404:, "The Father of Genetics", promulgated the idea of dominance in the 1860s. However, it was not widely known until the early twentieth century. Mendel observed that, for a variety of traits of garden peas having to do with the appearance of seeds, seed pods, and plants, there were two discrete phenotypes, such as round versus wrinkled seeds, yellow versus green seeds, red versus white flowers or tall versus short plants. When bred separately, the plants always produced the same phenotypes, generation after generation. However, when lines with different phenotypes were crossed (interbred), one and only one of the parental phenotypes showed up in the offspring (green, round, red, or tall). However, when these
394:
133:
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parent aa), that each contributed one allele to the offspring, with the result that all of these hybrids were heterozygotes (Aa), and that one of the two alleles in the hybrid cross dominated expression of the other: A masked a. The final cross between two heterozygotes (Aa X Aa) would produce AA, Aa, and aa offspring in a 1:2:1 genotype ratio with the first two classes showing the (A) phenotype, and the last showing the (a) phenotype, thereby producing the 3:1 phenotype ratio.
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that have red and white spots. When plants of the F1 generation are self-pollinated, the phenotypic and genotypic ratio of the F2 generation will be 1:2:1 (Red:Spotted:White). These ratios are the same as those for incomplete dominance. Again, this classical terminology is inappropriate â in reality, such cases should not be said to exhibit dominance at all.
505:
497:
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Co-dominance, where allelic products co-exist in the phenotype, is different from incomplete dominance, where the quantitative interaction of allele products produces an intermediate phenotype. For example, in co-dominance, a red homozygous flower and a white homozygous flower will produce offspring
478:
However, if the F1-generation is further crossed with the F1-generation (heterozygote crossed with heterozygote) the offspring (F2-generation) will present the phenotype associated with the dominant gene ž times. Although heterozygote monohybrid crossing can result in two phenotype variants, it can
408:
plants were crossed, the offspring plants showed the two original phenotypes, in a characteristic 3:1 ratio, the more common phenotype being that of the parental hybrid plants. Mendel reasoned that each parent in the first cross was a homozygote for different alleles (one parent AA and the other
536:
recombines with the white petal trait of the r allele. The plant incompletely expresses the dominant trait (R) causing plants with the Rr genotype to express flowers with less red pigment resulting in pink flowers. The colors are not blended together, the dominant trait is just expressed less
568:
flower color is homozygous for either red or white. When the red homozygous flower is paired with the white homozygous flower, the result yields a pink snapdragon flower. The pink snapdragon is the result of incomplete dominance. A similar type of incomplete dominance is found in the
493:) but instead inherited independently. Consider now the cross between parents (P-generation) of genotypes homozygote dominant and recessive, respectively. The offspring (F1-generation) will always heterozygous and present the phenotype associated with the dominant allele variant.
563:
in reptile genetics) occurs when the phenotype of the heterozygous genotype is distinct from and often intermediate to the phenotypes of the homozygous genotypes. The phenotypic result often appears as a blended form of characteristics in the heterozygous state. For example, the
458:. If the crossing is done between parents (P-generation, F0-generation) who are homozygote dominant and homozygote recessive, the offspring (F1-generation) will always have the heterozygote genotype and always present the phenotype associated with the dominant gene.
412:
Mendel did not use the terms gene, allele, phenotype, genotype, homozygote, and heterozygote, all of which were introduced later. He did introduce the notation of capital and lowercase letters for dominant and recessive alleles, respectively, still in use today.
847:
Epistasis is interactions between multiple alleles at different loci. Easily said, several genes for one phenotype. The dominance relationship between alleles involved in epistatic interactions can influence the observed phenotypic ratios in offspring.
263:
are used to demonstrate the principles of dominance in teaching, and the upper-case letters are used to denote dominant alleles and lower-case letters are used for recessive alleles. An often quoted example of dominance is the inheritance of
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1693:
465:
Monohybrid cross between homozygote dominant (GG) and homozygote recessive (gg), always resulting in heterozygote genotype (Gg) and the phenotype associated with the dominant allele, in this case capital G.
815:. The gene responsible for human blood type have three alleles; A, B, and O, and their interactions result in different blood types based on the level of dominance the alleles expresses towards each other.
807:
Although any individual of a diploid organism has at most two different alleles at a given locus, most genes exist in a large number of allelic versions in the population as a whole. This is called
489:
we look at the inheritance of two pairs of genes simultaneous. Assuming here that the two pairs of genes are located at non-homologous chromosomes, such that they are not coupled genes (see
833:
are genes where one single gene affects two or more characters (phenotype). This means that a gene can have a dominant effect on one trait, but a more recessive effect on another trait.
500:
Dihybrid cross between homozygote dominant (GGRR) and homozygote recessive (ggrr) always resulting in heterozygotes (GgRr) with phenotype associated with the dominant alleles G and R.
577:, where phenotypes are measured and treated numerically, if a heterozygote's phenotype is exactly between (numerically) that of the two homozygotes, the phenotype is said to exhibit
367:). It is a strictly relative effect between two alleles of a given gene of any function; one allele can be dominant over a second allele of the same gene, recessive to a third, and
627:
This
Punnett square shows co-dominance. In this example a white bull (WW) mates with a red cow (RR), and their offspring exhibit co-dominance expressing both white and red hairs.
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Ingelman-Sundberg, M. (2005). "Genetic polymorphisms of cytochrome P450 2D6 (CYP2D6): clinical consequences, evolutionary aspects and functional diversity".
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In complete dominance, the effect of one allele in a heterozygous genotype completely masks the effect of the other. The allele that masks are considered
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Unresolved boundaries of evolutionary theory and the question of how inheritance systems evolve: 75 years of debate on the evolution of dominance
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responded by stating that dominance is simply a physiological consequence of metabolic pathways and the relative necessity of the gene involved.
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Inheritance of dwarfing in maize. Demonstrating the heights of plants from the two parent variations and their F1 heterozygous hybrid (centre)
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1541:"Identification of additive, dominant, and epistatic variation conferred by key genes in cellulose biosynthesis pathway in Populus tomentosa"
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Dominance can be influenced by various genetic interactions and it is essential to evaluate them when determining phenotypic outcomes.
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RodrĂguez-BeltrĂĄn, JerĂłnimo; Sørum, Vidar; Toll-Riera, Macarena; de la Vega, Carmen; PeĂąa-Miller, Rafael; San MillĂĄn, Ălvaro (2020).
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concerning anemia, see above). For most gene loci at the molecular level, both alleles are expressed co-dominantly, because both are
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1335:
882:
811:, and is caused by mutations. Polymorphism can have an effect on the dominance relationship and phenotype, which is observed in the
119:
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Yamamoto, F; Clausen, H; White, T; Marken, J; Hakomori, S (1990). "Molecular genetic basis of the histo-blood group ABO system".
100:
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Monohybrid cross between heterozygotes (Gg), resulting in genptypical ratio 1:2:1 (GG:Gg:gg) and phenotypical ratio 3:1 (G:g).
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Dihybrid cross between heterozygotes (GgRr), resulting in the phenotypical ratio 9:3:3:1 (G and R: G and r: g and R: g and r)
57:
642:(the H antigen) on the surfaces of blood cells are controlled by three alleles, two of which are co-dominant to each other (
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Du, Qingzhang; Tian, Jiaxing; Yang, Xiaohui; Pan, Wei; Xu, Baohua; Li, Bailian; Ingvarsson, Pär K.; Zhang, Deqiang (2015).
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at all, i.e. dominance exists only when the heterozygote's phenotype measure lies closer to one homozygote than the other.
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Co-dominance occurs when the contributions of both alleles are visible in the phenotype and neither allele masks another.
79:
1326:
Alberts, Bruce; Heald, Rebecca; Hopkin, Karen; Johnson, Alexander; Morgan, David; Roberts, Keith; Walter, Peter (2023).
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The term co-dominant is often used interchangeably with incomplete dominant, but the two terms have different meanings.
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result in three genotype variants - homozygote dominant, heterozygote and homozygote recessive, respectively.
86:
1713:
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232:; these have an inheritance and presentation pattern that depends on the sex of both the parent and the child (see
1190:"Journal of Experimental Zoology Part B: Molecular and Developmental Evolution", Volume 306B, Issue 4, pp. 329â359
46:
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However, when crossing the F1-generation there are four possible phenotypic possibilities and the phenotypical
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with a fourth. Additionally, one allele may be dominant for one trait but not others. Dominance differs from
240:, Y-linked traits cannot be dominant or recessive. Additionally, there are other forms of dominance, such as
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1021:
Mendel's
Principles of Heredity: A Defence, with a Translation of Mendel's Original Papers on Hybridisation
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Eggers, Stefanie; Sinclair, Andrew (2012). "Mammalian sex determinationâinsights from humans and mice".
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1598:"Epistasis - the essential role of gene interactions in the structure and evolution of genetic systems"
244:, in which a gene variant has a partial effect compared to when it is present on both chromosomes, and
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wherein pink color is produced when true-bred parents of white and red flowers are crossed. In
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individuals have both modifications on their blood cells and thus have type AB blood, so the
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illustrates incomplete dominance. In this example, the red petal trait associated with the R
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1202:"Genetic dominance governs the evolution and spread of mobile genetic elements in bacteria"
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proposed that dominance acted based on natural selection through the contribution of
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248:, in which different variants on each chromosome both show their associated traits.
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1212:(27). United States: United States: National Academy of Sciences: 15755â15762.
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1330:(Sixth edition.; International student ed.). W.W. Norton & Company.
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375:, the phenomenon of an allele of one gene masking the effect of alleles of a
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Autosomal dominant and autosomal recessive inheritance, the two most common
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One gene variant masking the effect of another in the other copy of the gene
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generation are self-pollinated, the phenotypic and genotypic ratio of the F
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When we only look at one trait determined by one pair of genes, we call it
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745:. (The medical condition produced by the heterozygous genotype is called
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282:. In this case, three combinations of alleles (genotypes) are possible:
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genes are some factors that might influence the phenotypic outcome.
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in humans show co-dominance, but the O type is recessive to A and B.
1445:(1). United States: United States: Nature Publishing Group: 6â13.
1067:(6). Oxford, UK: Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishing Ltd: 2925â2942.
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adds an N-acetylgalactosamine to a membrane-bound H antigen. The
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alleles produce different modifications. The enzyme coded for by
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Billiard, Sylvain; Castric, Vincent; Llaurens, Violaine (2021).
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allele, so these individuals also have round peas. Thus, allele
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165:
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Huntington's
Disease Outreach Project for Education at Stanford
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of the same gene on each chromosome is originally caused by a
29:
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The evolution of dominance: A theory whose time has passed?
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are used to describe gene variants on non-sex chromosomes (
1104:
Griffiths AJF; Gelbart WM; Miller JH; et al. (1999).
1651:"On-line notes for Biology 2250 â Principles of Genetics"
445:
to the other allele, and the masked allele is considered
1608:(11). London: London: Nature Publishing Group: 855â867.
1551:(1). England: England: Oxford University Press: 53â67.
363:
Dominance is not inherent to an allele or its traits (
1147:"Biological Reviews", Volume 72, Issue 1, pp. 97â110
1106:"Gene Interaction Leads to Modified Dihybrid Ratios"
60:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
1267:Trudy, F. C. Mackay; Robert, R. H. Anholt (2022).
1109:
1397:(4th ed.). Milton: Milton: Garland Science.
1279:(7). Public Library of Science (PLoS): e3001692.
1269:"Gregor Mendel's legacy in quantitative genetics"
316:(homozygous) individuals have wrinkled peas. In
751:and is a milder condition distinguishable from
1057:"The integrative biology of genetic dominance"
516:for the F2-generation will always be 9:3:3:1.
216:) and their associated traits, while those on
1690:"Autosomal dominance of Huntington's Disease"
8:
721:Another example occurs at the locus for the
272:. Peas may be round, associated with allele
592:generation will be 1:2:1 (Red:Pink:White).
176:of a different variant of the same gene on
974:(1). Dordrecht: Springer-Verlag: 215â238.
729:, where the three molecular phenotypes of
678:allele produces no modification. Thus the
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1116:. New York: W. H. Freeman & Company.
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1019:Bateson, William; Mendel, Gregor (2009).
987:
943:. Oxford University Press. Archived from
913:. Oxford University Press. Archived from
706:individuals both have type B blood), but
120:Learn how and when to remove this message
698:individuals both have type A blood, and
503:
469:
392:
131:
898:
416:In 1928, British population geneticist
310:) individuals have round peas, and the
236:). Since there is only one copy of the
1653:. Memorial University of Newfoundland.
777:Relationship to other genetic concepts
278:, or wrinkled, associated with allele
1684:"Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man"
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7:
1361:. Living World Media. Archived from
1353:"A Crash Course in Reptile Genetics"
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718:alleles are said to be co-dominant.
520:Incomplete dominance (non-Mendelian)
58:adding citations to reliable sources
1667:Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man
1661:HemoglobinâBeta Locus; HBB - 141900
1657:Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man
863:List of Mendelian traits in humans
650:) and dominant over the recessive
547:Incomplete dominance (also called
160:is the phenomenon of one variant (
25:
883:Summation theorems (biochemistry)
368:
332:allele masks the presence of the
196:in one of the genes, either new (
1671:ABO Glycosyltransferase - 110300
178:the other copy of the chromosome
34:
1351:Bulinski, Steven (2016-01-05).
424:. In 1929, American geneticist
144:is any chromosome other than a
45:needs additional citations for
1170:, Volume 83, Number 1, pp. 1â4
1136:Mayo, O. and BĂźrger, R. 1997.
1023:. Cambridge University Press.
803:Allele § Multiple alleles
638:, chemical modifications to a
559:, or occasionally incorrectly
437:Complete dominance (Mendelian)
251:Dominance is a key concept in
180:. The first variant is termed
1:
686:alleles are each dominant to
674:enzyme adds a galactose. The
1719:Autosomal dominant disorders
1596:Phillips, Patrick C (2008).
1286:10.1371/journal.pbio.3001692
596:Co-dominance (non-Mendelian)
543:partial dominance hypothesis
741:are all distinguishable by
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1158:The evolution of dominance
941:Oxford Dictionaries Online
911:Oxford Dictionaries Online
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172:masking or overriding the
980:10.1007/s10577-012-9274-3
858:Ambidirectional dominance
184:and the second is called
69:"Dominance" genetics
1206:Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A
1061:Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc
1029:10.1017/CBO9780511694462
757:, thus the alleles show
557:intermediate inheritance
389:Introduction to genetics
342:is dominant over allele
1227:10.1073/pnas.2001240117
1112:Modern Genetic Analysis
743:protein electrophoresis
354:is recessive to allele
220:(allosomes) are termed
188:. This state of having
1451:10.1038/sj.tpj.6500285
1328:Essential cell biology
813:ABO blood group system
636:ABO blood group system
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190:two different variants
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18:Dominance relationship
1724:Quantitative genetics
1557:10.1093/dnares/dsu040
1403:10.1201/9781315226828
1393:Brown, T. A. (2018).
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253:Mendelian inheritance
138:Mendelian inheritance
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1663:â Sickle-Cell Anemia
1179:Bagheri, H.C. 2006.
759:incomplete dominance
634:For example, in the
584:When plants of the F
402:Gregor Johann Mendel
242:incomplete dominance
54:improve this article
1502:1990Natur.345..229Y
1218:2020PNAS..11715755R
1156:Bourguet, D. 1999.
617:A and B blood types
326:) individuals, the
210:autosomal recessive
1709:Classical genetics
1673:â ABO blood groups
1439:Pharmacogenomics J
1186:2019-07-02 at the
1163:2016-08-29 at the
1143:2016-03-04 at the
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604:Co-dominance in a
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432:Types of dominance
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226:X-linked recessive
206:autosomal dominant
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1714:Genetics concepts
1496:(6272): 229â233.
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1073:10.1111/brv.12786
868:Mitochondrial DNA
819:Pleiotropic genes
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110:February 2018
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65:Find sources:
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43:This article
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1367:. Retrieved
1363:the original
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1273:PLOS Biology
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989:11343/270255
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967:
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949:. Retrieved
945:the original
940:
931:
919:. Retrieved
915:the original
910:
901:
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829:Pleiotropic
828:
809:polymorphism
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583:
579:no dominance
578:
561:co-dominance
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246:co-dominance
245:
241:
238:Y chromosome
209:
205:
204:. The terms
197:
185:
181:
157:
151:
116:
107:
97:
90:
83:
76:
64:
52:Please help
47:verification
44:
907:"dominance"
791:pleiotropic
763:transcribed
723:beta-globin
487:inheritance
369:co-dominant
234:Sex linkage
1703:Categories
1369:2023-02-03
894:References
878:Penetrance
825:Pleiotropy
727:hemoglobin
566:snapdragon
541:See also:
387:See also:
383:Background
308:homozygous
170:chromosome
80:newspapers
1622:1471-0056
1565:1340-2838
1459:1470-269X
1421:239528980
1395:Genomes 4
1295:1544-9173
1236:0027-8424
998:0967-3849
937:"express"
888:Chimerism
843:Epistasis
837:Epistasis
787:epistasis
656:ABO locus
537:strongly.
447:recessive
377:different
373:epistasis
365:phenotype
268:shape in
214:autosomes
202:inherited
186:recessive
158:dominance
1669:(OMIM):
1659:(OMIM):
1640:18852697
1583:25428896
1475:10695794
1467:15492763
1358:Reptiles
1313:35852997
1254:32571917
1184:Archived
1168:Heredity
1161:Archived
1141:Archived
1091:34382317
1006:22290220
852:See also
608:cultivar
606:Camellia
485:dihybrid
443:dominant
230:Y-linked
194:mutation
182:dominant
154:genetics
142:autosome
1631:2689140
1574:4379978
1545:DNA Res
1526:4237562
1518:2333095
1498:Bibcode
1304:9295954
1245:7355013
1214:Bibcode
1082:9292577
654:at the
198:de novo
164:) of a
94:scholar
1686:(OMIM)
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1628:
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951:14 May
921:14 May
737:, and
658:. The
534:allele
406:hybrid
379:gene.
300:. The
294:, and
174:effect
162:allele
96:
89:
82:
75:
67:
1522:S2CID
1471:S2CID
1417:S2CID
831:genes
765:into
739:Hb/Hb
735:Hb/Hb
731:Hb/Hb
528:This
514:ratio
200:) or
168:on a
101:JSTOR
87:books
1636:PMID
1618:ISSN
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1033:ISBN
1002:PMID
994:ISSN
953:2014
923:2014
789:and
714:and
702:and
694:and
682:and
662:and
270:peas
266:seed
255:and
166:gene
73:news
1626:PMC
1610:doi
1569:PMC
1553:doi
1506:doi
1494:345
1447:doi
1399:doi
1299:PMC
1281:doi
1240:PMC
1222:doi
1210:117
1077:PMC
1069:doi
1025:doi
984:hdl
976:doi
767:RNA
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228:or
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