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and technically, there already are a myriad of legal definitions of digital currency and the many digital currency sub-types. Combining different possible properties, there exists an extensive number of implementations creating many and numerous sub-types of digital currency. Many governmental jurisdictions have implemented their own unique definition for digital currency, virtual currency, cryptocurrency, e-money, network money, e-cash, and other types of digital currency. Within any specific government jurisdiction, different agencies and regulators define different and often conflicting meanings for the different types of digital currency based on the specific properties of a specific currency type or sub-type.
272:' November 2015 "Digital currencies" report, it is an asset represented in digital form and having some monetary characteristics. Digital currency can be denominated to a sovereign currency and issued by the issuer responsible to redeem digital money for cash. In that case, digital currency represents electronic money (e-money). Digital currency denominated in its own units of value or with decentralized or automatic issuance will be considered as a virtual currency. As such, bitcoin is a digital currency but also a type of virtual currency. Bitcoin and its alternatives are based on cryptographic algorithms, so these kinds of virtual currencies are also called cryptocurrencies.
1058:, the central bank of the United Kingdom, proposed the abolition of paper currency. The Bank has also taken an interest in blockchain. In 2016 it has embarked on a multi-year research programme to explore the implications of a central bank issued digital currency. The Bank of England has produced several research papers on the topic. One suggests that the economic benefits of issuing a digital currency on a distributed ledger could add as much as 3 percent to a country's economic output. The Bank said that it wanted the next version of the bank's basic software infrastructure to be compatible with distributed ledgers.
121:. However, they do have a physical form in an unclassical sense coming from the computer to computer and computer to human interactions and the information and processing power of the servers that store and keep track of money. This unclassical physical form allows nearly instantaneous transactions over the internet and vastly lowers the cost associated with distributing notes and coins: for example, of the types of money in the UK economy, 3% are notes and coins, and 79% as electronic money (in the form of bank deposits). Usually not issued by a governmental body, virtual currencies are not considered a
500:, a CBCD is held in the form of tokens. CBDCs are different from regular digital cash forms like in online bank accounts because CBDCs are established through the central bank within a country, with liabilities held by one's government, rather than from a commercial bank. Approximately nine countries have already established a CBDC, with interest in the system increasing highly throughout the world. In these nations, CBDCs have been used as a form of exchange and a way for governments to try to prevent risks from occurring within their
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753:. It has gathered input from bitcoin supporters and the financial industry through public hearings and a comment period until 21 October 2014 to customize the rules. The proposal per NY DFS press release "sought to strike an appropriate balance that helps protect consumers and root out illegal activity". It has been criticized by smaller companies to favor established institutions, and Chinese bitcoin exchanges have complained that the rules are "overly broad in its application outside the United States".
265:'s 2015 "Virtual currency schemes – a further analysis" report, virtual currency is a digital representation of value, not issued by a central bank, credit institution or e-money institution, which, in some circumstances, can be used as an alternative to money. In the previous report of October 2012, the virtual currency was defined as a type of unregulated, digital money, which is issued and usually controlled by its developers, and used and accepted among the members of a specific virtual community.
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a pass code → initiate → verify using a passcode. A receiver can initiate a payment request on the system to send the payer a notification or by presenting a QR code. On receiving the request, the payer can decline or confirm the payment using the same two step process: login → confirm → verify. The system is extraordinarily user friendly to the extent that even technophobes and barely literate users are adopting it in huge numbers.
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205:, founded in 2006; it lets users convert dollars or euros to Liberty Reserve Dollars or Euros, and exchange them freely with one another at a 1% fee. Several digital currency operations were reputed to be used for Ponzi schemes and money laundering, and were prosecuted by the U.S. government for operating without MSB licenses. Q coins or QQ coins, were used as a type of commodity-based digital currency on
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791:(PBOC), wrote that "the conditions are ripe for digital currencies, which can reduce operating costs, increase efficiency and enable a wide range of new applications". According to Fan Yifei, the best way to take advantage of the situation is for central banks to take the lead, both in supervising private digital currencies and in developing digital legal tender of their own.
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650:: As an electronic cash system used in the Netherlands, all ATM cards issued by the Dutch banks had value that could be loaded via Chipknip loading stations. For people without a bank, pre-paid Chipknip cards could be purchased at various locations in the Netherlands. As of 1 January 2015, payment can no longer be made with Chipknip.
1129:, an economist known for his work on monetary and financial economics, "cryptocurrencies like Bitcoin are too volatile to possess the essential attributes of money. Stablecoins have fragile currency pegs that diminish their utility in transactions. And central bank digital currencies are a solution in search of a problem."
2321:"Directive 2009/110/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 16 September 2009 on the taking up, pursuit and prudential supervision of the business of electronic money institutions amending Directives 2005/60/EC and 2006/48/EC and repealing Directive 2000/46/EC, Official Journal L 267, 10/10/2009 P. 0007 - 0017"
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credit cards alone. The electronic currency will be backed by the assets of the
Central Bank of Ecuador", the National Assembly said in a statement. In December 2015, Sistema de Dinero Electrónico ("electronic money system") was launched, making Ecuador the first country with a state-run electronic payment system.
194:-based digital currencies with no central server, and no tangible assets held in reserve. Also known as cryptocurrencies, blockchain-based digital currencies proved resistant to attempt by government to regulate them, because there was no central organization or person with the power to turn them off.
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In her speech, Skingsley states: "The first question is whether e-krona should be booked in accounts or whether the ekrona should be some form of a digitally transferable unit that does not need an underlying account structure, roughly like cash." Skingsley also states: "Another important question is
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UPI has no intermediate holding pond for money. It withdraws funds directly from the bank account of the sender and deposits them directly into the recipient's bank account whenever a transaction is requested. A sender can initiate and authorise a transfer using a two step secure process: login using
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The
Unified Payments Interface (UPI) is a real-time payment system for instant money transfers between any two bank accounts held in participating banks in India. The interface has been developed by the National Payments Corporation of India and is regulated by the Reserve Bank of India. This digital
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Digital currency is a term that refers to a specific type of electronic currency with specific properties. Digital currency is also a term used to include the meta-group of sub-types of digital currency, the specific meaning can only be determined within the specific legal or contextual case. Legally
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Transactions can be initiated by the payer or the payee. To identify a bank account it uses a unique
Virtual Payment Address (VPA) of the type 'accountID@bankID'. The VPA can be assigned by the bank, but can also be self specified just like an email address. The simplest and most common form of VPA
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gives the government permission to make payments in electronic currency and proposes the creation of a national digital currency. "Electronic money will stimulate the economy; it will be possible to attract more
Ecuadorian citizens, especially those who do not have checking or savings accounts and
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system: Launched in 1997 as an electronic purse for public transportation, is the most successful and mature implementation of contactless smart cards used for mass transit payments. After only 5 years, 25 percent of
Octopus card transactions are unrelated to transit, and accepted by more than 160
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A major problem with central bank digital currencies is deciding whether the currency should be easily trackable. If it's traceable, the government has more control than it currently does. Additionally, there's a technical aspect to consider: whether CBDCs should be based on tokens or accounts and
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launched as a mobile payment system through SMS, which transformed into a social app where friends can pay each other for minor expenses like a cup of coffee, rent and pay a share of the restaurant bill when one has forgotten their wallet. It is popular with college students, but has some security
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was the first widely used
Internet money, introduced in 1996, and grew to several million users before the US Government shut it down in 2008. e-gold has been referenced to as "digital currency" by both US officials and academia. In 1997, Coca-Cola offered buying from vending machines using mobile
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through a lottery program to further promote the government-backed digital currency. Recipients of the currency could make both offline and online purchases, expanding on an earlier trial that did not require internet connection through the inclusion of online stores in the program. Around 20,000
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Hard electronic currency does not have the ability to be disputed or reversed when used. It is nearly impossible to reverse a transaction, justified or not. It is very similar to cash. Contrarily, soft electronic currency payments can be reversed. Usually, when a payment is reversed there is a
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states that cash will continue to spiral out of use in Sweden, and while it is currently fairly easy to get cash in Sweden, it is often very difficult to deposit it into bank accounts, especially in rural areas. No decision has been currently made about the decision to create "e-krona".
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in 2013 defined it more tersely as "a medium of exchange that operates like a currency in some environments, but does not have all the attributes of real currency". The US Department of
Treasury also stated that, "Virtual currency does not have legal-tender status in any jurisdiction."
1118:. As such, they may be shut down or seized by a government at any time. The more anonymous a currency is, the more attractive it is to criminals, regardless of the intentions of its creators. Bitcoin has also been criticised for its energy inefficient SHA-256-based
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Government attitude dictates the tendency among established heavy financial actors that both are risk-averse and conservative. None of these offered services around cryptocurrencies and much of the criticism came from them. "The first mover among these has been
1035:, added bitcoin as a means of paying small amounts, up to SFr 200, in a test and an attempt to advance Zug as a region that is advancing future technologies. In order to reduce risk, Zug immediately converts any bitcoin received into the Swiss currency.
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The Danish government proposed getting rid of the obligation for selected retailers to accept payment in cash, moving the country closer to a "cashless" economy. The Danish
Chamber of Commerce is backing the move. Nearly a third of the Danish population uses
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Many existing digital currencies have not yet seen widespread usage, and may not be easily used or exchanged. Banks generally do not accept or offer services for them. There are concerns that cryptocurrencies are extremely risky due to their very high
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LLC will provide enterprise-grade custody solutions, a cryptocurrency trading execution platform and institutional advising services 24 hours a day, seven days a week designed to align with blockchain's always-on trading cycle". It will work with
555:(BIS), "These schemes do not distinguish between users based on location, and therefore allow value to be transferred between users across borders. Moreover, the speed of a transaction is not conditional on the location of the payer and payee."
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system: Oyster is a plastic smartcard that can hold pay-as-you-go credit, Travelcards and Bus & Tram season tickets. An Oyster card can be used to travel on bus, Tube, tram, DLR, London
Overground and most National Rail services in
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The Bank of Canada teamed up with the nation's five largest banks – and the blockchain consulting firm R3 – for what was known as
Project Jasper. In a simulation run in 2016, the central bank issued CAD-Coins onto a blockchain similar
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whether the Riksbank should issue e-krona directly to the general public or go via the banks, as we do now with banknotes and coins." Other questions will be addressed like interest rates, should they be positive, negative, or zero?
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held on computers. They are considered digital currency in some cases. One could argue that our increasingly cashless society means that all currencies are becoming digital currencies, but they are not presented to us as such.
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is 'mobilenumber@upi'. Money can be transferred from one VPA to another or from one VPA to any bank account in a participating bank using account number and bank branch details. Transfers can be inter-bank or intra-bank.
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payment system is available 24 hours a day, every day of the year. UPI is agnostic to the type of user and is used for person to person, person to business, business to person and business to business transactions.
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scheme is used to create and manage the currency. Cryptocurrencies can allow electronic money systems to be decentralized. When implemented with a blockchain, the digital ledger system or record keeping system uses
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invented O2 Wallet at about the same time. The wallet can be charged with regular bank accounts or cards and discharged by participating retailers using a technique known as 'money messages'. The service closed in
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issues. It can be linked to a bank account, credit/debit card or have a loaded value to limit the amount of loss in case of a security breach. Credit cards and non-major debit cards incur a 3% processing fee.
209:'s messaging platform and emerged in early 2005. Q coins were so effective in China that they were said to have had a destabilizing effect on the Chinese Yuan currency due to speculation. Recent interest in
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Virtual currencies pose challenges for central banks, financial regulators, departments or ministries of finance, as well as fiscal authorities and statistical authorities.
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schemes. Regulators in several countries have warned against their use and some have taken concrete regulatory measures to dissuade users. The non-cryptocurrencies are all
713:(IRS) ruling Notice 2014-21 defines any virtual currency, cryptocurrency and digital currency as property; gains and losses are taxable within standard property policies.
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is planning to begin discussions of an electronic currency issued by the central bank to which "is not to replace cash, but to act as complement to it". Deputy Governor
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which can be "decoupled" from the banking system. The announcement received a variety of responses: some believe it is more about domestic control and surveillance.
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as "a type of unregulated, digital money, which is issued and usually controlled by its developers, and used and accepted among the members of a specific
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Advancing Research in Information and Communication Technology: IFIP's Exciting First 60+ Years, Views from the Technical Committees and Working Groups
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transfer in order to facilitate easy payment and give the payee more confidence in not letting go of their electronic wallet during the transaction.
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is in the process of replacing all of its physical banknotes, and most of its coins by mid-2017. However, the new banknotes and coins of the
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in Belgium. Introduced in February 1995, as a means to replace cash for small transactions. The system was retired on 31 December 2014.
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As of 2016, over 24 countries are investing in distributed ledger technologies (DLT) with $ 1.4bn in investments. In addition, over 90
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496:(CBDC) is a form of universally accessible digital money in a nation and holds the same value as the country's paper currency. Like a
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to edit separate shards of database entries that are distributed across many separate servers. The first and most popular system is
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Digital money can either be centralized, where there is a central point of control over the money supply (for instance, a bank), or
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became the first country to issue their own cryptocurrency and certify it as legal tender; the currency is called the "sovereign".
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Digital currencies exhibit properties similar to traditional currencies, but generally do not have a classical physical form of
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567:"on the taking up, pursuit and prudential supervision of the business of electronic money institutions" last amended in 2009.
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773:. The banks used the CAD-Coins to exchange money the way they do at the end of each day to settle their master accounts.
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175:, an electronic cash company, in Amsterdam to commercialize the ideas in his research. It filed for bankruptcy in 1998.
1737:"Deleting Commercial Pornography Sites From The Internet: The U.S. Financial Industry's Efforts To Combat This Problem"
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2601:"FIN-2013-G001: Application of FinCEN's Regulations to Persons Administering, Exchanging, or Using Virtual Currencies"
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intended for pay-as-you-go services including taxis and pre-pay phone recharges via a BBVA current bank account debit.
74:, or money-like asset that is primarily managed, stored or exchanged on digital computer systems, especially over the
916:
639:, used in a variety of ways such as in ticketing systems for public transportation, e-money, and residence door keys.
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2159:"Venmo Money, Venmo Problems: The mobile-payment service is trendy, easy to use, and growing fast. But is it safe?"
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as legal tender for goods or services, unless it is unable to provide the technology needed to do the transaction.
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for consumer transactions. Provider's responsibility and consumer's liability are regulated under Regulation E.
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1687:"The Troubling Suppression of Competition from Alternative Monies: The Cases of the Liberty Dollar and E-gold"
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1502:. IFIP Advances in Information and Communication Technology. Springer International Publishing. p. 301.
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Taxonomy of money, based on "Central bank cryptocurrencies" by Morten Linnemann Bech and Rodney Garratt
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On 20 March 2013, the Financial Crimes Enforcement Network issued a guidance to clarify how the U.S.
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In December 2020, the PBOC distributed CN¥20 million worth of digital renminbi to the residents of
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Precursory ideas for digital currencies were presented in electronic payment methods such as the
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The Digital Currency Challenge: Shaping Online Payment Systems through US Financial Regulations
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released in the United States to make it easy to carry all one's credit/debit cards on a phone.
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3547:"A decade before crypto, one digital currency conquered the world – then failed spectacularly"
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1537:. Department of Computer Science, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA. Archived from
1375:"Development of Electronic Money and Its Impact on the Central Bank Role and Monetary Policy"
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2939:"China Envisions Its Digital-Currency Future, With Lotteries and a Year's Worth of Laundry"
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1039:, government-owned railway company of Switzerland, sells bitcoins at its ticket machines.
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will probably be circulating at about half the 2007 peak of 12,494 kronor per capita. The
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would be released after years of preparation. The version of the currency, known as DCEP (
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proposed the most comprehensive regulation of virtual currencies to date, commonly called
693:(CFTC) has determined virtual currencies are properly defined as commodities in 2015. The
202:
155:, where the control over the money supply is predetermined or agreed upon democratically.
2741:"Celent calls on central banks to issue their own digital currencies /Euromoney magazine"
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Handbook of Digital Currency: Bitcoin, Innovation, Financial Instruments, and Big Data
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has explored the possibility of creating a version of its currency on the blockchain.
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Bender, Christian. "A Gold Standard for the Internet? An Introductory Assessment".
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217:, introduced in 2008, becoming the most widely used and accepted digital currency.
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2398:"BoE explores implications of blockchain and central bank-issued digital currency"
167:. In 1983, a research paper titled "Blind Signatures for Untraceable Payments" by
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2603:. Financial Crimes Enforcement Network. 18 March 2013. p. 6. Archived from
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1051:, advised the government to consider using a blockchain-based digital currency.
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1097:"clearing time." A hard currency can be "softened" with a third-party service.
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applied to persons creating, exchanging, and transmitting virtual currencies.
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2210:"Easytrip, O2 launch mobile toll payments service in the Republic of Ireland"
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30:"E-cash" and "Internet money" redirect here. For the 20th century brand, see
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is experimenting with a blockchain-based virtual currency called "DNBCoin".
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2886:"Digital yuan tsar gives green light for tourists to go cashless in China"
737:(SEC) "warned about the hazards of bitcoin and other virtual currencies".
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3058:"Ecuador becomes the first country to roll out its own digital currency"
2653:"INVESTOR ALERT: BITCOIN AND OTHER VIRTUAL CURRENCY-RELATED INVESTMENTS"
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In the United States, electronic money is governed by Article 4A of the
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historically that can be held in the hand, like currencies with printed
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3031:"Ecuador to Create Government-Run Digital Currency as It Bans Bitcoin"
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3352:"Bitcoin's Volatility Problem: Why Today's Selloff Won't Be the Last"
2912:"China's proposed digital currency more about policing than progress"
2082:. Frankfurt am Main: European Central Bank. October 2012. p. 5.
1804:"'Black Market Bank' Accused of Laundering $ 6B in Criminal Proceeds"
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991:– electronic payment service and digital currency of the same name.
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3307:"Fidelity Launches Institutional Platform For Bitcoin And Ethereum"
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In 2016, Fan Yifei, a deputy governor of China's central bank, the
320:, a peer-to-peer electronic monetary system based on cryptography.
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Committee on Payments and Market Infrastructures (November 2015).
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2559:"Customer Advisory: Beware Virtual Currency Pump-and-DumpSchemes"
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2224:"O2 - O2 money - The O2 Wallet service closed on 31st March 2014"
2025:"From your wallet to Google Wallet: your digital payment options"
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Al-Laham, Mohamad; Al-Tarawneh, Haroon; Abdallat, Najwan (2009).
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has become the first country in the world to officially classify
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2044:"Beyond Bitcoin: A Guide to the Most Promising Cryptocurrencies"
1837:. 5 December 2006. Archived from the original on 6 December 2006
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which were charged to the mobile phone account or prepay credit.
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Central Bank Digital Currency and the Future of Monetary Policy
2239:"Apple Watch works with Apple Pay to replace your credit cards"
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event. In October 2014 it was released as an update to work on
4796:
4443:
4407:
4008:
899:
876:. Starting 90 days after approval, every business must accept
3438:"Bullion and Bandits: The Improbable Rise and Fall of E-Gold"
3409:"Bitcoins Spark Regulatory Crackdown as Denmark Drafts Rules"
3006:"Cashless society: Denmark to allow shops to ban paper money"
2781:"Central Banks Consider Bitcoin's Technology, if Not Bitcoin"
2272:"Countries Developing a Central Bank Digital Currency (CBDC)"
1632:"Bullion and Bandits: The Improbable Rise and Fall of E-Gold"
2861:"Hong Kong Monetary Authority - Hong Kong FinTech Week 2019"
2223:
1778:"After 10 Years, Bitcoin Has Changed Everything—And Nothing"
598:
are engaged in DLT discussions, including implications of a
226:
Digital currency as a specific type and as a meta-group name
3407:
Schwartzkopff, Frances; Levring, Peter (18 December 2013).
2835:"China's digital yuan takes shape with new encryption law"
2479:
1031:
first accepted digital currency in payment of city fees.
213:
has prompted renewed interest in digital currencies, with
2378:"In Introduction to Electronic Money Issues - Appendixes"
1994:"Wary of Bitcoin? A guide to some other cryptocurrencies"
528:
Digital Currency has been implemented in some cases as a
171:
introduced the idea of digital cash. In 1989, he founded
3275:"Inside the Bank of England's vaults: can cash survive?"
3136:"Yandex Sells 75% Of Yandex.Money To Sberbank For $ 60M"
3083:"Bitcoin: El Salvador makes cryptocurrency legal tender"
2513:"Marshall Islands to issue own sovereign cryptocurrency"
3248:"Government urged to use Bitcoin-style digital ledgers"
830:, the digital currency does not have transaction fees.
186:
launched its USD-denominated service in 1998. In 2009,
2977:"Denmark proposes cash-free shops to cut retail costs"
1471:"Digital currencies are impacting video games with..."
1382:
Issues in Informing Science and Information Technology
818:
in the first 24 hours of the trial. Contrary to other
190:
was launched, which marked the start of decentralized
5148:
1763:"History of Mobile & Contactless Payment Systems"
814:
transactions were reported by the e-commerce company
197:
Origins of digital currencies date back to the 1990s
4970:
4853:
4806:
4771:
4699:
4509:
4483:
4431:
4273:
4235:
4164:
4116:
4047:
3957:
3907:
3883:
3867:
3843:
3804:
3779:
3725:
3715:
3681:
3605:
2680:"'BitLicence' proposed to trade virtual currencies"
843:, a smartphone application for transferring money.
794:In October 2019, the PBOC announced that a digital
563:Since 2001, the European Union has implemented the
245:A virtual currency has been defined in 2012 by the
3273:
2809:"On Digital Currencies, Central Banks Should Lead"
1496:Goedicke, M.; Neuhold, E.; Rannenberg, K. (2021).
136:This type of currency may be used to buy physical
3222:"SBB: Make quick and easy purchases with Bitcoin"
2716:"More Comments Invited for Proposed Bitcoin Rule"
2392:
2390:
3383:"A crypto-currency primer: Bitcoin vs. Litecoin"
1715:. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 20–29.
685:US Commodity Futures Trading Commission guidance
283:is a sub-type of digital currency and a digital
3326:"Banks Mostly Avoid Providing Bitcoin Services"
3161:"Skingsley: Should the Riksbank issue e-krona?"
1935:"Virtual currency schemes - a further analysis"
1831:"'China's virtual currency threatens the Yuan'"
747:New York State Department of Financial Services
392:provided an "electronic purse" to residents of
356:Currency can be exchanged electronically using
2971:
2969:
2774:
2772:
2770:
2768:
2766:
2764:
2762:
2511:Chavez-Dreyfuss, Gertrude (28 February 2018).
2462:""Contactless" convenience with Sony's FeliCa"
1900:
1898:
1088:with general availability scheduled for 2019.
729:US Securities and Exchange Commission guidance
4677:
3583:
3498:"Digital Currencies—More than a Passing Fad?"
2342:"ELECTRONIC FUND TRANSFER ACT (REGULATION E)"
221:Sub-types of digital currency and comparisons
201:. Another known digital currency service was
8:
1047:In 2016, the UK's chief scientific adviser,
3192:"Alpine 'Crypto Valley' pays with Bitcoins"
1532:"Blind signatures for untraceable payments"
934:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
4768:
4684:
4670:
4662:
4644:
4428:
3722:
3590:
3576:
3568:
2256:Bordo, Michael D; Levin, Andrew T (2017).
2192:"This Day in Tech: Google Wallet launches"
1141:
366:electronic funds transfer at point of sale
94:on the internet, a centralized electronic
3513:
3305:Castillo, Michael del (15 October 2018).
1669:
1586:
1584:
1435:
1433:
1417:"How is money created? - Bank of England"
1393:
954:Learn how and when to remove this message
376:A number of electronic money systems use
3431:
3429:
2190:Dickinson, Boonsri (19 September 2011).
144:, but may also be restricted to certain
90:. Digital currency may be recorded on a
42:
5155:
2657:U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission
2298:International Journal of Bank Marketing
2260:. National Bureau of Economic Research.
1365:
148:such as for use inside an online game.
3381:O'Grady, Jason D. (13 December 2013).
3202:from the original on 20 September 2016
1848:
532:system of any combination of currency
508:how much anonymity users should have.
78:. Types of digital currencies include
5050:Commodity theory of money (Metallism)
4562:Decentralized autonomous organization
3056:Everett Rosenfeld (9 February 2015).
2833:Tabeta, Shunsuke (31 December 2019).
2779:Popper, Nathaniel (11 October 2016).
2538:"A CFTC Primer on Virtual Currencies"
2349:Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation
2157:Griswold, Alison (26 February 2015).
2099:from the original on 6 November 2012.
1868:
1866:
701:schemes that use virtual currencies.
27:Currency stored on electronic systems
7:
4632:
3286:from the original on 12 January 2022
3190:Uhlig/jse, Christian (1 July 2016).
2937:Cheng, Jonathan (27 December 2020).
2566:Commodity Futures Trading Commission
2545:Commodity Futures Trading Commission
2237:D'Orazio, Dante (9 September 2014).
1564:"What Was the First Cryptocurrency?"
1451:. Bank for International Settlements
932:adding citations to reliable sources
705:US Internal Revenue Service guidance
691:Commodity Futures Trading Commission
600:central bank issued digital currency
3272:Szu Ping Chan (13 September 2016).
3246:Baraniuk, Chris (19 January 2016).
3134:Andrii Degeler (19 December 2012).
866:Legislative Assembly of El Salvador
800:Digital Currency Electronic Payment
574:for wholesale transactions and the
324:Digital versus traditional currency
98:owned by a company or bank, within
3167:. 16 November 2016. Archived from
735:Securities and Exchange Commission
553:Bank for International Settlements
270:Bank for International Settlements
25:
5027:Akkadian standards of measurement
4572:Distributed ledger technology law
3324:Sidel, Robin (22 December 2013).
1776:Finley, Klint (31 October 2018).
410:called Mobipay which used simple
165:Sabre (travel reservation system)
5170:
5158:
4836:
4643:
4631:
4620:
4619:
3350:Tucker, Toph (5 December 2013).
2628:"SEC Warns Investors on Bitcoin"
1591:Pitta, Julie (1 November 1999).
1092:Hard vs. soft digital currencies
904:
4713:(W. Mesoamerica & N. Andes)
3468:. Academic Press. p. 211.
3004:Matthews, Chris (22 May 2015).
2859:Authority, Hong Kong Monetary.
2807:Yifei, Fan (1 September 2016).
2678:Dean, James (16 October 2023).
235:Digital versus virtual currency
3462:Lee, David; Kuo Chuen (2015).
3108:Peyton, Antony (4 July 2016).
2714:SydneyEmber (21 August 2014).
2023:Tuffley, David (21 May 2013).
2011:What does Cryptocurrency mean?
1207:Gold & Silver Reserve Inc.
1:
5030:
4978:List of historical currencies
4883:Central bank digital currency
3545:Grant, Conor (30 June 2018).
1992:Steadman, Ian (11 May 2013).
1802:Jack Cloherty (28 May 2013).
1339:Local exchange trading system
1314:Central bank digital currency
494:central bank digital currency
488:Central bank digital currency
483:, but for Apple devices only.
406:launched a payment system in
276:Digital versus cryptocurrency
129:transfer across governmental
88:central bank digital currency
5084:Standard of deferred payment
3515:10.1525/curh.2022.121.831.24
3035:International Business Times
2865:Hong Kong Monetary Authority
1329:Electronic Money Association
1062:Adoption by financial actors
853:National Assembly of Ecuador
576:Electronic Fund Transfer Act
34:. For the record label, see
3628:Cryptographic hash function
3496:Eichengreen, Barry (2022).
3436:Zetter, Kim (9 June 2009).
3358:. Bloomberg. Archived from
2626:Frizell, Sam (7 May 2014).
2587:US Internal Revenue Service
1630:Zetter, Kim (9 June 2009).
1613:"Digicash files Chapter 11"
1593:"Requiem for a Bright Idea"
711:US Internal Revenue Service
540:record, ownership transfer
448:) launched Easytrip to pay
5209:
1874:"Virtual Currency Schemes"
780:
521:
515:
349:
238:
29:
4831:
4615:
4592:Initial exchange offering
4567:Decentralized application
4547:Cryptocurrency in Nigeria
2111:"Mobipay - Fujitsu Spain"
2013:, technopedia, 01-07-2013
1855:: CS1 maint: unfit URL (
1473:Offgamers. Archived from
1334:Electronic funds transfer
1324:E-commerce payment system
1299:Community Exchange System
741:New York state regulation
697:warned investors against
390:National Westminster Bank
352:Electronic funds transfer
255:US Department of Treasury
5067:Quantity theory of money
4888:Chattel/movable property
4597:List of cryptocurrencies
4484:Crypto service companies
4275:Cryptocurrency exchanges
2890:South China Morning Post
2424:"Hong Kong Octopus Card"
2076:Virtual Currency Schemes
1711:Mullan, Carl P. (2014).
1284:Automated clearing house
680:United States of America
548:, and currency storage.
524:List of cryptocurrencies
479:. It is very similar to
328:Most of the traditional
3330:The Wall Street Journal
3110:"Blockchain goes Dutch"
2944:The Wall Street Journal
2580:"US IRS Notice 2014-21"
1304:Cryptocurrency exchange
1077:Fidelity Digital Assets
1054:The chief economist of
590:Adoption by governments
572:Uniform Commercial Code
5126:Complementary currency
5055:Credit theory of money
5015:Depository institution
4532:Complementary currency
3633:Decentralized exchange
3618:Cryptocurrency tumbler
3356:Bloomberg BusinessWeek
2429:. 2005. Archived from
1279:Complementary currency
1037:Swiss Federal Railways
983:Government-controlled
789:People's Bank of China
429:On 19 September 2011,
372:Mobile digital wallets
48:
36:Internet Money Records
5109:Digital gold currency
4587:Initial coin offering
4542:Cryptocurrency bubble
4068:Basic Attention Token
3638:Decentralized finance
3623:Cryptocurrency wallet
2659:. sec.gov. 7 May 2014
1530:Chaum, David (1982).
1309:Cryptocurrency wallet
635:: A contactless RFID
512:Decentralized systems
467:was announced at the
463:On 9 September 2014,
412:short message service
263:European Central Bank
247:European Central Bank
46:
4988:Coincidence of wants
4808:Representative money
4582:Environmental impact
4552:Cryptocurrency scams
2482:on 29 November 2017.
2436:on 15 February 2017.
1964:"Digital Currencies"
1442:"Digital Currencies"
1138:Non-cryptocurrencies
1069:Fidelity Investments
928:improve this section
864:On Jun 9, 2021, the
851:A law passed by the
717:US Treasury guidance
295:of asset transfers,
92:distributed database
5136:Time-based currency
4237:Inactive currencies
3171:on 21 December 2016
2568:. 15 February 2018.
2212:. 15 November 2012.
2054:on 24 December 2013
1743:. 21 September 2006
1685:White, Lawrence H.
1544:on 3 September 2011
1477:on 22 November 2018
733:In May 2014 the US
672:In March 2018, the
378:contactless payment
346:Centralized systems
64:electronic currency
5193:Digital currencies
5005:Clearinghouse bank
4693:Medium of exchange
3692:Proof of authority
3663:Non-fungible token
3643:Distributed ledger
3362:on 6 December 2013
2786:The New York Times
2547:. 17 October 2017.
2404:. 9 September 2016
2137:"Origins of Venmo"
2042:Liu, Alec (2013).
1915:. 10 November 2015
1658:Electronic Markets
1240:South African rand
1231:James Orlin Grabbe
1110:and potential for
985:Sberbank of Russia
890:Dutch central bank
822:platforms such as
745:In July 2014, the
303:. In some cases a
293:digital signatures
291:to chain together
49:
5146:
5145:
5131:Sectoral currency
5077:Market monetarism
5040:Code of Hammurabi
4829:
4828:
4821:Gold certificates
4659:
4658:
4479:
4478:
4136:First Digital USD
3953:
3952:
3653:Lightning Network
2918:. 1 November 2019
2892:. 6 November 2019
2747:. 20 October 2016
2500:on 18 April 2015.
2476:"Home - Chipknip"
2448:"What is Oyster?"
2089:978-92-899-0862-7
1835:Asia Times Online
1619:. 2 January 2002.
1509:978-3-030-81701-5
1289:Cashless catering
1270:
1269:
1127:Barry Eichengreen
1012:Cecilia Skingsley
964:
963:
956:
565:E-Money Directive
502:financial systems
421:In January 2010,
268:According to the
261:According to the
251:virtual community
104:stored-value card
96:computer database
16:(Redirected from
5200:
5175:
5174:
5173:
5163:
5162:
5154:
5114:Virtual currency
5099:Digital currency
5035:
5032:
4995:Bureau de change
4846:
4841:
4840:
4839:
4772:Domestic animals
4769:
4686:
4679:
4672:
4663:
4647:
4646:
4635:
4634:
4623:
4622:
4607:Virtual currency
4557:Digital currency
4537:Crypto-anarchism
4429:
4182:HBAR (Hashgraph)
4165:Other currencies
3796:Ethereum Classic
3723:
3599:Cryptocurrencies
3592:
3585:
3578:
3569:
3562:
3561:
3559:
3557:
3542:
3536:
3535:
3517:
3493:
3487:
3486:
3484:
3482:
3459:
3453:
3452:
3450:
3448:
3433:
3424:
3423:
3421:
3419:
3404:
3398:
3397:
3395:
3393:
3378:
3372:
3371:
3369:
3367:
3347:
3341:
3340:
3338:
3336:
3321:
3315:
3314:
3302:
3296:
3295:
3293:
3291:
3277:
3269:
3263:
3262:
3260:
3258:
3243:
3237:
3236:
3234:
3232:
3218:
3212:
3211:
3209:
3207:
3187:
3181:
3180:
3178:
3176:
3157:
3151:
3150:
3148:
3146:
3131:
3125:
3124:
3122:
3120:
3105:
3099:
3098:
3096:
3094:
3079:
3073:
3072:
3070:
3068:
3053:
3047:
3046:
3044:
3042:
3027:
3021:
3020:
3018:
3016:
3001:
2995:
2994:
2992:
2990:
2973:
2964:
2963:
2961:
2959:
2934:
2928:
2927:
2925:
2923:
2908:
2902:
2901:
2899:
2897:
2882:
2876:
2875:
2873:
2871:
2856:
2850:
2849:
2847:
2845:
2830:
2824:
2823:
2821:
2819:
2804:
2798:
2797:
2795:
2793:
2776:
2757:
2756:
2754:
2752:
2737:
2731:
2730:
2728:
2726:
2711:
2705:
2704:
2702:
2700:
2675:
2669:
2668:
2666:
2664:
2649:
2643:
2642:
2640:
2638:
2623:
2617:
2616:
2614:
2612:
2607:on 19 March 2013
2597:
2591:
2590:
2584:
2576:
2570:
2569:
2563:
2555:
2549:
2548:
2542:
2534:
2528:
2527:
2525:
2523:
2508:
2502:
2501:
2496:. Archived from
2490:
2484:
2483:
2478:. Archived from
2472:
2466:
2465:
2458:
2452:
2451:
2444:
2438:
2437:
2435:
2428:
2420:
2414:
2413:
2411:
2409:
2394:
2385:
2384:
2382:
2374:
2368:
2367:
2365:
2363:
2358:on 30 April 2017
2357:
2351:. Archived from
2346:
2338:
2332:
2331:
2329:
2327:
2317:
2311:
2310:
2293:
2287:
2286:
2284:
2282:
2268:
2262:
2261:
2253:
2247:
2246:
2234:
2228:
2227:
2220:
2214:
2213:
2206:
2200:
2199:
2187:
2181:
2180:
2173:
2167:
2166:
2154:
2148:
2147:
2145:
2143:
2133:
2127:
2126:
2124:
2122:
2117:on 26 March 2017
2113:. Archived from
2107:
2101:
2100:
2098:
2081:
2070:
2064:
2063:
2061:
2059:
2050:. Archived from
2048:Vice Motherboard
2039:
2033:
2032:
2029:The Conversation
2020:
2014:
2008:
2002:
2001:
1989:
1983:
1982:
1980:
1978:
1968:
1960:
1954:
1953:
1951:
1949:
1939:
1931:
1925:
1924:
1922:
1920:
1910:
1902:
1893:
1892:
1890:
1888:
1878:
1870:
1861:
1860:
1854:
1846:
1844:
1842:
1827:
1821:
1820:
1818:
1816:
1799:
1793:
1792:
1790:
1788:
1773:
1767:
1766:
1759:
1753:
1752:
1750:
1748:
1733:
1727:
1726:
1708:
1702:
1701:
1691:
1682:
1676:
1675:
1673:
1653:
1647:
1646:
1644:
1642:
1627:
1621:
1620:
1609:
1603:
1602:
1588:
1579:
1578:
1576:
1574:
1560:
1554:
1553:
1551:
1549:
1543:
1536:
1527:
1521:
1520:
1518:
1516:
1493:
1487:
1486:
1484:
1482:
1467:
1461:
1460:
1458:
1456:
1446:
1437:
1428:
1427:
1425:
1423:
1413:
1407:
1406:
1404:
1402:
1397:
1379:
1370:
1349:Private currency
1294:Cashless society
1142:
1049:Sir Mark Walport
1033:Zug, Switzerland
959:
952:
948:
945:
939:
908:
900:
783:Digital renminbi
723:Bank Secrecy Act
674:Marshall Islands
664:application for
662:electronic purse
341:Types of systems
301:decentralization
241:Virtual currency
211:cryptocurrencies
125:and they enable
84:virtual currency
60:electronic money
52:Digital currency
21:
5208:
5207:
5203:
5202:
5201:
5199:
5198:
5197:
5183:
5182:
5181:
5171:
5169:
5157:
5149:
5147:
5142:
5094:Unit of account
5033:
4966:
4952:Promissory note
4930:Deposit account
4903:Cheque clearing
4857:
4849:
4842:
4837:
4835:
4825:
4802:
4767:
4735:Precious metals
4702:
4695:
4690:
4660:
4655:
4611:
4577:Double-spending
4527:Blockchain game
4505:
4475:
4427:
4269:
4231:
4160:
4112:
4043:
3949:
3903:
3879:
3863:
3839:
3800:
3775:
3711:
3677:
3601:
3596:
3566:
3565:
3555:
3553:
3544:
3543:
3539:
3502:Current History
3495:
3494:
3490:
3480:
3478:
3476:
3461:
3460:
3456:
3446:
3444:
3435:
3434:
3427:
3417:
3415:
3406:
3405:
3401:
3391:
3389:
3380:
3379:
3375:
3365:
3363:
3349:
3348:
3344:
3334:
3332:
3323:
3322:
3318:
3304:
3303:
3299:
3289:
3287:
3280:Telegraph.co.uk
3271:
3270:
3266:
3256:
3254:
3245:
3244:
3240:
3230:
3228:
3220:
3219:
3215:
3205:
3203:
3189:
3188:
3184:
3174:
3172:
3159:
3158:
3154:
3144:
3142:
3133:
3132:
3128:
3118:
3116:
3114:FinTech Futures
3107:
3106:
3102:
3092:
3090:
3081:
3080:
3076:
3066:
3064:
3055:
3054:
3050:
3040:
3038:
3029:
3028:
3024:
3014:
3012:
3003:
3002:
2998:
2988:
2986:
2975:
2974:
2967:
2957:
2955:
2936:
2935:
2931:
2921:
2919:
2910:
2909:
2905:
2895:
2893:
2884:
2883:
2879:
2869:
2867:
2858:
2857:
2853:
2843:
2841:
2832:
2831:
2827:
2817:
2815:
2806:
2805:
2801:
2791:
2789:
2778:
2777:
2760:
2750:
2748:
2739:
2738:
2734:
2724:
2722:
2713:
2712:
2708:
2698:
2696:
2677:
2676:
2672:
2662:
2660:
2651:
2650:
2646:
2636:
2634:
2625:
2624:
2620:
2610:
2608:
2599:
2598:
2594:
2582:
2578:
2577:
2573:
2561:
2557:
2556:
2552:
2540:
2536:
2535:
2531:
2521:
2519:
2510:
2509:
2505:
2492:
2491:
2487:
2474:
2473:
2469:
2460:
2459:
2455:
2446:
2445:
2441:
2433:
2426:
2422:
2421:
2417:
2407:
2405:
2396:
2395:
2388:
2380:
2376:
2375:
2371:
2361:
2359:
2355:
2344:
2340:
2339:
2335:
2325:
2323:
2319:
2318:
2314:
2295:
2294:
2290:
2280:
2278:
2270:
2269:
2265:
2255:
2254:
2250:
2236:
2235:
2231:
2222:
2221:
2217:
2208:
2207:
2203:
2189:
2188:
2184:
2177:"Venmo pricing"
2175:
2174:
2170:
2156:
2155:
2151:
2141:
2139:
2135:
2134:
2130:
2120:
2118:
2109:
2108:
2104:
2096:
2090:
2079:
2072:
2071:
2067:
2057:
2055:
2041:
2040:
2036:
2022:
2021:
2017:
2009:
2005:
1991:
1990:
1986:
1976:
1974:
1973:. November 2015
1966:
1962:
1961:
1957:
1947:
1945:
1944:. February 2015
1937:
1933:
1932:
1928:
1918:
1916:
1908:
1904:
1903:
1896:
1886:
1884:
1876:
1872:
1871:
1864:
1847:
1840:
1838:
1829:
1828:
1824:
1814:
1812:
1801:
1800:
1796:
1786:
1784:
1775:
1774:
1770:
1761:
1760:
1756:
1746:
1744:
1741:www.govinfo.gov
1735:
1734:
1730:
1723:
1710:
1709:
1705:
1689:
1684:
1683:
1679:
1671:10.1.1.543.5010
1655:
1654:
1650:
1640:
1638:
1629:
1628:
1624:
1611:
1610:
1606:
1590:
1589:
1582:
1572:
1570:
1562:
1561:
1557:
1547:
1545:
1541:
1534:
1529:
1528:
1524:
1514:
1512:
1510:
1495:
1494:
1490:
1480:
1478:
1469:
1468:
1464:
1454:
1452:
1444:
1439:
1438:
1431:
1421:
1419:
1415:
1414:
1410:
1400:
1398:
1377:
1372:
1371:
1367:
1362:
1275:
1238:Not related to
1140:
1135:
1103:
1094:
1064:
1056:Bank of England
1045:
1029:city government
1025:
997:
981:
960:
949:
943:
940:
925:
909:
898:
886:
862:
849:
836:
802:), is based on
785:
779:
759:
743:
731:
719:
707:
687:
682:
592:
584:
561:
526:
520:
514:
490:
374:
354:
348:
343:
326:
299:networking and
287:that relies on
278:
243:
237:
228:
223:
203:Liberty Reserve
161:
39:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
5206:
5204:
5196:
5195:
5185:
5184:
5180:
5179:
5167:
5144:
5143:
5141:
5140:
5139:
5138:
5133:
5128:
5121:Local currency
5118:
5117:
5116:
5111:
5106:
5104:Cryptocurrency
5096:
5091:
5089:Store of value
5086:
5081:
5080:
5079:
5074:
5064:
5063:
5062:
5052:
5047:
5044:§100; §122–125
5037:
5034: 2150 BC
5024:
5019:
5018:
5017:
5007:
5002:
4997:
4992:
4991:
4990:
4980:
4974:
4972:
4968:
4967:
4965:
4964:
4959:
4954:
4949:
4944:
4939:
4934:
4933:
4932:
4922:
4917:
4912:
4907:
4906:
4905:
4895:
4890:
4885:
4880:
4875:
4869:
4867:
4851:
4850:
4848:
4847:
4832:
4830:
4827:
4826:
4824:
4823:
4818:
4812:
4810:
4804:
4803:
4801:
4800:
4799:(Tibet, China)
4794:
4788:
4782:
4775:
4773:
4766:
4765:
4760:
4755:
4749:
4743:
4742:(cotton cloth)
4737:
4732:
4726:
4720:
4714:
4707:
4705:
4697:
4696:
4691:
4689:
4688:
4681:
4674:
4666:
4657:
4656:
4654:
4653:
4641:
4629:
4616:
4613:
4612:
4610:
4609:
4604:
4599:
4594:
4589:
4584:
4579:
4574:
4569:
4564:
4559:
4554:
4549:
4544:
4539:
4534:
4529:
4524:
4519:
4513:
4511:
4510:Related topics
4507:
4506:
4504:
4503:
4498:
4493:
4487:
4485:
4481:
4480:
4477:
4476:
4474:
4473:
4468:
4463:
4458:
4453:
4452:
4451:
4441:
4435:
4433:
4426:
4425:
4420:
4415:
4410:
4405:
4400:
4395:
4390:
4385:
4380:
4375:
4370:
4365:
4360:
4355:
4350:
4345:
4340:
4335:
4330:
4325:
4320:
4315:
4310:
4305:
4300:
4295:
4290:
4285:
4279:
4277:
4271:
4270:
4268:
4267:
4262:
4257:
4252:
4247:
4241:
4239:
4233:
4232:
4230:
4229:
4224:
4219:
4214:
4209:
4204:
4199:
4194:
4189:
4184:
4179:
4174:
4168:
4166:
4162:
4161:
4159:
4158:
4153:
4148:
4143:
4138:
4133:
4128:
4122:
4120:
4114:
4113:
4111:
4110:
4105:
4100:
4095:
4090:
4085:
4080:
4075:
4070:
4065:
4060:
4054:
4052:
4045:
4044:
4042:
4041:
4036:
4031:
4026:
4021:
4016:
4011:
4006:
4001:
3996:
3991:
3985:
3980:
3975:
3970:
3964:
3962:
3959:Proof of stake
3955:
3954:
3951:
3950:
3948:
3947:
3942:
3937:
3932:
3930:Nervos Network
3927:
3922:
3917:
3911:
3909:
3905:
3904:
3902:
3901:
3896:
3890:
3888:
3881:
3880:
3878:
3877:
3871:
3869:
3865:
3864:
3862:
3861:
3856:
3850:
3848:
3841:
3840:
3838:
3837:
3832:
3827:
3822:
3817:
3811:
3809:
3802:
3801:
3799:
3798:
3793:
3786:
3784:
3777:
3776:
3774:
3773:
3768:
3763:
3758:
3753:
3748:
3743:
3738:
3732:
3730:
3720:
3713:
3712:
3710:
3709:
3704:
3702:Proof of stake
3699:
3697:Proof of space
3694:
3688:
3686:
3679:
3678:
3676:
3675:
3670:
3668:Smart contract
3665:
3660:
3655:
3650:
3645:
3640:
3635:
3630:
3625:
3620:
3615:
3609:
3607:
3603:
3602:
3597:
3595:
3594:
3587:
3580:
3572:
3564:
3563:
3537:
3508:(831): 24–29.
3488:
3474:
3454:
3425:
3399:
3373:
3342:
3316:
3297:
3264:
3238:
3213:
3182:
3152:
3140:Thenextweb.com
3126:
3100:
3074:
3048:
3037:. 25 July 2014
3022:
2996:
2965:
2929:
2903:
2877:
2851:
2825:
2799:
2758:
2732:
2706:
2670:
2644:
2618:
2592:
2571:
2550:
2529:
2503:
2485:
2467:
2453:
2439:
2415:
2402:EconoTimes.com
2386:
2369:
2333:
2312:
2288:
2263:
2248:
2229:
2215:
2201:
2182:
2168:
2149:
2128:
2102:
2088:
2065:
2034:
2015:
2003:
1984:
1955:
1926:
1906:"Audit Report"
1894:
1883:. October 2012
1862:
1822:
1794:
1768:
1754:
1728:
1722:978-1137382559
1721:
1703:
1677:
1648:
1622:
1604:
1580:
1555:
1522:
1508:
1488:
1462:
1429:
1408:
1364:
1363:
1361:
1358:
1357:
1356:
1351:
1346:
1344:Payment system
1341:
1336:
1331:
1326:
1321:
1319:Digital wallet
1316:
1311:
1306:
1301:
1296:
1291:
1286:
1281:
1274:
1271:
1268:
1267:
1265:
1262:
1257:
1254:
1251:
1249:
1243:
1242:
1236:
1233:
1228:
1225:
1222:
1220:
1214:
1213:
1211:
1208:
1205:
1202:
1199:
1197:
1191:
1190:
1188:
1185:
1182:
1179:
1176:
1174:
1168:
1167:
1164:
1158:
1155:
1152:
1149:
1146:
1139:
1136:
1134:
1131:
1102:
1099:
1093:
1090:
1063:
1060:
1044:
1041:
1024:
1021:
996:
993:
980:
977:
962:
961:
912:
910:
903:
897:
894:
885:
882:
874:legal currency
861:
858:
848:
845:
835:
832:
820:online payment
804:cryptocurrency
781:Main article:
778:
775:
763:Bank of Canada
758:
755:
742:
739:
730:
727:
718:
715:
706:
703:
686:
683:
681:
678:
670:
669:
651:
640:
626:
615:
591:
588:
583:
580:
560:
557:
518:Cryptocurrency
516:Main article:
513:
510:
498:cryptocurrency
489:
486:
485:
484:
461:
453:
434:
427:
419:
416:feature phones
414:facilities of
398:In about 2005
396:
373:
370:
350:Main article:
347:
344:
342:
339:
325:
322:
309:proof-of-stake
281:Cryptocurrency
277:
274:
239:Main article:
236:
233:
227:
224:
222:
219:
199:Dot-com bubble
160:
157:
80:cryptocurrency
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5205:
5194:
5191:
5190:
5188:
5178:
5168:
5166:
5161:
5156:
5152:
5137:
5134:
5132:
5129:
5127:
5124:
5123:
5122:
5119:
5115:
5112:
5110:
5107:
5105:
5102:
5101:
5100:
5097:
5095:
5092:
5090:
5087:
5085:
5082:
5078:
5075:
5073:
5070:
5069:
5068:
5065:
5061:
5058:
5057:
5056:
5053:
5051:
5048:
5046:; c. 1750 BC)
5045:
5041:
5038:
5028:
5025:
5023:
5020:
5016:
5013:
5012:
5011:
5008:
5006:
5003:
5001:
4998:
4996:
4993:
4989:
4986:
4985:
4984:
4981:
4979:
4976:
4975:
4973:
4969:
4963:
4960:
4958:
4955:
4953:
4950:
4948:
4945:
4943:
4940:
4938:
4935:
4931:
4928:
4927:
4926:
4923:
4921:
4918:
4916:
4913:
4911:
4908:
4904:
4901:
4900:
4899:
4896:
4894:
4891:
4889:
4886:
4884:
4881:
4879:
4876:
4874:
4871:
4870:
4868:
4865:
4861:
4856:
4852:
4845:
4834:
4822:
4819:
4817:
4814:
4813:
4811:
4809:
4805:
4798:
4795:
4792:
4789:
4786:
4783:
4780:
4779:Water buffalo
4777:
4776:
4774:
4770:
4764:
4761:
4759:
4756:
4753:
4750:
4748:(Roman world)
4747:
4744:
4741:
4738:
4736:
4733:
4730:
4727:
4724:
4721:
4719:(Mesoamerica)
4718:
4715:
4712:
4709:
4708:
4706:
4704:
4698:
4694:
4687:
4682:
4680:
4675:
4673:
4668:
4667:
4664:
4652:
4651:
4642:
4640:
4639:
4630:
4628:
4627:
4618:
4617:
4614:
4608:
4605:
4603:
4600:
4598:
4595:
4593:
4590:
4588:
4585:
4583:
4580:
4578:
4575:
4573:
4570:
4568:
4565:
4563:
4560:
4558:
4555:
4553:
4550:
4548:
4545:
4543:
4540:
4538:
4535:
4533:
4530:
4528:
4525:
4523:
4520:
4518:
4515:
4514:
4512:
4508:
4502:
4499:
4497:
4494:
4492:
4489:
4488:
4486:
4482:
4472:
4469:
4467:
4464:
4462:
4459:
4457:
4456:LocalBitcoins
4454:
4450:
4447:
4446:
4445:
4442:
4440:
4437:
4436:
4434:
4430:
4424:
4421:
4419:
4416:
4414:
4411:
4409:
4406:
4404:
4401:
4399:
4396:
4394:
4391:
4389:
4388:ItBit (Paxos)
4386:
4384:
4381:
4379:
4376:
4374:
4371:
4369:
4366:
4364:
4361:
4359:
4356:
4354:
4351:
4349:
4346:
4344:
4341:
4339:
4336:
4334:
4331:
4329:
4326:
4324:
4321:
4319:
4316:
4314:
4311:
4309:
4306:
4304:
4301:
4299:
4296:
4294:
4291:
4289:
4286:
4284:
4281:
4280:
4278:
4276:
4272:
4266:
4263:
4261:
4258:
4256:
4253:
4251:
4248:
4246:
4243:
4242:
4240:
4238:
4234:
4228:
4225:
4223:
4220:
4218:
4215:
4213:
4210:
4208:
4205:
4203:
4200:
4198:
4195:
4193:
4190:
4188:
4185:
4183:
4180:
4178:
4175:
4173:
4170:
4169:
4167:
4163:
4157:
4154:
4152:
4149:
4147:
4144:
4142:
4139:
4137:
4134:
4132:
4129:
4127:
4124:
4123:
4121:
4119:
4115:
4109:
4106:
4104:
4101:
4099:
4096:
4094:
4091:
4089:
4086:
4084:
4081:
4079:
4076:
4074:
4071:
4069:
4066:
4064:
4061:
4059:
4056:
4055:
4053:
4050:
4046:
4040:
4037:
4035:
4032:
4030:
4027:
4025:
4022:
4020:
4017:
4015:
4012:
4010:
4007:
4005:
4002:
4000:
3997:
3995:
3992:
3989:
3986:
3984:
3981:
3979:
3976:
3974:
3971:
3969:
3966:
3965:
3963:
3960:
3956:
3946:
3943:
3941:
3938:
3936:
3933:
3931:
3928:
3926:
3923:
3921:
3918:
3916:
3913:
3912:
3910:
3906:
3900:
3897:
3895:
3892:
3891:
3889:
3886:
3882:
3876:
3873:
3872:
3870:
3868:RandomX-based
3866:
3860:
3857:
3855:
3852:
3851:
3849:
3846:
3842:
3836:
3833:
3831:
3828:
3826:
3823:
3821:
3818:
3816:
3813:
3812:
3810:
3807:
3803:
3797:
3794:
3791:
3788:
3787:
3785:
3782:
3778:
3772:
3769:
3767:
3764:
3762:
3759:
3757:
3754:
3752:
3749:
3747:
3744:
3742:
3739:
3737:
3734:
3733:
3731:
3728:
3724:
3721:
3718:
3717:Proof of work
3714:
3708:
3707:Proof of work
3705:
3703:
3700:
3698:
3695:
3693:
3690:
3689:
3687:
3684:
3680:
3674:
3671:
3669:
3666:
3664:
3661:
3659:
3656:
3654:
3651:
3649:
3646:
3644:
3641:
3639:
3636:
3634:
3631:
3629:
3626:
3624:
3621:
3619:
3616:
3614:
3611:
3610:
3608:
3604:
3600:
3593:
3588:
3586:
3581:
3579:
3574:
3573:
3570:
3552:
3548:
3541:
3538:
3533:
3529:
3525:
3521:
3516:
3511:
3507:
3503:
3499:
3492:
3489:
3477:
3475:9780128023518
3471:
3467:
3466:
3458:
3455:
3443:
3439:
3432:
3430:
3426:
3414:
3410:
3403:
3400:
3388:
3384:
3377:
3374:
3361:
3357:
3353:
3346:
3343:
3331:
3327:
3320:
3317:
3312:
3308:
3301:
3298:
3285:
3281:
3276:
3268:
3265:
3253:
3249:
3242:
3239:
3227:
3223:
3217:
3214:
3201:
3197:
3193:
3186:
3183:
3170:
3166:
3162:
3156:
3153:
3141:
3137:
3130:
3127:
3115:
3111:
3104:
3101:
3089:. 9 June 2021
3088:
3084:
3078:
3075:
3063:
3059:
3052:
3049:
3036:
3032:
3026:
3023:
3011:
3007:
3000:
2997:
2984:
2983:
2978:
2972:
2970:
2966:
2954:
2950:
2946:
2945:
2940:
2933:
2930:
2917:
2913:
2907:
2904:
2891:
2887:
2881:
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2787:
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2775:
2773:
2771:
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2745:Euromoney.com
2742:
2736:
2733:
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2717:
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2249:
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2205:
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2193:
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2183:
2178:
2172:
2169:
2164:
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2153:
2150:
2138:
2132:
2129:
2116:
2112:
2106:
2103:
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2091:
2085:
2078:
2077:
2069:
2066:
2053:
2049:
2045:
2038:
2035:
2030:
2026:
2019:
2016:
2012:
2007:
2004:
1999:
1995:
1988:
1985:
1972:
1965:
1959:
1956:
1943:
1942:ecb.europa.eu
1936:
1930:
1927:
1914:
1907:
1901:
1899:
1895:
1882:
1881:ecb.europa.eu
1875:
1869:
1867:
1863:
1858:
1852:
1836:
1832:
1826:
1823:
1811:
1810:
1805:
1798:
1795:
1783:
1779:
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1769:
1764:
1758:
1755:
1742:
1738:
1732:
1729:
1724:
1718:
1714:
1707:
1704:
1700:(2): 281–301.
1699:
1695:
1688:
1681:
1678:
1672:
1667:
1663:
1659:
1652:
1649:
1637:
1633:
1626:
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1618:
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1600:
1599:
1594:
1587:
1585:
1581:
1569:
1565:
1559:
1556:
1540:
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1526:
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1501:
1500:
1492:
1489:
1476:
1472:
1466:
1463:
1450:
1443:
1436:
1434:
1430:
1418:
1412:
1409:
1396:
1395:10.28945/1063
1391:
1387:
1383:
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1369:
1366:
1359:
1355:
1352:
1350:
1347:
1345:
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1340:
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1335:
1332:
1330:
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1325:
1322:
1320:
1317:
1315:
1312:
1310:
1307:
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1297:
1295:
1292:
1290:
1287:
1285:
1282:
1280:
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1276:
1272:
1266:
1263:
1261:
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1223:
1221:
1219:
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1209:
1206:
1203:
1200:
1198:
1196:
1193:
1192:
1189:
1186:
1184:Charles Cohen
1183:
1180:
1177:
1175:
1173:
1170:
1169:
1165:
1162:
1161:Monetary base
1159:
1156:
1153:
1150:
1147:
1144:
1143:
1137:
1132:
1130:
1128:
1125:According to
1123:
1121:
1120:proof of work
1117:
1113:
1112:pump and dump
1109:
1100:
1098:
1091:
1089:
1087:
1083:
1078:
1074:
1070:
1061:
1059:
1057:
1052:
1050:
1042:
1040:
1038:
1034:
1030:
1022:
1020:
1016:
1013:
1009:
1005:
1004:Swedish krona
1001:
994:
992:
990:
986:
978:
976:
972:
968:
958:
955:
947:
944:February 2022
937:
933:
929:
923:
922:
918:
913:This section
911:
907:
902:
901:
895:
893:
891:
883:
881:
879:
875:
871:
867:
859:
857:
854:
846:
844:
842:
833:
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829:
825:
821:
817:
812:
807:
805:
801:
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792:
790:
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776:
774:
772:
766:
764:
756:
754:
752:
748:
740:
738:
736:
728:
726:
724:
716:
714:
712:
704:
702:
700:
699:pump and dump
696:
692:
684:
679:
677:
675:
667:
663:
659:
655:
652:
649:
645:
641:
638:
634:
630:
627:
623:
619:
616:
612:
608:
605:
604:
603:
601:
597:
596:central banks
589:
587:
581:
579:
577:
573:
568:
566:
558:
556:
554:
549:
547:
543:
542:authorization
539:
535:
531:
530:decentralized
525:
519:
511:
509:
505:
503:
499:
495:
487:
482:
481:Google Wallet
478:
474:
470:
466:
462:
458:
454:
451:
447:
443:
439:
435:
432:
431:Google Wallet
428:
424:
420:
417:
413:
409:
405:
401:
397:
395:
391:
387:
383:
382:
381:
379:
371:
369:
367:
363:
359:
353:
345:
340:
338:
335:
331:
323:
321:
319:
315:
310:
306:
305:proof-of-work
302:
298:
294:
290:
286:
282:
275:
273:
271:
266:
264:
259:
256:
252:
248:
242:
234:
232:
225:
220:
218:
216:
212:
208:
204:
200:
195:
193:
189:
185:
180:
176:
174:
170:
166:
158:
156:
154:
153:decentralized
149:
147:
143:
139:
134:
132:
128:
124:
120:
116:
112:
111:fiat currency
107:
105:
102:or even on a
101:
100:digital files
97:
93:
89:
85:
81:
77:
73:
69:
65:
61:
57:
56:digital money
53:
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5098:
5010:Savings bank
5000:Central bank
4937:Legal tender
4844:Money portal
4648:
4636:
4624:
4556:
4501:Initiative Q
3854:Bitcoin Gold
3746:Counterparty
3741:Bitcoin Cash
3554:. Retrieved
3550:
3540:
3505:
3501:
3491:
3479:. Retrieved
3464:
3457:
3445:. Retrieved
3441:
3416:. Retrieved
3412:
3402:
3390:. Retrieved
3386:
3376:
3364:. Retrieved
3360:the original
3355:
3345:
3333:. Retrieved
3329:
3319:
3310:
3300:
3288:. Retrieved
3279:
3267:
3255:. Retrieved
3251:
3241:
3229:. Retrieved
3225:
3216:
3206:20 September
3204:. Retrieved
3195:
3185:
3173:. Retrieved
3169:the original
3164:
3155:
3143:. Retrieved
3139:
3129:
3117:. Retrieved
3113:
3103:
3091:. Retrieved
3086:
3077:
3065:. Retrieved
3061:
3051:
3039:. Retrieved
3034:
3025:
3013:. Retrieved
3009:
2999:
2987:. Retrieved
2985:. 6 May 2015
2980:
2956:. Retrieved
2942:
2932:
2920:. Retrieved
2915:
2906:
2894:. Retrieved
2889:
2880:
2868:. Retrieved
2864:
2854:
2842:. Retrieved
2838:
2828:
2816:. Retrieved
2812:
2802:
2790:. Retrieved
2784:
2749:. Retrieved
2744:
2735:
2723:. Retrieved
2719:
2709:
2697:. Retrieved
2683:
2673:
2661:. Retrieved
2656:
2647:
2635:. Retrieved
2621:
2609:. Retrieved
2605:the original
2595:
2586:
2574:
2565:
2553:
2544:
2532:
2520:. Retrieved
2516:
2506:
2498:the original
2488:
2480:the original
2470:
2456:
2442:
2431:the original
2418:
2406:. Retrieved
2401:
2372:
2360:. Retrieved
2353:the original
2348:
2336:
2324:. Retrieved
2315:
2307:10.1108/ijbm
2297:
2291:
2279:. Retrieved
2276:Investopedia
2275:
2266:
2257:
2251:
2242:
2232:
2218:
2204:
2195:
2185:
2171:
2162:
2152:
2140:. Retrieved
2131:
2119:. Retrieved
2115:the original
2105:
2075:
2068:
2056:. Retrieved
2052:the original
2047:
2037:
2028:
2018:
2006:
1998:Ars Technica
1997:
1987:
1975:. Retrieved
1970:
1958:
1946:. Retrieved
1941:
1929:
1917:. Retrieved
1913:Treasury.gov
1912:
1885:. Retrieved
1880:
1839:. Retrieved
1834:
1825:
1813:. Retrieved
1807:
1797:
1785:. Retrieved
1781:
1771:
1757:
1745:. Retrieved
1740:
1731:
1712:
1706:
1697:
1694:Cato Journal
1693:
1680:
1661:
1657:
1651:
1639:. Retrieved
1635:
1625:
1616:
1607:
1596:
1571:. Retrieved
1568:Investopedia
1567:
1558:
1546:. Retrieved
1539:the original
1525:
1513:. Retrieved
1498:
1491:
1479:. Retrieved
1475:the original
1465:
1453:. Retrieved
1448:
1420:. Retrieved
1411:
1399:. Retrieved
1385:
1381:
1368:
1163:(April 2013)
1124:
1104:
1095:
1065:
1053:
1046:
1026:
1017:
998:
982:
973:
969:
965:
950:
941:
926:Please help
914:
887:
863:
850:
837:
808:
793:
786:
767:
760:
744:
732:
720:
708:
688:
671:
620:Transport's
611:Octopus card
593:
585:
569:
562:
550:
527:
506:
491:
375:
362:credit cards
355:
330:money supply
327:
314:cryptography
297:peer-to-peer
289:cryptography
279:
267:
260:
244:
229:
196:
177:
162:
150:
135:
123:legal tender
108:
63:
59:
55:
51:
50:
40:
5177:Numismatics
4962:Safekeeping
4816:Bimetallism
4731:(W. Africa)
4602:Token money
4491:Hyperledger
4363:EDX Markets
4227:WhopperCoin
4118:Stablecoins
3335:19 November
3175:19 November
2958:27 December
2922:10 November
2896:10 November
2870:10 November
2839:Nikkei Asia
2326:30 December
2301:. Emerald.
1747:19 November
1641:19 November
1573:18 November
1422:4 September
1388:: 339–349.
1260:Hub Culture
1116:centralized
1027:In 2016, a
1023:Switzerland
884:Netherlands
860:El Salvador
666:debit cards
644:Netherlands
622:Oyster card
477:Apple Watch
358:debit cards
169:David Chaum
146:communities
5072:Monetarism
5060:Chartalism
4957:Redemption
4947:Possession
4910:Clay token
4763:Trade bead
4717:Cocoa bean
4701:Commodity
4522:BitLicense
4466:QuadrigaCX
4449:bankruptcy
4413:ShapeShift
4358:Crypto.com
4245:BitConnect
4197:MobileCoin
3961:currencies
3820:Bitconnect
3815:Auroracoin
3719:currencies
3685:mechanisms
3613:Blockchain
3606:Technology
3551:The Hustle
3481:19 January
3196:DW Finance
2844:11 October
2699:16 October
2663:5 December
2637:5 December
2281:9 December
1977:1 February
1948:1 February
1919:1 February
1887:1 February
1787:9 November
1515:22 January
1481:6 November
1360:References
1108:volatility
828:WeChat Pay
751:BitLicense
637:smart card
614:merchants.
582:Regulation
546:validation
522:See also:
450:road tolls
446:Telefónica
444:(owned by
400:Telefónica
334:bank money
207:Tencent QQ
192:blockchain
182:payments.
117:or minted
5165:Economics
4781:(SE Asia)
4711:Axe-money
4353:Coincheck
4255:KodakCoin
4098:Shiba Inu
4083:KodakCoin
4073:Chainlink
3999:Injective
3973:Avalanche
3935:Primecoin
3683:Consensus
3532:245436834
3524:0011-3530
3413:Bloomberg
3290:5 January
3257:5 January
3231:5 January
3145:5 January
3119:5 January
3067:5 January
3041:5 January
3015:5 January
2989:5 January
2953:0099-9660
2818:5 January
2813:Bloomberg
2792:5 January
2751:5 January
2725:3 October
2694:0140-0460
2685:The Times
2408:5 January
2243:The Verge
2058:7 January
1851:cite news
1666:CiteSeerX
1151:Year Est.
1101:Criticism
915:does not
841:MobilePay
607:Hong Kong
538:ownership
465:Apple Pay
455:The UK's
404:BBVA Bank
127:ownership
115:banknotes
66:) is any
5187:Category
4920:Currency
4898:Clearing
4878:Banknote
4873:Bailment
4793:(Arabia)
4754:(barley)
4740:Quachtli
4626:Category
4348:Coinbase
4328:Bitstamp
4308:Bitpanda
4298:bitFlyer
4293:Bitfinex
4217:SafeMoon
4177:Filecoin
4156:USD Coin
4019:Polkadot
4014:Peercoin
3994:Gridcoin
3988:Ethereum
3968:Algorand
3945:Vertcoin
3915:AmbaCoin
3845:Equihash
3835:Litecoin
3830:Dogecoin
3790:Ethereum
3766:Peercoin
3761:Namecoin
3756:MazaCoin
3658:MetaMask
3284:Archived
3252:BBC News
3200:Archived
3165:Riksbank
3087:BBC News
3062:Cnbc.com
2720:DealBook
2632:Time.com
2494:"Proton"
2142:23 April
2094:Archived
1809:ABC News
1273:See also
1145:Currency
1086:Ethereum
1008:Riksbank
989:YooMoney
796:renminbi
771:Ethereum
648:Chipknip
551:Per the
534:issuance
473:iPhone 6
469:iPhone 6
436:In 2012
384:In 1994
173:DigiCash
142:services
76:internet
68:currency
5151:Portals
4971:General
4925:Deposit
4915:Coinage
4787:(Hindu)
4729:Manilla
4638:Commons
4517:Airdrop
4496:IQ.Wiki
4461:Mt. Gox
4432:Defunct
4418:Uniswap
4378:Genesis
4313:Bithumb
4288:Binance
4260:OneCoin
4222:Stellar
4103:The DAO
4093:Polygon
4063:Aventus
3978:Cardano
3771:Titcoin
3736:Bitcoin
3727:SHA-256
3447:6 April
3418:6 April
3392:6 April
3366:6 April
3010:Fortune
2982:Reuters
2916:Reuters
2589:. 2014.
2522:5 March
2517:Reuters
1971:bis.org
1449:bis.org
1354:Privacy
1157:Founder
1082:Bitcoin
936:removed
921:sources
878:Bitcoin
870:Bitcoin
847:Ecuador
834:Denmark
689:The US
654:Belgium
625:London.
438:Ireland
394:Swindon
318:bitcoin
253:". The
215:bitcoin
188:bitcoin
159:History
131:borders
18:E-money
4983:Barter
4942:Notary
4893:Cheque
4758:Shells
4752:Shekel
4725:(rice)
4471:Thodex
4398:Kucoin
4393:Kraken
4373:Gemini
4343:Circle
4318:BitMEX
4303:Bitkub
4250:Coinye
4212:Ripple
4187:Helium
4151:Tether
4051:tokens
4049:ERC-20
4024:Solana
3983:EOS.IO
3887:-based
3875:Monero
3847:-based
3825:Coinye
3808:-based
3806:Scrypt
3783:-based
3781:Ethash
3729:-based
3556:31 May
3530:
3522:
3472:
3311:Forbes
3226:Sbb.ch
3093:4 July
2951:
2692:
2611:29 May
2362:23 May
2121:23 May
2086:
1841:14 May
1815:28 May
1719:
1668:
1598:Forbes
1548:23 May
1506:
1455:11 May
1401:12 May
1195:e-gold
1166:Notes
1154:Active
1075:based
1073:Boston
1000:Sweden
995:Sweden
979:Russia
824:Alipay
816:JD.com
811:Suzhou
757:Canada
658:Proton
633:FeliCa
618:London
386:Mondex
364:using
184:PayPal
179:e-gold
4864:Token
4855:Money
4791:Camel
4703:money
4439:BTC-e
4423:Upbit
4383:Huobi
4368:eToro
4323:Bitso
4265:Petro
4146:Terra
4088:Minds
4058:Augur
4034:Tezos
4029:Steem
3990:(2.0)
3940:Verge
3908:Other
3899:Petro
3859:Zcash
3792:(1.0)
3528:S2CID
3442:Wired
3387:ZDNet
2583:(PDF)
2562:(PDF)
2541:(PDF)
2434:(PDF)
2427:(PDF)
2381:(PDF)
2356:(PDF)
2345:(PDF)
2163:Slate
2097:(PDF)
2080:(PDF)
2073:"1".
1967:(PDF)
1938:(PDF)
1909:(PDF)
1877:(PDF)
1782:Wired
1690:(PDF)
1664:(1).
1636:Wired
1542:(PDF)
1535:(PDF)
1445:(PDF)
1378:(PDF)
1172:Beenz
987:owns
896:India
777:China
660:: An
629:Japan
460:2014.
423:Venmo
408:Spain
285:asset
138:goods
119:coins
72:money
32:Ecash
5022:Mint
4860:Fiat
4746:Salt
4723:Koku
4650:List
4403:Kuna
4333:BTCC
4283:Abra
4202:Nano
4192:Luna
4172:Chia
4131:Diem
4108:TRON
3925:IOTA
3920:Firo
3894:Dash
3751:LBRY
3673:Web3
3648:Fork
3558:2019
3520:ISSN
3483:2017
3470:ISBN
3449:2014
3420:2014
3394:2014
3368:2014
3337:2017
3292:2017
3259:2017
3233:2017
3208:2016
3177:2017
3147:2017
3121:2017
3095:2021
3069:2017
3043:2017
3017:2017
2991:2017
2960:2020
2949:ISSN
2924:2019
2898:2019
2872:2019
2846:2020
2820:2017
2794:2017
2753:2017
2727:2014
2701:2023
2690:ISSN
2665:2021
2639:2021
2613:2015
2524:2018
2410:2017
2364:2017
2328:2013
2283:2022
2196:CNET
2144:2015
2123:2017
2084:ISBN
2060:2014
1979:2018
1950:2018
1921:2018
1889:2018
1857:link
1843:2016
1817:2013
1789:2018
1749:2020
1717:ISBN
1643:2020
1617:CNET
1575:2022
1550:2017
1517:2023
1504:ISBN
1483:2018
1457:2020
1424:2022
1403:2020
1253:2007
1224:1999
1218:Rand
1201:1996
1178:1998
1148:Code
1133:List
1084:and
919:any
917:cite
888:The
761:The
709:The
695:CFTC
642:The
544:and
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