114:
1108:
1100:
1097:
1083:
1080:
1070:
1069:Deep sea biota
1067:
1055:
1052:
1050:on the ocean.
1047:
1043:
1039:
1035:
1031:
1022:
1017:
1014:
1003:
999:
996:
986:
983:
966:
958:
955:
941:
938:
928:
907:
904:
891:ocean currents
886:
883:
881:
880:Design aspects
878:
857:
803:
795:
783:
780:carbon dioxide
776:climate system
749:
748:
746:
745:
738:
731:
723:
720:
719:
718:
717:
701:
700:
696:
695:
690:
685:
680:
675:
670:
665:
660:
655:
653:Deep biosphere
650:
645:
639:
638:
635:
634:
631:
630:
626:
625:
623:Redfield ratio
620:
615:
610:
605:
603:Nutrient cycle
600:
594:
593:
590:Biogeochemical
588:
587:
584:
583:
579:
578:
573:
568:
563:
562:
561:
556:
546:
544:Methanogenesis
541:
535:
534:
529:
528:
525:
524:
520:
519:
518:
517:
507:
502:
496:
495:
490:
489:
486:
485:
481:
480:
475:
470:
465:
460:
458:Microbial loop
455:
450:
445:
440:
439:
438:
427:
426:
421:
420:
417:
416:
412:
411:
406:
401:
396:
390:
389:
384:
383:
380:
379:
375:
374:
373:
372:
367:
357:
352:
346:
344:
343:
341:Chemosynthesis
338:
336:Photosynthesis
332:
331:
326:
325:
322:
321:
317:
316:
311:
306:
300:
298:
297:
296:
295:
284:
282:
281:
275:
269:
263:
257:
251:
245:
238:
237:
232:
231:
228:
227:
223:
222:
217:
212:
207:
201:
200:
197:Carbon dioxide
195:
194:
191:
190:
186:
185:
180:
175:
170:
165:
160:
155:
150:
144:
143:
140:
139:
136:
135:
127:
126:
120:
119:
112:
109:
54:
43:
39:
35:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3688:
3677:
3674:
3673:
3671:
3656:
3655:
3646:
3644:
3643:
3634:
3632:
3631:
3622:
3620:
3619:
3608:
3607:
3604:
3590:
3587:
3585:
3582:
3580:
3577:
3573:
3570:
3569:
3568:
3565:
3563:
3560:
3558:
3557:Climate model
3555:
3553:
3550:
3549:
3547:
3543:
3537:
3534:
3532:
3529:
3527:
3524:
3522:
3519:
3517:
3514:
3512:
3509:
3507:
3504:
3502:
3499:
3495:
3492:
3491:
3490:
3489:Cloud forcing
3487:
3485:
3482:
3480:
3477:
3475:
3472:
3470:
3467:
3463:
3460:
3458:
3455:
3453:
3450:
3448:
3445:
3444:
3443:
3440:
3438:
3435:
3434:
3432:
3428:
3422:
3419:
3417:
3414:
3412:
3409:
3407:
3404:
3403:
3401:
3397:
3393:
3386:
3382:
3368:
3365:
3363:
3360:
3356:
3353:
3351:
3348:
3347:
3346:
3343:
3341:
3338:
3336:
3333:
3332:
3330:
3326:
3320:
3317:
3313:
3310:
3308:
3305:
3303:
3300:
3299:
3298:
3295:
3293:
3290:
3288:
3285:
3283:
3280:
3278:
3275:
3273:
3270:
3269:
3267:
3265:
3264:Communication
3261:
3255:
3252:
3250:
3247:
3245:
3244:Vulnerability
3242:
3240:
3237:
3235:
3232:
3230:
3227:
3225:
3222:
3220:
3217:
3215:
3214:Flood control
3212:
3210:
3207:
3205:
3202:
3200:
3197:
3195:
3192:
3191:
3189:
3187:
3183:
3177:
3174:
3172:
3169:
3167:
3164:
3162:
3159:
3157:
3154:
3152:
3149:
3147:
3144:
3142:
3139:
3135:
3132:
3131:
3130:
3127:
3125:
3122:
3120:
3117:
3115:
3112:
3111:
3109:
3105:
3101:
3097:
3091:
3087:
3071:
3068:
3067:
3066:
3063:
3062:
3060:
3056:
3050:
3047:
3044:
3041:
3037:
3036:reforestation
3034:
3032:
3029:
3027:
3024:
3022:
3021:afforestation
3019:
3018:
3016:
3014:
3011:
3009:
3006:
3002:
2999:
2997:
2994:
2993:
2992:
2989:
2987:
2984:
2983:
2981:
2979:
2973:
2967:
2964:
2962:
2959:
2957:
2956:Nuclear power
2954:
2950:
2947:
2946:
2945:
2942:
2940:
2937:
2936:
2934:
2930:
2924:
2921:
2919:
2916:
2914:
2911:
2909:
2906:
2904:
2901:
2899:
2896:
2894:
2891:
2889:
2886:
2884:
2881:
2879:
2876:
2874:
2871:
2867:
2864:
2863:
2862:
2859:
2857:
2854:
2852:
2851:Carbon budget
2849:
2848:
2846:
2844:
2840:
2836:
2832:
2827:
2823:
2809:
2806:
2804:
2801:
2799:
2796:
2794:
2791:
2789:
2786:
2784:
2781:
2779:
2776:
2774:
2771:
2769:
2766:
2764:
2761:
2759:
2756:
2755:
2753:
2751:
2747:
2741:
2738:
2736:
2733:
2731:
2728:
2726:
2723:
2721:
2718:
2716:
2713:
2711:
2708:
2706:
2703:
2701:
2698:
2696:
2693:
2689:
2688:Mental health
2686:
2685:
2684:
2681:
2679:
2676:
2674:
2671:
2667:
2664:
2663:
2662:
2659:
2657:
2654:
2652:
2649:
2647:
2644:
2642:
2639:
2637:
2634:
2630:
2629:United States
2627:
2625:
2622:
2621:
2620:
2617:
2616:
2614:
2610:
2604:
2601:
2599:
2596:
2594:
2591:
2589:
2586:
2584:
2581:
2579:
2576:
2572:
2569:
2568:
2567:
2564:
2563:
2561:
2557:
2551:
2548:
2546:
2543:
2541:
2538:
2536:
2533:
2531:
2528:
2526:
2523:
2521:
2518:
2516:
2513:
2511:
2508:
2504:
2501:
2499:
2496:
2494:
2491:
2489:
2486:
2484:
2483:deoxygenation
2481:
2479:
2478:acidification
2476:
2475:
2474:
2471:
2467:
2464:
2462:
2459:
2458:
2457:
2454:
2450:
2447:
2446:
2445:
2442:
2440:
2437:
2435:
2432:
2430:
2427:
2425:
2422:
2420:
2417:
2415:
2412:
2410:
2407:
2406:
2404:
2400:
2396:
2392:
2387:
2383:
2371:
2368:
2366:
2363:
2361:
2358:
2356:
2353:
2351:
2348:
2346:
2343:
2342:
2340:
2338:
2335:
2333:
2330:
2328:
2325:
2323:
2320:
2318:
2315:
2313:
2310:
2309:
2306:
2299:
2295:
2281:
2278:
2274:
2273:from wetlands
2271:
2269:
2266:
2264:
2261:
2259:
2256:
2254:
2251:
2250:
2249:
2246:
2244:
2241:
2239:
2236:
2234:
2233:Deforestation
2231:
2230:
2228:
2224:
2218:
2215:
2212:
2208:
2205:
2203:
2200:
2199:
2197:
2193:
2189:
2185:
2180:
2176:
2166:
2163:
2161:
2158:
2156:
2153:
2151:
2148:
2146:
2143:
2142:
2139:
2132:
2128:
2124:
2117:
2112:
2110:
2105:
2103:
2098:
2097:
2094:
2084:
2080:
2076:
2072:
2068:
2064:
2060:
2056:
2049:
2047:
2043:
2040:
2035:
2029:
2025:
2020:
2015:
2011:
2007:
2003:
1996:
1993:
1988:
1981:
1971:
1968:
1962:
1957:
1954:: 4929–4936.
1953:
1949:
1945:
1938:
1936:
1934:
1932:
1930:
1928:
1924:
1919:
1912:
1899:
1890:
1885:
1878:
1876:
1874:
1872:
1868:
1864:
1858:
1856:
1854:
1850:
1839:
1835:
1828:
1825:
1820:
1816:
1811:
1806:
1801:
1796:
1792:
1788:
1784:
1780:
1776:
1769:
1766:
1761:
1757:
1752:
1747:
1744:: 5417–5429.
1743:
1739:
1735:
1724:
1722:
1718:
1702:
1698:
1691:
1680:
1678:
1674:
1669:
1662:
1651:
1649:
1645:
1640:
1636:
1632:
1628:
1623:
1618:
1613:
1608:
1604:
1600:
1596:
1588:
1585:
1580:
1576:
1571:
1566:
1562:
1558:
1554:
1547:
1545:
1543:
1539:
1531:
1524:
1521:
1516:
1512:
1508:
1504:
1500:
1494:
1490:
1486:
1482:
1476:
1473:
1468:
1464:
1460:
1456:
1452:
1448:
1444:
1440:
1436:
1432:
1425:
1414:
1411:
1407:
1397:
1395:
1393:
1391:
1389:
1385:
1380:
1374:
1360:on 2018-06-12
1356:
1349:
1343:
1340:
1335:
1325:
1323:
1319:
1315:
1311:
1308:
1304:
1300:
1297:
1291:
1288:
1284:
1278:
1275:
1271:
1265:
1263:
1261:
1257:
1253:
1247:
1245:
1243:
1241:
1239:
1237:
1235:
1233:
1231:
1229:
1227:
1225:
1223:
1221:
1219:
1217:
1215:
1213:
1211:
1209:
1207:
1203:
1195:September 10,
1190:
1186:
1182:
1178:
1174:
1170:
1166:
1162:
1158:
1154:
1147:
1145:
1141:
1135:
1130:
1127:
1124:
1121:
1118:
1115:
1112:
1109:
1106:
1103:
1102:
1098:
1096:
1092:
1088:
1081:
1079:
1076:
1068:
1066:
1061:
1053:
1051:
1028:
1027:
1015:
1013:
1009:
1008:
997:
995:
992:
984:
982:
980:
976:
975:Ryukyu trench
972:
963:
956:
954:
951:
946:
939:
937:
933:
925:
921:
917:
913:
905:
903:
899:
897:
892:
884:
879:
877:
875:
871:
867:
863:
855:
850:
847:
843:
838:
836:
832:
828:
827:hydrogen ions
824:
820:
819:carbonic acid
816:
811:
809:
801:
793:
789:
781:
777:
773:
768:
764:
755:
744:
739:
737:
732:
730:
725:
724:
722:
721:
715:
705:
704:
703:
702:
694:
691:
689:
686:
684:
681:
679:
676:
674:
671:
669:
666:
664:
661:
659:
656:
654:
651:
649:
646:
644:
641:
640:
633:
632:
624:
621:
619:
616:
614:
611:
609:
606:
604:
601:
599:
598:Marine cycles
596:
595:
591:
586:
585:
577:
574:
572:
569:
567:
564:
560:
557:
555:
552:
551:
550:
547:
545:
542:
540:
537:
536:
532:
527:
526:
516:
513:
512:
511:
508:
506:
503:
501:
498:
497:
493:
488:
487:
479:
476:
474:
471:
469:
466:
464:
461:
459:
456:
454:
451:
449:
446:
444:
441:
437:
434:
433:
432:
429:
428:
424:
419:
418:
410:
407:
405:
402:
400:
397:
395:
392:
391:
387:
382:
381:
371:
368:
366:
363:
362:
361:
358:
356:
353:
351:
348:
347:
342:
339:
337:
334:
333:
329:
324:
323:
315:
312:
310:
307:
305:
302:
301:
294:
291:
290:
289:
286:
285:
279:
276:
273:
270:
267:
264:
261:
258:
255:
252:
249:
246:
243:
240:
239:
235:
230:
229:
221:
218:
216:
213:
211:
208:
206:
203:
202:
198:
193:
192:
184:
181:
179:
178:Boreal forest
176:
174:
171:
169:
166:
164:
161:
159:
156:
154:
151:
149:
146:
145:
138:
137:
133:
129:
128:
125:
121:
117:
116:
110:
108:
106:
102:
98:
97:ocean storage
94:
90:
89:ocean storage
86:
82:
78:
74:
71:
70:ocean storage
67:
62:
60:
51:
49:
32:
26:
22:
3652:
3640:
3628:
3609:
3442:Carbon cycle
3399:Measurements
3094:Society and
2978:carbon sinks
2883:Climate debt
2873:Carbon price
2695:Human rights
2530:Season creep
2488:heat content
2414:Anoxic event
2327:James Hansen
2058:
2054:
2009:
2005:
1995:
1986:
1970:
1951:
1947:
1898:cite journal
1862:
1841:. Retrieved
1837:
1827:
1782:
1778:
1768:
1741:
1737:
1708:. Retrieved
1701:the original
1696:
1667:
1602:
1598:
1587:
1560:
1556:
1523:
1480:
1475:
1437:(1): 59–68.
1434:
1430:
1413:
1405:
1362:. Retrieved
1355:the original
1342:
1330:"6. Could CO
1294:IPCC (2022)
1290:
1281:IPCC, 2014:
1277:
1268:IPCC, 2007:
1250:IPCC, 2005:
1193:. Retrieved
1160:
1156:
1093:
1089:
1085:
1072:
1063:
1029:
1026:
1019:
1010:
1007:
1001:
988:
971:Sunda trench
964:
960:
947:
943:
934:
909:
900:
888:
851:
839:
812:
782:in water, CO
770:
436:Martin curve
423:Carbon pumps
350:Calvin cycle
304:Black carbon
242:Total carbon
183:Geochemistry
124:Carbon cycle
100:
96:
88:
73:
69:
63:
52:
30:
29:
3469:Carbon sink
3447:atmospheric
3312:video games
2986:Blue carbon
2619:Agriculture
2598:Marine life
2545:Water cycle
2503:temperature
2238:Fossil fuel
1710:December 4,
989:The use of
788:equilibrium
767:Blue carbon
500:Carbon sink
463:Viral shunt
453:Marine snow
309:Blue carbon
163:Deep carbon
158:Atmospheric
148:Terrestrial
105:blue carbon
48:marine life
21:Blue carbon
3501:Cryosphere
3462:permafrost
3234:Resilience
3186:Adaptation
3161:Litigation
3151:Governance
3096:adaptation
2878:Carbon tax
2831:Mitigation
2768:Antarctica
2656:Disability
1987:ieaghg.org
1843:2018-12-03
1622:1912/26136
1364:2018-12-08
1136:References
1016:Challenges
977:, and the
927:dioxide•nH
874:Greenpeace
761:See also:
473:Whale pump
468:Jelly pump
448:Lipid pump
173:Permafrost
141:By regions
61:strategy.
3516:Feedbacks
3287:Education
2788:Caribbean
2783:Australia
2710:Migration
2673:Fisheries
2624:Livestock
2550:Wildfires
2456:Heat wave
2075:0168-3659
2061:: 11–21.
2028:1726-4170
1884:CiteSeerX
1819:0148-0227
1760:1876-6102
1639:219971360
1579:1876-6102
1515:245089649
1467:153503699
1459:0165-0009
1177:0018-9219
914:or solid
823:carbonate
3670:Category
3642:Glossary
3630:Category
3452:biologic
3166:Politics
3058:Personal
2763:Americas
2636:Children
2402:Physical
2195:Overview
2135:Overview
2083:24593892
1810:1956/650
1690:Storage"
1631:32567615
1507:35533244
1483:. 2022.
1424:problem"
1406:Elements
1373:cite web
1310:Archived
1299:Archived
1189:Archived
1185:27994746
1099:See also
1075:deep sea
817:to form
815:seawater
714:Category
3457:oceanic
3307:fiction
3156:Justice
3107:Society
2715:Poverty
2434:Drought
2302:History
2226:Sources
1787:Bibcode
1439:Bibcode
920:hydrate
559:Wetland
531:Methane
314:Kerogen
215:Removal
111:Context
99:in its
3437:Albedo
3430:Theory
3141:Denial
2932:Energy
2793:Europe
2773:Arctic
2758:Africa
2683:Health
2678:Gender
2641:Cities
2566:Biomes
2473:Oceans
2461:Marine
2184:Causes
2081:
2073:
2026:
1886:
1865:(2003)
1817:
1758:
1637:
1629:
1577:
1535:. MIT.
1513:
1505:
1495:
1465:
1457:
1183:
1175:
896:bubble
864:, the
772:Oceans
712:
693:CO2SYS
554:Arctic
293:marine
153:Marine
3654:Index
3416:Proxy
3176:Women
2651:Crime
2578:Birds
2444:Flood
1983:(PDF)
1704:(PDF)
1693:(PDF)
1664:(PDF)
1635:S2CID
1533:(PDF)
1511:S2CID
1463:S2CID
1427:(PDF)
1358:(PDF)
1351:(PDF)
1181:S2CID
998:Costs
912:solid
854:COP-3
842:ocean
688:C4MIP
636:Other
280:(PIC)
274:(POC)
268:(DIC)
262:(DOC)
256:(TIC)
250:(TOC)
3239:Risk
2778:Asia
2370:2024
2365:2023
2360:2022
2355:2021
2350:2020
2345:2019
2079:PMID
2071:ISSN
2024:ISSN
1918:link
1911:help
1815:ISSN
1756:ISSN
1712:2018
1627:PMID
1575:ISSN
1503:PMID
1493:ISBN
1455:ISSN
1379:link
1197:2019
1173:ISSN
765:and
244:(TC)
168:Soil
79:and
64:The
3302:art
2063:doi
2059:181
2014:doi
1956:doi
1805:hdl
1795:doi
1783:106
1746:doi
1742:114
1657:"CO
1617:hdl
1607:doi
1565:doi
1485:doi
1447:doi
1404:.”
1305:in
1165:doi
3672::
2077:.
2069:.
2057:.
2045:^
2022:.
2010:10
2008:.
2004:.
1985:.
1950:.
1946:.
1926:^
1902::
1900:}}
1896:{{
1870:^
1852:^
1836:.
1813:.
1803:.
1793:.
1781:.
1777:.
1754:.
1740:.
1736:.
1720:^
1695:.
1676:^
1666:.
1647:^
1633:.
1625:.
1615:.
1603:49
1601:.
1597:.
1573:.
1559:.
1555:.
1541:^
1509:.
1501:.
1491:.
1461:.
1453:.
1445:.
1433:.
1429:.
1387:^
1375:}}
1371:{{
1321:^
1259:^
1205:^
1187:.
1179:.
1171:.
1161:94
1159:.
1155:.
1143:^
1021:CO
981:.
837:.
370:C4
365:C3
34:CO
2213:)
2209:(
2115:e
2108:t
2101:v
2085:.
2065::
2030:.
2016::
1980:"
1978:2
1964:.
1958::
1952:1
1920:)
1913:)
1909:(
1892:.
1846:.
1821:.
1807::
1797::
1789::
1762:.
1748::
1732:2
1714:.
1688:2
1670:.
1659:2
1641:.
1619::
1609::
1581:.
1567::
1561:1
1517:.
1487::
1469:.
1449::
1441::
1435:1
1422:2
1402:2
1381:)
1367:.
1336:.
1332:2
1199:.
1167::
1048:2
1044:2
1040:2
1036:2
1032:2
1023:2
1004:2
967:3
929:2
858:2
804:2
796:2
784:2
742:e
735:t
728:v
72:.
55:2
44:2
40:2
36:2
27:.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
