307:. One can now debate which of the two analyses is better. The more layered analysis has the advantage that it accommodates the insight that the subject/object constituent is a semantic argument of the infinitival verb. The flat analysis has the advantage that it is more consistent with data delivered by operational considerations: the object morphology on the pronoun (e.g.
285:
The phrase structure grammar trees are the a-trees on the left, and the dependency grammar trees are the b-trees on the right. Both types of analysis show a relatively flat structure insofar as the material in bold consists of two separate sister constituents. The object/subject pronouns are shown as
302:
The constituency-based trees are again on the left, and the dependency-based trees on the right. The material in bold now forms a single constituent. This is accomplished in the constituency trees by adding the clause node S, and in the dependency trees, it is accomplished by subordinating the ECM
260:
An interesting aspect of ECM-constructions concerns the underlying structure. There are two basic possibilities in this area: a flat structure or a more layered one. The following trees illustrate the "flat" analysis. For each example, both a constituency-based analysis of a
70:
verbs. Many languages lack ECM-predicates, and even in
English, the number of ECM-verbs is small. The structural analysis of ECM-constructions varies in part according to whether one pursues a relatively flat structure or a more layered one.
176:
The strings in bold are the ECM-constructions. The pronouns are marked with object case morphology, but they function semantically as the subjects of the infinitival verbs to their right, i.e., they acquire their
1056:
346:
The more layered analysis is favored in the GB framework and a variation of it certainly obtains in current
Minimalism as well. The flat analysis is certainly the one preferred by dependency grammars.
286:
dependents of the matrix verb each time. The two do NOT form a single constituent with the predicates to their right. The alternative, more layered analysis of these sentences might be as follows:
38:, is a phenomenon in which the subject of an embedded infinitival verb seems to appear in a superordinate clause and, if it is a pronoun, is unexpectedly marked with object case morphology (
224:
Since the meaning across these clauses remains consistent, one tendency has been to view the ECM-material (i.e., the material in bold in the first four examples) as a type of
493:
434:
For more arguments along these lines in favor of the flat structure and thus against the more layered one, see
Bresnan (1982:381f.) and Falk (2001:133f.).
294:
277:
407:
Concerning the lack of a thematic relationship between the ECM-verb and its object, see for instance
Ouhalla (1994:172) and Lasnik (1999:8).
425:
The layered analysis is preferred by those working in the GB framework, e.g. Chomsky (1986:85), Cowper (1992:101), Napoli (1993:211).
486:
459:
Falk, Y. 2001. Lexical-Functional
Grammar: An introduction to parallel constraint-based syntax. Stanford, CA: CSLI Publications.
1328:
1146:
1138:
838:
657:
554:
479:
58:
itself was coined in the
Government and Binding grammar framework although the phenomenon is closely related to the
524:
355:
59:
229:
181:
from the verb to their right. Many ECM-verbs allow the same meaning to be expressed with a full object clause (a
1248:
370:
262:
1060:
569:
241:
468:
Ouhalla, J. 1994. Transformational grammar: From rules to principles and parameters. London: Edward Arnold.
339:), and the inability of constituency tests to clearly identify a clausal constituent (e.g. Topicalization:
1194:
1021:
930:
449:
Bresnan, J. (ed.). 1982. The mental representation of grammatical relations. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.
1265:
1156:
1151:
1128:
950:
945:
940:
920:
915:
910:
890:
683:
519:
360:
245:
398:
See for instance
Chomsky (1986:85-87), Cowper (1992:100f.), Napoli (1993:210-213), Lasnik (1999:8ff.).
323:), the obligatory appearance of the reflexive pronoun when coindexation occurs with the subject (e.g.
1270:
1204:
1036:
993:
895:
758:
718:
1051:
1354:
1031:
678:
237:
319:, etc.), the ability of the object/subject to become the subject in the passive counterpart (e.g.
1217:
1184:
1110:
1095:
1080:
1070:
983:
978:
968:
763:
693:
688:
365:
266:
416:
Falk (2001:132f.) provides a good illustration of the two competing analyses (flat vs. layered).
1174:
1100:
1075:
998:
863:
808:
778:
738:
1212:
1105:
1085:
935:
900:
818:
613:
375:
293:
276:
232:
with the infinitive to its right. The primary trait of the ECM-object/subject is that it is
63:
1120:
1041:
1003:
988:
868:
858:
773:
768:
708:
574:
544:
79:
The ECM-construction is licensed by a relatively small number of verbs in
English (e.g.,
471:
228:
that is analogous to the full clausal counterpart. On this approach, the object forms a
17:
1302:
1260:
1222:
1124:
853:
843:
833:
728:
723:
703:
698:
627:
502:
1348:
1227:
1179:
1046:
1026:
905:
823:
803:
753:
733:
713:
182:
1316:
1290:
1280:
1253:
1115:
848:
813:
788:
743:
564:
380:
225:
453:
62:
constructions of Latin. ECM-constructions are also studied within the context of
54:, etc.). The unexpected object case morphology is deemed "exceptional". The term
973:
783:
662:
623:
588:
579:
465:
Napoli, D. 1993. Syntax: Theory and problems. New York: Oxford
University Press.
248:
constructions, since control predicates semantically select their object (e.g.,
244:
by the matrix verb. In this area, ECM-constructions should not be confused with
178:
35:
1333:
1232:
1189:
1166:
1090:
925:
828:
798:
793:
647:
642:
549:
539:
529:
1323:
1285:
1065:
882:
637:
583:
559:
454:
A concise introduction to syntactic theory: The government-binding approach
1312:
1307:
1297:
1013:
618:
534:
462:
Lasnik, H. 1999. Minimalist analysis. Malden, MA: Blackwell
Publishers.
1275:
960:
652:
632:
598:
511:
475:
446:
Chomsky, N. 1986. Barriers. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.
1241:
1203:
1165:
1137:
1012:
959:
881:
671:
606:
597:
510:
165:– Exceptional case-marking of the object/subject
148:– Exceptional case-marking of the object/subject
131:– Exceptional case-marking of the object/subject
114:– Exceptional case-marking of the object/subject
217:– ECM-construction alternates with full clause.
207:– ECM-construction alternates with full clause.
197:– ECM-construction alternates with full clause.
487:
8:
456:. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
603:
494:
480:
472:
240:, which means that it is not semantically
66:. The verbs that license ECM are known as
391:
265:and a dependency-based analysis of a
7:
236:a semantic argument of the matrix
25:
292:
275:
303:object/subject to the particle
1:
341:That to be true, you proved)
1371:
1329:Syntax–semantics interface
356:Accusativus cum infinitivo
321:That was proved to be true
60:accusativus cum infinitivo
749:Exceptional case-marking
371:Phrase structure grammar
263:phrase structure grammar
28:Exceptional case-marking
18:Exceptional case marking
555:Initial-stress-derived
213:that we are respectful
201:The prosecutor proved
139:The prosecutor proved
1066:Inclusive / Exclusive
376:Raising (linguistics)
361:Control (linguistics)
250:They told us to start
946:Relative subsective
839:Regular / Irregular
684:Andative / Venitive
520:Abstract / Concrete
256:Structural analyses
193:that he is innocent
505:and their features
503:Lexical categories
366:Dependency grammar
267:dependency grammar
203:that she is guilty
1342:
1341:
1147:Casally modulated
1052:Formal / Informal
941:Pure intersective
891:Anti-intersective
877:
876:
824:Preterite-present
452:Cowper, E. 2009.
218:
208:
198:
170:
153:
136:
119:
68:raising-to-object
16:(Redirected from
1362:
921:Non-intersective
604:
496:
489:
482:
473:
435:
432:
426:
423:
417:
414:
408:
405:
399:
396:
329:judge themselves
296:
279:
216:
206:
196:
164:
161:to be respectful
147:
130:
127:to be ridiculous
113:
21:
1370:
1369:
1365:
1364:
1363:
1361:
1360:
1359:
1345:
1344:
1343:
1338:
1237:
1199:
1161:
1133:
1061:Gender-specific
1008:
955:
873:
759:Germanic strong
667:
593:
506:
500:
443:
438:
433:
429:
424:
420:
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411:
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402:
397:
393:
389:
352:
337:to be important
336:
332:
328:
258:
77:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
1368:
1366:
1358:
1357:
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1340:
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1337:
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1326:
1321:
1320:
1319:
1305:
1303:Procedure word
1300:
1295:
1294:
1293:
1288:
1278:
1273:
1268:
1263:
1261:Complementizer
1258:
1257:
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1245:
1243:
1239:
1238:
1236:
1235:
1230:
1225:
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1192:
1187:
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1118:
1113:
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1103:
1098:
1093:
1088:
1083:
1078:
1073:
1068:
1063:
1057:Gender-neutral
1054:
1049:
1044:
1039:
1034:
1029:
1024:
1022:Bound variable
1018:
1016:
1010:
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1007:
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1001:
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991:
986:
981:
976:
971:
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953:
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943:
938:
933:
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913:
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746:
741:
736:
731:
726:
721:
716:
711:
706:
701:
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691:
686:
681:
679:Ambitransitive
675:
673:
669:
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660:
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635:
630:
621:
616:
610:
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334:
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257:
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222:
221:
220:
219:
209:
199:
174:
173:
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137:
120:
110:to be innocent
76:
73:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1367:
1356:
1353:
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1306:
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1247:
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1234:
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1224:
1221:
1219:
1218:Interrogative
1216:
1214:
1211:
1210:
1208:
1206:
1202:
1196:
1193:
1191:
1188:
1186:
1185:Interrogative
1183:
1181:
1180:Demonstrative
1178:
1176:
1173:
1172:
1170:
1168:
1164:
1158:
1155:
1153:
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1145:
1144:
1142:
1140:
1136:
1130:
1129:Prepositional
1126:
1122:
1119:
1117:
1116:Strong / Weak
1114:
1112:
1109:
1107:
1104:
1102:
1099:
1097:
1094:
1092:
1089:
1087:
1084:
1082:
1081:Interrogative
1079:
1077:
1074:
1072:
1069:
1067:
1064:
1062:
1058:
1055:
1053:
1050:
1048:
1045:
1043:
1040:
1038:
1035:
1033:
1030:
1028:
1027:Demonstrative
1025:
1023:
1020:
1019:
1017:
1015:
1011:
1005:
1002:
1000:
997:
995:
994:Prepositional
992:
990:
987:
985:
984:Interrogative
982:
980:
977:
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972:
970:
967:
966:
964:
962:
958:
952:
949:
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934:
932:
929:
927:
924:
922:
919:
917:
914:
912:
909:
907:
906:Demonstrative
904:
902:
899:
897:
894:
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817:
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795:
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767:
765:
764:Germanic weak
762:
760:
757:
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754:Frequentative
752:
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747:
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722:
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717:
715:
712:
710:
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695:
694:Autocausative
692:
690:
689:Anticausative
687:
685:
682:
680:
677:
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670:
664:
661:
659:
658:Transgressive
656:
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631:
629:
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615:
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611:
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578:
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568:
566:
563:
561:
558:
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553:
551:
548:
546:
543:
541:
538:
536:
533:
531:
528:
526:
523:
521:
518:
517:
515:
513:
509:
504:
497:
492:
490:
485:
483:
478:
477:
474:
467:
464:
461:
458:
455:
451:
448:
445:
444:
440:
431:
428:
422:
419:
413:
410:
404:
401:
395:
392:
386:
382:
379:
377:
374:
372:
369:
367:
364:
362:
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357:
354:
353:
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347:
344:
342:
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322:
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306:
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264:
255:
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243:
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231:
227:
214:
210:
204:
200:
194:
191:Tom believes
190:
189:
188:
187:
186:
184:
183:finite clause
180:
168:
162:
160:
155:
151:
145:
143:
138:
134:
128:
126:
121:
117:
111:
109:
105:Tim believes
104:
103:
102:
101:
100:
98:
94:
90:
86:
82:
74:
72:
69:
65:
61:
57:
53:
49:
45:
41:
37:
33:
29:
19:
1317:Pro-sentence
1291:Onomatopoeia
1281:Interjection
1254:Measure word
1037:Distributive
931:Postpositive
911:Intersective
864:Unaccusative
809:Performative
779:Intransitive
748:
739:Ditransitive
565:Noun adjunct
430:
421:
412:
403:
394:
381:Small clause
345:
340:
324:
320:
316:
312:
308:
304:
301:
284:
259:
249:
233:
226:small clause
223:
212:
202:
192:
175:
166:
158:
157:
149:
144:to be guilty
141:
140:
132:
124:
123:
115:
107:
106:
96:
92:
88:
84:
80:
78:
67:
55:
51:
47:
43:
39:
31:
27:
26:
1266:Conjunction
1032:Disjunctive
969:Conjunctive
916:Nominalized
819:Predicative
663:Verbal noun
614:Attributive
269:are shown:
230:constituent
179:theta roles
36:linguistics
1355:Verb types
1334:Yes and no
1249:Classifier
1233:Possessive
1195:Quantifier
1190:Possessive
1167:Determiner
1139:Adposition
1111:Resumptive
1096:Reciprocal
1091:Possessive
1071:Indefinite
999:Pronominal
951:Subsective
926:Possessive
896:Collateral
869:Unergative
859:Transitive
774:Inchoative
769:Impersonal
709:Catenative
648:Participle
643:Infinitive
575:Relational
545:Collective
525:Adjectival
441:Literature
211:They want
156:They want
1324:Prop-word
1286:Ideophone
1213:Discourse
1152:Inflected
1101:Reflexive
1076:Intensive
883:Adjective
854:Stretched
844:Separable
834:Reflexive
729:Denominal
724:Defective
704:Captative
699:Auxiliary
638:Gerundive
628:Nonfinite
550:Countable
238:predicate
185:), e.g.:
122:We judge
99:, etc.):
1349:Category
1313:Pro-verb
1308:Pro-form
1205:Particle
1157:Stranded
1106:Relative
1086:Personal
1004:Relative
989:Locative
979:Genitive
804:Negative
734:Deponent
714:Compound
350:See also
242:selected
75:Examples
1298:Preverb
1175:Article
1121:Subject
1014:Pronoun
849:Stative
814:Phrasal
789:Lexical
744:Dynamic
719:Copular
619:Converb
535:Animacy
246:control
81:believe
64:raising
1276:Coverb
1271:Copula
1125:Object
1042:Donkey
961:Adverb
936:Proper
901:Common
784:Labile
653:Supine
633:Gerund
624:Finite
589:Verbal
580:Strong
570:Proper
333:/*them
34:), in
1242:Other
1223:Modal
1047:Dummy
799:Modal
794:Light
672:Types
607:Forms
530:Agent
387:Notes
89:prove
85:judge
1228:Noun
974:Flat
829:Pure
599:Verb
584:Weak
560:Mass
540:Bare
512:Noun
325:They
317:them
133:them
125:them
93:want
50:not
42:not
313:her
309:him
252:).
234:not
150:her
142:her
116:him
108:him
97:let
56:ECM
52:she
48:her
40:him
32:ECM
1351::
1315:/
1127:/
1123:/
1059:/
626:/
582:/
343:.
315:,
311:,
305:to
215:.
205:.
195:.
167:us
163:.
159:us
146:.
129:.
112:.
95:,
91:,
87:,
83:,
46:,
44:he
495:e
488:t
481:v
335:1
331:1
327:1
169:.
152:.
135:.
118:.
30:(
20:)
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