372:
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216:, which are joined by the Davie Ridge, a 2,200 km-long (1,400 mi) relic fracture zone that cuts across the West Somali basin, straddling the boundary between Tanzania and Mozambique. The Davie Ridge ranges between 30–120 km (19–75 mi) wide, with a west-facing scarp (east-plunging arch) along the southern half of its length that rises to 2,300 m (7,500 ft) above the sea floor. Its movement is concurrent with the EAR.
441:, with the majority of the volcanism coinciding with the opening of the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden approximately 30 Ma. The composition of the volcanics are a continuum of ultra-alkaline to tholeiitic and felsic rocks. It has been suggested that the diversity of the compositions could be partially explained by different mantle source regions. The EAR also cuts through old sedimentary rocks deposited in ancient basins.
33:
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Parallel to geological and geophysical measures (e.g. isotope ratios and seismic velocities) it is constructive to test hypotheses on computer based geodynamical models. A 3D numerical geodynamic model of the plume-crust coupling was capable of reproducing the lateral asymmetry of the EAR around the
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Maps of four different depth slices of the Shear-velocity (Vs) model developed by Emry et al. 2018. The forms of the zones with lower Vs (colors toward red) suggest the hotter structures in the Mantle. The distinguishing fourth map depicts a depth below the 410 km discontinuity where Vs steeps
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occur near the Afar
Depression, with the largest typically occurring along or near major border faults. Seismic events in the past century are estimated to have reached a maximum moment magnitude of 7.0. The seismicity trends parallel to the rift system, with a shallow focal depth of 12–15 km
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is a suitable tool to investigate Earth's subsurface structures deeper than the crust. It is an inverse problem technique that models which are the velocities of the inner Earth that reproduce the seismographic data recorded all around the world. Recent improvements of tomographic Earth models of
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Over time, many theories have tried to clarify the evolution of the East
African Rift. In 1972 it was proposed that the EAR was not caused by tectonic activity, but rather by differences in crustal density. Since the 1990s, evidence has been found in favor of mantle plumes beneath the EAR. Others
355:, displacement along large boundary faults, and the development of deep asymmetric basins. The second stage of rifting was characterized by the deactivation of large boundary faults, the development of internal fault segments, and the concentration of magmatic activity towards the rifts.
347:, Somali, and East African plateaus. The first stage of rifting of the EAR was characterized by rift localization and magmatism along the entire rift zone. Periods of extension alternated with relative inactivity. There was also the reactivation of a pre-Cambrian weakness in the crust, a
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fossils that allow the study of human evolution. The rapidly eroding highlands quickly filled the valley with sediments, creating a favorable environment for the preservation of remains. The bones of several hominid ancestors of modern humans have been found here, including those of
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up (getting overall bluer), but it still displays the signature of a plume at the substrate of the East
African Rift. In the white box, the Vs vertical profile at 10°N, 40°E illustrates the increase of velocity with depth and the effect of the 410 km discontinuity.
126:
to the north, and the Rovuma and
Lwandle microplates to the south. The Victoria Microplate is rotating anti-clockwise with respect to the African plate. Its rotation is caused by the configuration of mechanically weaker and stronger lithospheric regions in the EARS.
500:. Erta Ale is a basaltic shield volcano in the Afar Region of northeastern Ethiopia, active continuously since at least 1967, with a summit lava lake documented since at least 1906. The 2008 eruption of Dalafilla, its only documented activity since the start of the
40:
showing some of the historically active volcanoes (as red triangles) and the Afar
Triangle (shaded at the center), which is a so-called triple junction (or triple point) where three plates are pulling away from one another: the Arabian Plate and two parts of the
1308:
Civiero, Chiara; Hammond, James O. S.; Goes, Saskia; Fishwick, Stewart; Ahmed, Abdulhakim; Ayele, Atalay; Doubre, Cecile; Goitom, Berhe; Keir, Derek; Kendall, J.-Michael; Leroy, Sylvie; Ogubazghi, Ghebrebrhan; Rümpker, Georg; Stuart, Graham W. (September 2015).
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which are typical of all tectonic rift zones. As aforementioned, voluminous magmatism and continental flood basalts characterize some of the rift segments, while other segments, such as the
Western branch, have only very small volumes of volcanic rock.
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The varying geochemical signatures of a suite of
Ethiopian lavas suggest multiple plume sources: at least one of deep mantle origin, and one from within the subcontinental lithosphere. In accordance, a 2014 study compares the geochemical signature of
1103:
Hansen, Samantha E.; Nyblade, Andrew A.; Benoit, Margaret H. (February 2012). "Mantle structure beneath Africa and Arabia from adaptively parameterized P-wave tomography: Implications for the origin of
Cenozoic Afro-Arabian tectonism".
730:
Fernandes, R.M.S.; Ambrosius, B.A.C.; Noomen, R.; Bastos, L.; Combrinck, L.; Miranda, J.M.; Spakman, W. (2004). "Angular velocities of Nubia and
Somalia from continuous GPS data: implications on present-day relative kinematics".
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Halldórsson, Saemundur A.; Hilton, David R.; Scarsi, Paolo; Abebe, Tsegaye; Hopp, Jens (16 April 2014). "A common mantle plume source beneath the entire East
African Rift System revealed by coupled helium-neon systematics".
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and lava samples collected in the EAR. The results corroborate the coexistence of a superplume "common to the entire rift" with another mantle material source being either of subcontinental type or of mid-ocean ridge type.
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of less than 100 Pa⋅s, comparable to olive oil at 26 °C (79 °F). EAR-related volcanic structures with dated activity since the onset of the Holocene include approximately 50 in Ethiopia,
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have a feedback with one another, controlled by oblique rifting conditions. According to this theory, lithospheric thinning generates volcanic activity, further increasing magmatic processes such as
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331:. Numerical modeling of plume-induced continental break-up shows two distinct stages, crustal rifting followed by lithospheric breakup, and the upwelling between stages of an upper mantle plume.
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Studies that contribute to the broader understanding on the evolution of rifts can be grouped into the techniques of isotope geochemistry, seismic tomography and geodynamical modeling.
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Trabant, C.; Hutko, A. R.; Bahavar, M.; Karstens, R.; Ahern, T.; Aster, R. (6 September 2012). "Data Products at the IRIS DMC: Stepping Stones for Research and Other Applications".
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A series of distinct rift basins, the East African Rift System extends over thousands of kilometers. North of the Afar Triple Junction, the rift follows two paths: west to the
2198:
1960:
Slingo, J.; Spencer, H.; Hoskins, B.; Berrisford, P.; Black, E. (2005). "The meteorology of the Western Indian Ocean, and the influence of the East African Highlands".
919:
Mascle, J; Moungenot, D.; Blarez, E.; Marinho, M.; Virlogeux, P. (1987). "African transform continental margins: examples from Guinea, the Ivory Coast and Mozambique".
1647:
Kervyn, Matthieu; Ernst, Gerald G. J.; Klaudius, Jurgis; Keller, Jörg; Kervyn, François; Mattson, Hannes B.; Belton, Frederic; Mbede, Evelyne; Jacobs, Patric (2008).
2191:
1909:
Munday, Callum; Savage, Nicholas; Jones, Richard G.; Washington, Richard (2023). "Valley formation aridifies East Africa and elevates Congo Basin rainfall".
1858:
Munday, Callum; Savage, Nicholas; Jones, Richard G.; Washington, Richard (2023). "Valley formation aridifies East Africa and elevates Congo Basin rainfall".
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Today, the narrow rift segments of the East African Rift system form zones of localized strain. These rifts are the result of the actions of numerous normal
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553:, which affect weather across large areas of East Africa. The east to west river valleys within the rift system, including the Turkana Channel in northern
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and the Kenya Highlands are hotspots of higher rainfall amid the semi-arid to arid lowlands of East Africa. Lakes which form within the rift, including
269:, the rift could eventually cause eastern Africa to separate from the mainland, although this potential event could take tens of millions of years.
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Corti, Giacomo (September 2009). "Continental rift evolution: From rift initiation to incipient break-up in the Main Ethiopian Rift, East Africa".
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are an important hypothesis, their location and dynamics are poorly understood, and a matter of active research. The question is still debated.
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1311:"Multiple mantle upwellings in the transition zone beneath the northern East-African Rift system from relative P-wave travel-time tomography"
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have also done significant work in this region. In 2008, two other hominid ancestors were discovered here: a 10-million-year-old ape called
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Koptev, Alexander; Burov, Evgueni; Calais, Eric; Leroy, Sylvie; Gerya, Taras; Guillou-Frottier, Laurent; Cloetingh, Sierd (March 2016).
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107:
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Koptev, Alexander; Burov, Evgueni; Gerya, Taras; Le Pourhiet, Laetitia; Leroy, Sylvie; Calais, Eric; Jolivet, Laurent (October 2018).
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velocities suggest that a superplume upwelling from the lower mantle at the northeastern EAR feeds plumes of smaller scale into the
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Main rift faults, plates, plate boundaries, GPS plate velocities between adjacent blocks and minimum horizontal stress directions
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The East African Rift system affects regional, continental and even global climate. Regions of higher elevation, including the
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529:(7.5–9.3 mi) beneath the rift axis. Further away from the rift axis, focal depths can be below 30 km (19 mi).
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3013:
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422:. The cratons are thick, and have survived for billions of years with little tectonic activity. They are characterized by
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solutions strike NE and frequently demonstrate normal dip-slip faulting, although left-lateral motion is also observed.
981:
Montelli, R.G.; et al. (2006). "A catalogue of deep mantle plumes: New results from finite‐frequency tomography".
1649:"Voluminous lava flows at Oldoinyo Lengai in 2006: chronology of events and insights into the shallow magmatic system"
1213:
636:
604:
1454:"Plume-induced continental rifting and break-up in ultra-slow extension context: Insights from 3D numerical modeling"
379:, which forms the western branch of the East African Rift. Visible features include (from background to foreground):
1022:; Sleep, N. H. (October 1998). "Cenozoic magmatism throughout east Africa resulting from impact of a single plume".
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2921:
2351:
670:
514:
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Findlater, J. (1969). "Interhemispheric transport of air in the lower troposphere over the western Indian Ocean".
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549:, have a large effect on regional climate. They are a source of water vapour, and also lead to the formation of
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1621:
1590:
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Mougenot, D.; Recq, M.; Virlogeux, P.; Lepvrier, C. (June 1986). "Seaward extension of the East African Rift".
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53:
169:, runs southward from the Afar Triple Junction, and continues south as the Kenyan Rift Valley, then transects
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and is responsible for roughly half the global cross-equatorial atmospheric mass flux in the lower-branch of
122:, at a rate of 6–7 mm (0.24–0.28 in) per year. The rift system consists of three microplates, the
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1626:
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Dainelli, G.; Marinelli, O. (1906). "Dell'Erta-ale, vulcano ritenuto attivo della Dancalia settentrionale".
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1403:"Contrasted continental rifting via plume-craton interaction: Applications to Central East African Rift"
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565:. This leaves East Africa drier than it otherwise would be, and also supports the high rainfall in the
504:, is the largest recorded eruption in Ethiopian history. Ol Doinyo Lengai is currently the only active
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430:, and other high-grade metamorphic lithologies. The cratons are of significant importance in terms of
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2016:
2005:"Annual intensification of the Somali jet in a quasi-equilibrium framework: Observational composites"
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The barrier presented by EARS concentrates monsoonal winds (known as the Somali Jet) in the western
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in Tanzania. Although most of these mountains lie outside of the rift valley, the EAR created them.
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Gibbons, A. (2002). "Profile: Michel Brunet: One Scientist's Quest for the Origin of Our Species".
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The rift also continues offshore from the coast of Mozambique along the Kerimba and Lacerda
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The East African Rift Zone includes a number of active and dormant volcanoes, among them:
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Taylor, C.D.; Schulz, K.J.; Doebrich, J.L.; Orris, G.J.; Denning, P.D.; Kirschbaum, M.J.
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2020:
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770:"One of Africa's Tectonic Plates Is Rotating in a Different Direction to All the Others"
17:
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1962:
Philosophical Transactions. Series A, Mathematical, Physical, and Engineering Sciences
1537:"Remote sensing of heat, lava and fumarole emissions from Erta 'Ale volcano, Ethiopia"
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The EAR is the largest seismically active rift system on Earth today. The majority of
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1946:
1895:
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Furman, Tanya (June 2007). "Geochemistry of East African Rift basalts: An overview".
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1811:"African Low‐Level Jets and Their Importance for Water Vapor Transport and Rainfall"
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817:. National Research Council of Italy, Institute of Geosciences and Earth Resources
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2738:
2655:
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1362:"Upper mantle earth structure in Africa from full‐wave ambient noise tomography"
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566:
525:
478:
454:
388:
348:
258:
206:
161:, the EAR consists of two main branches. The Eastern Rift Valley (also known as
82:
37:
1930:
1879:
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1585:
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river valley, concentrate low-level easterly winds and accelerate them towards
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volcano on Earth. Its magma contains almost no silica; typical lava flows have
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1745:
1721:"Deep Convection over Africa: Annual Cycle, ENSO, and Trends in the Hotspots"
1720:
946:
Scrutton, R.A. (1978). "Davie fracture zone and the movement of Madagascar".
89:, 22–25 million years ago. It was formerly considered to be part of a larger
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572:. The formation of the east-west valleys could in turn be important for the
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583:. The Somali Jet supplies water vapour for the high rainfall during the
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The most recent and accepted view is the theory put forth in 2009: that
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Emry, E. L.; Shen, Y.; Nyblade, A. A.; Flinders, A.; Bao, X. (2019).
862:
411:
311:
307:
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186:
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434:, with major deposits of gold, antimony, iron, chromium and nickel.
114:
is in the process of splitting into two tectonic plates, called the
2029:
2004:
3676:
3319:
1762:"Climate and climatic variability of rainfall over eastern Africa"
1043:
554:
370:
261:
in saturated areas, making the thinning lithosphere behave like a
235:
52:
31:
1719:
Washington, Richard; Hart, Neil C. G.; Maidment, Ross I. (2019).
786:
GFZ GeoForschungsZentrum Potsdam, Helmholtz Centre (8 June 2020)
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2459:
1504:"Geology and Nonfuel Mineral Deposits of Africa and Middle East"
229:
causing mantle deformation. Although the effects of deep-rooted
78:
2917:
2187:
1520:
Saemundsson, K (2009). "East African Rift System-An Overview".
437:
A large volume of continental flood basalts erupted during the
2813:
2098:"Great Rift Valley Ecosystem – UNESCO World Heritage Centre"
257:
and numerous small plumes. These processes further thin the
609:
The Rift Valley in East Africa has been a rich source of
2097:
1809:
Munday, Callum; Washington, Richard; Hart, Neil (2021).
884:
Chorowicz, Jean (2005). "The East African rift system".
1522:
Reykjavik: United Nations University, Iceland GeoSurvey
3622:
List of countries where Arabic is an official language
1506:. US Department of the Interior, US Geological Survey.
1144:
Kearey, Philip; Klepeis, Keith A.; Vine, F.J. (2009).
2064:
Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society
2009:
Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society
699:"Continental break-up: The East African perspective"
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85:. The EAR began developing around the onset of the
640:, found in the Afar rift in eastern Ethiopia, and
488:Notable active examples of EAR volcanism include
1014:
1012:
1704:Siebert, L.; Simkin, T.; Kimberly, P. (2010).
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1513:
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8:
2003:Boos, William R.; Emanuel, Kerry A. (2009).
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832:
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49:—splitting along the East African Rift Zone
27:Active continental rift zone in East Africa
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2922:
2914:
2206:
2192:
2184:
788:"Why the Victoria Plate in Africa rotates"
414:are found throughout the EAR, such as the
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1680:
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1426:
1385:
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496:(also called Gabuli, Alu-Dalafilla), and
339:Prior to the rift's formation, enormous
220:Competing theories on geologic evolution
100:A narrow zone, the rift is a developing
686:
576:of East Africa over millions of years.
201:. The Western Rift Valley includes the
666:Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province
646:, which is also 10 million years old.
622:skeleton discovered by anthropologist
3667:Portuguese-speaking African countries
1535:Oppenheimer, C.; Francis, P. (1996).
7:
2538:West and Central African Rift System
1366:Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems
1315:Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems
676:West and Central African Rift System
2214:Major African geological formations
1106:Earth and Planetary Science Letters
948:Earth and Planetary Science Letters
734:Earth and Planetary Science Letters
410:is generally cool and strong. Many
205:, and farther south, the valley of
626:dating back over 3 million years.
25:
2164:"Fossils belong to new great ape"
1708:. University of California Press.
1239:Journal of African Earth Sciences
886:Journal of African Earth Sciences
1259:10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2006.06.009
906:10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2005.07.019
716:10.1111/j.1468-4004.2005.46216.x
265:. According to marine geologist
1090:10.1016/j.earscirev.2009.06.005
768:Osborne, Hannah (9 June 2020).
375:An artificial rendering of the
3502:Guinean Forests of West Africa
1173:Seismological Research Letters
595:Discoveries in human evolution
1:
3517:Guinean forest-savanna mosaic
3014:Cameroonian Highlands forests
2133:10.1126/science.298.5599.1708
1760:Nicholson, Sharon E. (2017).
3642:Middle East and North Africa
3099:East African montane forests
1815:Geophysical Research Letters
1275:Geophysical Research Letters
968:10.1016/0012-821x(78)90143-7
134:lie within the Rift Valley.
1568:Rivista Geografica Italiana
1481:10.1016/j.tecto.2017.03.025
1214:National Geographic Society
815:"The Ethiopian Rift Valley"
637:Chororapithecus abyssinicus
605:Timeline of human evolution
399:, and the northern part of
77:) is an active continental
3783:
3762:Cenozoic rifts and grabens
2352:Central African Shear Zone
1931:10.1038/s41586-022-05662-5
1880:10.1038/s41586-022-05662-5
1122:10.1016/j.epsl.2011.12.023
755:10.1016/j.epsl.2004.02.008
671:West Antarctic Rift System
598:
301:The geophysical method of
3412:Indian Ocean coastal belt
2729:Central Pangean Mountains
2382:Western Meseta Shear Zone
1673:10.1007/s00445-007-0190-x
1428:10.1016/j.gsf.2015.11.002
1209:Nature's World of Wonders
1206:Gray, William R. (1983).
1150:. John Wiley & Sons.
983:Geochem. Geophys. Geosyst
341:continental flood basalts
1746:10.1175/JCLI-D-19-0274.1
1622:Global Volcanism Program
1591:Global Volcanism Program
703:Astronomy and Geophysics
643:Nakalipithecus nakayamai
445:Volcanism and seismicity
71:East African Rift System
18:East African Rift Valley
3612:Guineo-Congolian region
1627:Smithsonian Institution
1596:Smithsonian Institution
1553:10.1080/014311697218043
1114:2012E&PSL.319...23H
960:1978E&PSL..39...84S
747:2004E&PSL.222..197F
343:erupted, uplifting the
93:that extended north to
2749:Eastern Rift mountains
2671:Tanzania Coastal Basin
2450:Terra Australis Orogen
2084:10.1002/qj.49709540412
1974:10.1098/rsta.2004.1473
1706:Volcanoes of the World
403:
242:
58:
50:
3554:West Sudanian savanna
3512:Lower Guinean forests
3507:Upper Guinean forests
3422:Cape Floristic Region
3285:Cataracts of the Nile
3104:Eastern Arc Mountains
3024:Congolian rainforests
3019:East Sudanian savanna
2764:Great Karas Mountains
2744:Eastern Arc Mountains
2284:Arabian-Nubian Shield
1766:Reviews of Geophysics
1070:Earth-Science Reviews
933:10.1002/gj.3350220632
374:
322:Geodynamical modeling
239:
56:
35:
3208:Zanzibar Archipelago
3176:Indian Ocean islands
2661:Somali Coastal Basin
2372:Mwembeshi Shear Zone
2162:Seward, Liz (2007).
1836:10.1029/2020GL090999
1787:10.1002/2016RG000544
1407:Geoscience Frontiers
1387:10.1029/2018GC007804
1336:10.1002/2015GC005948
1295:10.1002/2014GL059424
1212:. Washington, D.C.:
1003:10.1029/2006GC001248
276:Isotope geochemistry
225:proposed an African
159:Afar Triple Junction
3734: /
3627:Mediterranean Basin
3607:Greater Middle East
3144:Ethiopian Highlands
3052:African Great Lakes
2839:Teffedest Mountains
2754:Ethiopian Highlands
2445:Pan-African orogens
2415:East African Orogen
2347:Broodkop Shear Zone
2319:West African Craton
2262:Victoria Microplate
2127:(5599): 1708–1711.
2076:1969QJRMS..95..400F
2021:2009QJRMS.135..319B
1923:2023Natur.615..276M
1872:2023Natur.615..276M
1827:2021GeoRL..4890999M
1778:2017RvGeo..55..590N
1737:2019JCli...32.8791H
1665:2008BVol...70.1069K
1541:Int. J. Remote Sens
1473:2018Tectp.746..121K
1438:20.500.11850/112690
1419:2016GeoFr...7..221K
1378:2019GGG....20..120E
1327:2015GGG....16.2949C
1287:2014GeoRL..41.2304H
1251:2007JAfES..48..147F
1185:2012SeiRL..83..846T
1082:2009ESRv...96....1C
1036:1998Natur.395..788E
995:2006GGG.....711007M
898:2005JAfES..43..379C
855:1986Natur.321..599M
551:lake breeze systems
543:Ethiopian Highlands
167:Main Ethiopian Rift
157:Southward from the
132:African Great Lakes
124:Victoria Microplate
3687:Sub-Saharan Africa
3592:Commonwealth realm
3201:Northern Highlands
3149:Dahlak Archipelago
2903:List of inselbergs
2873:Jugurtha Tableland
2824:Sankwala Mountains
2819:Rwenzori Mountains
2636:Ouled Abdoun Basin
2631:Orange River Basin
2553:Sedimentary basins
2362:Foumban Shear Zone
2304:Saharan Metacraton
1725:Journal of Climate
1617:"Ol Doinyo Lengai"
1193:10.1785/0220120032
1108:. 319–320: 23–34.
921:Geological Journal
589:Hadley Circulation
404:
385:Rwenzori Mountains
335:Geologic evolution
303:seismic tomography
297:Seismic tomography
243:
59:
51:
3767:Great Rift Valley
3717:
3716:
3617:Islands of Africa
3597:Equatorial Africa
3549:Inner Niger Delta
3337:Tibesti Mountains
3196:Central Highlands
3082:Virunga Mountains
3077:Rift Valley lakes
3067:Great Rift Valley
3062:East African Rift
3029:Ouaddaï highlands
2911:
2910:
2844:Tibesti Mountains
2804:Mitumba Mountains
2794:Mandara Mountains
2779:Imatong Mountains
2734:Chaillu Mountains
2714:Bambouk Mountains
2651:Rio del Rey Basin
2621:Niger Delta Basin
2606:Iullemmeden Basin
2498:Gulf of Suez Rift
2493:East African Rift
2478:Bahr el Arab rift
2425:Gondwanide Orogen
2357:Chuan Shear Zones
1917:(7951): 276–279.
1866:(7951): 276–279.
1731:(24): 8791–8811.
1223:978-2-09-290310-0
1157:978-1-4051-0777-8
1030:(6704): 788–791.
849:(6070): 599–603.
620:australopithecine
537:Effect on climate
481:, as well as the
451:Mount Kilimanjaro
432:mineral resources
408:continental crust
393:Virunga Mountains
91:Great Rift Valley
63:East African Rift
16:(Redirected from
3774:
3749:
3748:
3746:
3745:
3744:
3739:
3735:
3732:
3731:
3730:
3727:
3709:Zambezian region
3697:Sudanian savanna
3682:Southeast Africa
3662:Northeast Africa
3647:Miombo woodlands
3522:Guinea Highlands
3186:Lamu Archipelago
3164:Gulf of Tadjoura
2938:
2931:
2924:
2915:
2799:Marrah Mountains
2774:Hoggar Mountains
2769:Guinea Highlands
2759:Great Escarpment
2523:Sangha Aulacogen
2440:Mauritanide Belt
2367:Kandi Fault Zone
2342:Aswa Dislocation
2257:Seychelles Plate
2247:Madagascar Plate
2208:
2201:
2194:
2185:
2179:
2178:
2176:
2174:
2159:
2153:
2152:
2116:
2110:
2109:
2107:
2105:
2094:
2088:
2087:
2070:(404): 400–403.
2059:
2053:
2052:
2042:
2032:
2015:(639): 319–335.
2000:
1994:
1993:
1957:
1951:
1950:
1906:
1900:
1899:
1855:
1849:
1848:
1838:
1806:
1800:
1799:
1789:
1757:
1751:
1750:
1748:
1716:
1710:
1709:
1701:
1695:
1694:
1684:
1659:(9): 1069–1086.
1644:
1638:
1637:
1635:
1633:
1613:
1607:
1606:
1604:
1602:
1582:
1576:
1575:
1563:
1557:
1556:
1547:(8): 1661–1692.
1532:
1526:
1525:
1517:
1508:
1507:
1499:
1493:
1492:
1458:
1449:
1443:
1442:
1440:
1430:
1398:
1392:
1391:
1389:
1357:
1351:
1350:
1348:
1338:
1321:(9): 2949–2968.
1305:
1299:
1298:
1281:(7): 2304–2311.
1269:
1263:
1262:
1245:(2–3): 147–160.
1234:
1228:
1227:
1203:
1197:
1196:
1168:
1162:
1161:
1147:Global Tectonics
1141:
1126:
1125:
1100:
1094:
1093:
1065:
1056:
1055:
1016:
1007:
1006:
978:
972:
971:
943:
937:
936:
916:
910:
909:
881:
875:
874:
863:10.1038/321599a0
838:
827:
826:
824:
822:
810:
795:
784:
778:
777:
765:
759:
758:
727:
721:
720:
718:
709:(2): 2.16–2.21.
695:Ebinger, Cynthia
691:
656:Baikal Rift Zone
506:natrocarbonatite
498:Ol Doinyo Lengai
483:Crater Highlands
471:Mount Nyiragongo
424:greenstone belts
420:Kaapvaal cratons
146:and east to the
45:—the Nubian and
21:
3782:
3781:
3777:
3776:
3775:
3773:
3772:
3771:
3752:
3751:
3742:
3740:
3736:
3733:
3728:
3725:
3723:
3721:
3720:
3718:
3713:
3704:Tropical Africa
3565:
3453:
3432:Kalahari Desert
3417:Albany thickets
3382:Succulent Karoo
3346:
3248:Atlas Mountains
3219:
3038:
2951:
2942:
2912:
2907:
2868:Mount Gorongosa
2848:
2709:Aurès Mountains
2704:Atlas Mountains
2691:Mountain ranges
2685:
2571:Blue Nile Basin
2547:
2543:White Nile rift
2454:
2420:Eburnean Orogen
2386:
2377:Todi Shear Zone
2328:
2324:Zimbabwe Craton
2309:Tanzania Craton
2299:Kalahari Craton
2294:Kaapvaal Craton
2266:
2215:
2212:
2182:
2172:
2170:
2168:BBC News London
2161:
2160:
2156:
2118:
2117:
2113:
2103:
2101:
2096:
2095:
2091:
2061:
2060:
2056:
2002:
2001:
1997:
1968:(1826): 25–42.
1959:
1958:
1954:
1908:
1907:
1903:
1857:
1856:
1852:
1808:
1807:
1803:
1759:
1758:
1754:
1718:
1717:
1713:
1703:
1702:
1698:
1646:
1645:
1641:
1631:
1629:
1615:
1614:
1610:
1600:
1598:
1586:"Alu-Dalafilla"
1584:
1583:
1579:
1565:
1564:
1560:
1534:
1533:
1529:
1519:
1518:
1511:
1501:
1500:
1496:
1456:
1451:
1450:
1446:
1400:
1399:
1395:
1359:
1358:
1354:
1307:
1306:
1302:
1271:
1270:
1266:
1236:
1235:
1231:
1224:
1205:
1204:
1200:
1170:
1169:
1165:
1158:
1143:
1142:
1129:
1102:
1101:
1097:
1067:
1066:
1059:
1018:
1017:
1010:
980:
979:
975:
945:
944:
940:
918:
917:
913:
883:
882:
878:
840:
839:
830:
820:
818:
812:
811:
798:
785:
781:
767:
766:
762:
729:
728:
724:
693:
692:
688:
684:
652:
624:Donald Johanson
607:
601:Human evolution
599:Main articles:
597:
539:
531:Focal mechanism
467:Mount Karisimbi
447:
401:Lake Tanganyika
391:, the volcanic
369:
337:
329:Tanzania craton
324:
299:
278:
263:mid-ocean ridge
251:plate tectonics
222:
165:) includes the
140:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3780:
3778:
3770:
3769:
3764:
3754:
3753:
3715:
3714:
3712:
3711:
3706:
3701:
3700:
3699:
3692:Sudan (region)
3689:
3684:
3679:
3674:
3669:
3664:
3659:
3654:
3649:
3644:
3639:
3634:
3629:
3624:
3619:
3614:
3609:
3604:
3599:
3594:
3589:
3584:
3579:
3573:
3571:
3567:
3566:
3564:
3563:
3558:
3557:
3556:
3551:
3546:
3536:
3535:
3534:
3529:
3527:Gulf of Guinea
3524:
3519:
3514:
3509:
3504:
3494:
3489:
3484:
3479:
3474:
3469:
3463:
3461:
3455:
3454:
3452:
3451:
3450:
3449:
3442:Cape Peninsula
3439:
3437:Okavango Delta
3434:
3429:
3427:Skeleton Coast
3424:
3419:
3414:
3409:
3404:
3399:
3394:
3389:
3384:
3379:
3374:
3373:
3372:
3367:
3356:
3354:
3348:
3347:
3345:
3344:
3342:Western Sahara
3339:
3334:
3333:
3332:
3327:
3322:
3317:
3315:Nuba Mountains
3312:
3307:
3302:
3297:
3292:
3287:
3282:
3277:
3267:
3266:
3265:
3260:
3255:
3250:
3245:
3235:
3233:Eastern Desert
3229:
3227:
3221:
3220:
3218:
3217:
3212:
3211:
3210:
3205:
3204:
3203:
3198:
3188:
3183:
3181:Comoro Islands
3173:
3172:
3171:
3166:
3161:
3156:
3154:Hanish Islands
3151:
3146:
3141:
3139:Danakil Desert
3136:
3131:
3126:
3121:
3114:Horn of Africa
3111:
3106:
3101:
3096:
3095:
3094:
3089:
3084:
3079:
3074:
3069:
3064:
3059:
3057:Albertine Rift
3048:
3046:
3040:
3039:
3037:
3036:
3034:Ennedi Plateau
3031:
3026:
3021:
3016:
3011:
3006:
3001:
2996:
2995:
2994:
2984:
2979:
2974:
2973:
2972:
2970:Gulf of Guinea
2961:
2959:
2953:
2952:
2943:
2941:
2940:
2933:
2926:
2918:
2909:
2908:
2906:
2905:
2900:
2895:
2890:
2888:Mont Niénokoué
2885:
2883:Mulanje Massif
2880:
2875:
2870:
2865:
2859:
2857:
2850:
2849:
2847:
2846:
2841:
2836:
2834:Serra da Chela
2831:
2826:
2821:
2816:
2811:
2809:Nuba Mountains
2806:
2801:
2796:
2791:
2789:Loma Mountains
2786:
2781:
2776:
2771:
2766:
2761:
2756:
2751:
2746:
2741:
2736:
2731:
2726:
2721:
2719:Blue Mountains
2716:
2711:
2706:
2701:
2695:
2693:
2687:
2686:
2684:
2683:
2678:
2673:
2668:
2666:Taoudeni Basin
2663:
2658:
2653:
2648:
2643:
2638:
2633:
2628:
2623:
2618:
2613:
2608:
2603:
2598:
2593:
2588:
2583:
2578:
2573:
2568:
2563:
2557:
2555:
2549:
2548:
2546:
2545:
2540:
2535:
2530:
2525:
2520:
2515:
2510:
2505:
2503:Lamu Embayment
2500:
2495:
2490:
2488:Blue Nile rift
2485:
2480:
2475:
2470:
2464:
2462:
2456:
2455:
2453:
2452:
2447:
2442:
2437:
2432:
2430:Kibaran Orogen
2427:
2422:
2417:
2412:
2407:
2405:Cape Fold Belt
2402:
2396:
2394:
2388:
2387:
2385:
2384:
2379:
2374:
2369:
2364:
2359:
2354:
2349:
2344:
2338:
2336:
2330:
2329:
2327:
2326:
2321:
2316:
2311:
2306:
2301:
2296:
2291:
2286:
2280:
2278:
2268:
2267:
2265:
2264:
2259:
2254:
2249:
2244:
2238:
2234:Minor plates:
2232:
2228:Major plates:
2225:
2223:
2217:
2216:
2213:
2211:
2210:
2203:
2196:
2188:
2181:
2180:
2154:
2111:
2089:
2054:
2030:10.1002/qj.388
1995:
1952:
1901:
1850:
1801:
1772:(3): 590–635.
1752:
1711:
1696:
1682:1854/LU-430096
1639:
1608:
1577:
1558:
1527:
1509:
1494:
1461:Tectonophysics
1444:
1413:(2): 221–236.
1393:
1372:(1): 120–147.
1352:
1300:
1264:
1229:
1222:
1216:. p. 16.
1198:
1179:(5): 846–854.
1163:
1156:
1127:
1095:
1057:
1020:Ebinger, C. J.
1008:
973:
938:
911:
892:(1): 379–410.
876:
828:
796:
779:
760:
741:(1): 197–208.
722:
697:(April 2005).
685:
683:
680:
679:
678:
673:
668:
663:
658:
651:
648:
596:
593:
585:Indian Monsoon
563:Central Africa
538:
535:
459:Mount Longonot
446:
443:
377:Albertine Rift
368:
365:
336:
333:
323:
320:
298:
295:
277:
274:
267:Kathleen Crane
221:
218:
203:Albertine Rift
139:
136:
105:tectonic plate
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3779:
3768:
3765:
3763:
3760:
3759:
3757:
3750:
3747:
3710:
3707:
3705:
3702:
3698:
3695:
3694:
3693:
3690:
3688:
3685:
3683:
3680:
3678:
3675:
3673:
3670:
3668:
3665:
3663:
3660:
3658:
3655:
3653:
3650:
3648:
3645:
3643:
3640:
3638:
3635:
3633:
3630:
3628:
3625:
3623:
3620:
3618:
3615:
3613:
3610:
3608:
3605:
3603:
3600:
3598:
3595:
3593:
3590:
3588:
3585:
3583:
3580:
3578:
3575:
3574:
3572:
3570:Macro-regions
3568:
3562:
3559:
3555:
3552:
3550:
3547:
3545:
3542:
3541:
3540:
3537:
3533:
3530:
3528:
3525:
3523:
3520:
3518:
3515:
3513:
3510:
3508:
3505:
3503:
3500:
3499:
3498:
3497:Guinea region
3495:
3493:
3492:Cape Mesurado
3490:
3488:
3485:
3483:
3480:
3478:
3475:
3473:
3470:
3468:
3465:
3464:
3462:
3460:
3456:
3448:
3445:
3444:
3443:
3440:
3438:
3435:
3433:
3430:
3428:
3425:
3423:
3420:
3418:
3415:
3413:
3410:
3408:
3405:
3403:
3400:
3398:
3395:
3393:
3390:
3388:
3385:
3383:
3380:
3378:
3375:
3371:
3368:
3366:
3363:
3362:
3361:
3358:
3357:
3355:
3353:
3349:
3343:
3340:
3338:
3335:
3331:
3328:
3326:
3323:
3321:
3318:
3316:
3313:
3311:
3308:
3306:
3303:
3301:
3298:
3296:
3293:
3291:
3288:
3286:
3283:
3281:
3278:
3276:
3273:
3272:
3271:
3268:
3264:
3261:
3259:
3258:Gibraltar Arc
3256:
3254:
3253:Barbary Coast
3251:
3249:
3246:
3244:
3243:Ancient Libya
3241:
3240:
3239:
3236:
3234:
3231:
3230:
3228:
3226:
3222:
3216:
3215:Swahili coast
3213:
3209:
3206:
3202:
3199:
3197:
3194:
3193:
3192:
3189:
3187:
3184:
3182:
3179:
3178:
3177:
3174:
3170:
3167:
3165:
3162:
3160:
3157:
3155:
3152:
3150:
3147:
3145:
3142:
3140:
3137:
3135:
3132:
3130:
3127:
3125:
3122:
3120:
3119:Afar Triangle
3117:
3116:
3115:
3112:
3110:
3107:
3105:
3102:
3100:
3097:
3093:
3090:
3088:
3085:
3083:
3080:
3078:
3075:
3073:
3070:
3068:
3065:
3063:
3060:
3058:
3055:
3054:
3053:
3050:
3049:
3047:
3045:
3041:
3035:
3032:
3030:
3027:
3025:
3022:
3020:
3017:
3015:
3012:
3010:
3007:
3005:
3002:
3000:
2997:
2993:
2990:
2989:
2988:
2985:
2983:
2980:
2978:
2975:
2971:
2968:
2967:
2966:
2965:Guinea region
2963:
2962:
2960:
2958:
2954:
2950:
2946:
2939:
2934:
2932:
2927:
2925:
2920:
2919:
2916:
2904:
2901:
2899:
2896:
2894:
2891:
2889:
2886:
2884:
2881:
2879:
2876:
2874:
2871:
2869:
2866:
2864:
2861:
2860:
2858:
2855:
2851:
2845:
2842:
2840:
2837:
2835:
2832:
2830:
2829:Serra da Leba
2827:
2825:
2822:
2820:
2817:
2815:
2814:Rif Mountains
2812:
2810:
2807:
2805:
2802:
2800:
2797:
2795:
2792:
2790:
2787:
2785:
2784:Jebel Uweinat
2782:
2780:
2777:
2775:
2772:
2770:
2767:
2765:
2762:
2760:
2757:
2755:
2752:
2750:
2747:
2745:
2742:
2740:
2737:
2735:
2732:
2730:
2727:
2725:
2724:Cameroon line
2722:
2720:
2717:
2715:
2712:
2710:
2707:
2705:
2702:
2700:
2699:Aïr Mountains
2697:
2696:
2694:
2692:
2688:
2682:
2681:Turkana Basin
2679:
2677:
2676:Tindouf Basin
2674:
2672:
2669:
2667:
2664:
2662:
2659:
2657:
2654:
2652:
2649:
2647:
2646:Reggane Basin
2644:
2642:
2639:
2637:
2634:
2632:
2629:
2627:
2624:
2622:
2619:
2617:
2614:
2612:
2609:
2607:
2604:
2602:
2599:
2597:
2594:
2592:
2589:
2587:
2584:
2582:
2579:
2577:
2574:
2572:
2569:
2567:
2564:
2562:
2559:
2558:
2556:
2554:
2550:
2544:
2541:
2539:
2536:
2534:
2531:
2529:
2526:
2524:
2521:
2519:
2516:
2514:
2511:
2509:
2506:
2504:
2501:
2499:
2496:
2494:
2491:
2489:
2486:
2484:
2481:
2479:
2476:
2474:
2471:
2469:
2468:Afar Triangle
2466:
2465:
2463:
2461:
2457:
2451:
2448:
2446:
2443:
2441:
2438:
2436:
2435:Kuunga Orogen
2433:
2431:
2428:
2426:
2423:
2421:
2418:
2416:
2413:
2411:
2410:Damara Orogen
2408:
2406:
2403:
2401:
2400:Alpine Orogen
2398:
2397:
2395:
2393:
2389:
2383:
2380:
2378:
2375:
2373:
2370:
2368:
2365:
2363:
2360:
2358:
2355:
2353:
2350:
2348:
2345:
2343:
2340:
2339:
2337:
2335:
2331:
2325:
2322:
2320:
2317:
2315:
2314:Tuareg Shield
2312:
2310:
2307:
2305:
2302:
2300:
2297:
2295:
2292:
2290:
2287:
2285:
2282:
2281:
2279:
2277:
2273:
2269:
2263:
2260:
2258:
2255:
2253:
2250:
2248:
2245:
2243:
2242:Lwandle Plate
2240:Microplates:
2239:
2237:
2233:
2231:
2230:African Plate
2227:
2226:
2224:
2222:
2218:
2209:
2204:
2202:
2197:
2195:
2190:
2189:
2186:
2169:
2165:
2158:
2155:
2150:
2146:
2142:
2138:
2134:
2130:
2126:
2122:
2115:
2112:
2099:
2093:
2090:
2085:
2081:
2077:
2073:
2069:
2065:
2058:
2055:
2050:
2046:
2041:
2036:
2031:
2026:
2022:
2018:
2014:
2010:
2006:
1999:
1996:
1991:
1987:
1983:
1979:
1975:
1971:
1967:
1963:
1956:
1953:
1948:
1944:
1940:
1936:
1932:
1928:
1924:
1920:
1916:
1912:
1905:
1902:
1897:
1893:
1889:
1885:
1881:
1877:
1873:
1869:
1865:
1861:
1854:
1851:
1846:
1842:
1837:
1832:
1828:
1824:
1820:
1816:
1812:
1805:
1802:
1797:
1793:
1788:
1783:
1779:
1775:
1771:
1767:
1763:
1756:
1753:
1747:
1742:
1738:
1734:
1730:
1726:
1722:
1715:
1712:
1707:
1700:
1697:
1692:
1688:
1683:
1678:
1674:
1670:
1666:
1662:
1658:
1654:
1653:Bull Volcanol
1650:
1643:
1640:
1628:
1624:
1623:
1618:
1612:
1609:
1597:
1593:
1592:
1587:
1581:
1578:
1573:
1569:
1562:
1559:
1554:
1550:
1546:
1542:
1538:
1531:
1528:
1523:
1516:
1514:
1510:
1505:
1498:
1495:
1490:
1486:
1482:
1478:
1474:
1470:
1466:
1462:
1455:
1448:
1445:
1439:
1434:
1429:
1424:
1420:
1416:
1412:
1408:
1404:
1397:
1394:
1388:
1383:
1379:
1375:
1371:
1367:
1363:
1356:
1353:
1347:
1342:
1337:
1332:
1328:
1324:
1320:
1316:
1312:
1304:
1301:
1296:
1292:
1288:
1284:
1280:
1276:
1268:
1265:
1260:
1256:
1252:
1248:
1244:
1240:
1233:
1230:
1225:
1219:
1215:
1211:
1210:
1202:
1199:
1194:
1190:
1186:
1182:
1178:
1174:
1167:
1164:
1159:
1153:
1149:
1148:
1140:
1138:
1136:
1134:
1132:
1128:
1123:
1119:
1115:
1111:
1107:
1099:
1096:
1091:
1087:
1083:
1079:
1076:(1–2): 1–53.
1075:
1071:
1064:
1062:
1058:
1053:
1049:
1045:
1044:10.1038/27417
1041:
1037:
1033:
1029:
1025:
1021:
1015:
1013:
1009:
1004:
1000:
996:
992:
988:
984:
977:
974:
969:
965:
961:
957:
953:
949:
942:
939:
934:
930:
926:
922:
915:
912:
907:
903:
899:
895:
891:
887:
880:
877:
872:
868:
864:
860:
856:
852:
848:
844:
837:
835:
833:
829:
816:
809:
807:
805:
803:
801:
797:
794:
793:
792:Science Daily
789:
783:
780:
775:
771:
764:
761:
756:
752:
748:
744:
740:
736:
735:
726:
723:
717:
712:
708:
704:
700:
696:
690:
687:
681:
677:
674:
672:
669:
667:
664:
662:
661:Lake Victoria
659:
657:
654:
653:
649:
647:
645:
644:
639:
638:
633:
629:
625:
621:
618:", a partial
617:
612:
606:
602:
594:
592:
590:
586:
582:
577:
575:
574:aridification
571:
568:
564:
560:
556:
552:
548:
547:Lake Victoria
544:
536:
534:
532:
527:
522:
520:
519:9 in Tanzania
516:
511:
507:
503:
499:
495:
491:
486:
484:
480:
476:
472:
468:
464:
460:
456:
452:
444:
442:
440:
435:
433:
429:
425:
421:
417:
413:
409:
402:
398:
394:
390:
386:
382:
378:
373:
366:
364:
361:
356:
354:
350:
346:
342:
334:
332:
330:
321:
319:
317:
313:
309:
304:
296:
294:
291:
287:
284:
275:
273:
270:
268:
264:
260:
256:
252:
248:
238:
234:
232:
231:mantle plumes
228:
219:
217:
215:
210:
208:
204:
200:
196:
192:
188:
184:
180:
176:
172:
168:
164:
160:
155:
153:
149:
145:
137:
135:
133:
128:
125:
121:
117:
113:
112:African Plate
109:
106:
103:
98:
96:
92:
88:
84:
80:
76:
72:
68:
64:
55:
48:
44:
43:African Plate
39:
34:
30:
19:
3738:3.0°S 35.5°E
3719:
3652:Mittelafrika
3602:Françafrique
3467:Pepper Coast
3305:Middle Egypt
3159:Gulf of Aden
3134:Danakil Alps
3072:Gregory Rift
3061:
2856:(aka koppie)
2641:Owambo Basin
2626:Ogaden Basin
2616:Murzuq Basin
2586:Douala Basin
2561:Angola Basin
2533:Urema Valley
2518:Red Sea Rift
2513:Muglad Basin
2492:
2483:Benue Trough
2289:Congo Craton
2252:Rovuma Plate
2236:Somali Plate
2171:. Retrieved
2167:
2157:
2124:
2120:
2114:
2102:. Retrieved
2092:
2067:
2063:
2057:
2040:1721.1/64676
2012:
2008:
1998:
1965:
1961:
1955:
1914:
1910:
1904:
1863:
1859:
1853:
1818:
1814:
1804:
1769:
1765:
1755:
1728:
1724:
1714:
1705:
1699:
1656:
1652:
1642:
1630:. Retrieved
1620:
1611:
1599:. Retrieved
1589:
1580:
1571:
1567:
1561:
1544:
1540:
1530:
1521:
1497:
1464:
1460:
1447:
1410:
1406:
1396:
1369:
1365:
1355:
1346:2158/1077599
1318:
1314:
1303:
1278:
1274:
1267:
1242:
1238:
1232:
1208:
1201:
1176:
1172:
1166:
1146:
1105:
1098:
1073:
1069:
1027:
1023:
986:
982:
976:
954:(1): 84–88.
951:
947:
941:
924:
920:
914:
889:
885:
879:
846:
842:
819:. Retrieved
790:
782:
763:
738:
732:
725:
706:
702:
689:
641:
635:
608:
581:Indian Ocean
578:
540:
523:
487:
448:
436:
406:The African
405:
357:
351:of multiple
338:
325:
316:upper mantle
300:
279:
271:
244:
223:
211:
163:Gregory Rift
156:
152:Gulf of Aden
144:Red Sea Rift
141:
130:Many of the
129:
120:Nubian Plate
116:Somali Plate
99:
74:
70:
66:
62:
60:
29:
3741: /
3637:Middle East
3582:Afromontane
3544:Niger Delta
3539:Niger Basin
3532:Dahomey Gap
3487:Cape Palmas
3482:Ivory Coast
3477:Slave Coast
3330:Upper Egypt
3300:Lower Nubia
3295:Lower Egypt
3270:Nile Valley
3004:Congo Basin
2999:Pool Malebo
2739:Drakensberg
2656:Sirte Basin
2611:Kufra Basin
2601:Gabon Basin
2596:Karoo Basin
2581:Congo Basin
2528:Atbara rift
2508:Melut Basin
2473:Anza trough
2334:Shear zones
1467:: 121–137.
989:(11): n/a.
927:: 537–561.
632:Mary Leakey
567:Congo Basin
526:earthquakes
515:17 in Kenya
510:viscosities
479:Mount Elgon
455:Mount Kenya
389:Lake Edward
381:Lake Albert
349:suture zone
259:lithosphere
207:Lake Malawi
83:East Africa
38:East Africa
3756:Categories
3743:-3.0; 35.5
3587:Arab world
3561:Yorubaland
3472:Gold Coast
3397:Maputaland
3387:Nama Karoo
3377:Thembuland
3325:The Sudans
3310:Nile Delta
3275:Nile Delta
3191:Madagascar
3009:Chad Basin
2977:Cape Lopez
2878:Mount Mabu
2863:Anti-Atlas
2854:Inselbergs
2576:Chad Basin
1574:: 261–270.
813:Corti, G.
682:References
570:rainforest
494:Dalaffilla
475:Mount Meru
283:rare earth
255:intrusions
227:superplume
199:Mozambique
148:Aden Ridge
110:where the
95:Asia Minor
3657:Negroland
3577:Aethiopia
3447:False Bay
3124:Al-Habash
3109:Serengeti
3087:Kavirondo
2898:Zuma Rock
2893:Wase Rock
1947:257282295
1896:257282295
1845:230529018
1796:133035406
1489:132400572
439:Oligocene
428:tonalites
397:Lake Kivu
367:Petrology
345:Ethiopian
290:xenoliths
247:magmatism
102:divergent
36:A map of
3402:Highveld
3392:Bushveld
3360:Rhodesia
3263:Ifriqiya
3129:Barbaria
2987:Igboland
2591:El Djouf
2173:14 March
2149:26316640
2141:12459568
2104:14 March
2100:. UNESCO
2049:40870356
1982:15598618
1939:36859546
1888:36859546
1691:46977110
821:19 March
774:Newsweek
650:See also
557:and the
502:Holocene
490:Erta Ale
465:Crater,
463:Menengai
416:Tanzania
286:isotopes
191:Tanzania
171:Congo DR
118:and the
108:boundary
81:zone in
3729:35°30′E
3280:Bashmur
3238:Maghreb
3169:Red Sea
2982:Mayombe
2957:Central
2945:Regions
2392:Orogens
2276:shields
2272:Cratons
2121:Science
2072:Bibcode
2017:Bibcode
1990:2953876
1919:Bibcode
1868:Bibcode
1823:Bibcode
1774:Bibcode
1733:Bibcode
1661:Bibcode
1632:15 July
1601:15 July
1469:Bibcode
1415:Bibcode
1374:Bibcode
1323:Bibcode
1283:Bibcode
1247:Bibcode
1181:Bibcode
1110:Bibcode
1078:Bibcode
1052:4379613
1032:Bibcode
991:Bibcode
956:Bibcode
894:Bibcode
871:4282682
851:Bibcode
743:Bibcode
628:Richard
611:hominid
559:Zambezi
412:cratons
353:cratons
214:grabens
183:Burundi
150:in the
87:Miocene
3726:3°00′S
3672:Sahara
3632:MENASA
3407:Fynbos
3290:Darfur
2992:Mbaise
2949:Africa
2566:Aoukar
2221:Plates
2147:
2139:
2047:
1988:
1980:
1945:
1937:
1911:Nature
1894:
1886:
1860:Nature
1843:
1794:
1689:
1487:
1220:
1154:
1050:
1024:Nature
869:
843:Nature
517:, and
383:, the
360:faults
312:S-wave
308:P-wave
195:Malawi
187:Zambia
179:Rwanda
175:Uganda
138:Extent
47:Somali
3677:Sahel
3370:South
3365:North
3352:South
3320:Nubia
3225:North
2460:Rifts
2145:S2CID
2045:S2CID
1986:S2CID
1943:S2CID
1892:S2CID
1841:S2CID
1821:(1).
1792:S2CID
1687:S2CID
1485:S2CID
1457:(PDF)
1048:S2CID
923:. 2.
867:S2CID
555:Kenya
288:from
69:) or
3459:West
3092:Zanj
3044:East
2274:and
2175:2008
2137:PMID
2106:2008
1978:PMID
1935:PMID
1884:PMID
1634:2021
1603:2021
1218:ISBN
1152:ISBN
823:2014
630:and
616:Lucy
603:and
477:and
418:and
310:and
249:and
197:and
79:rift
75:EARS
61:The
2947:of
2129:doi
2125:298
2080:doi
2035:hdl
2025:doi
2013:135
1970:doi
1966:363
1927:doi
1915:615
1876:doi
1864:615
1831:doi
1782:doi
1741:doi
1677:hdl
1669:doi
1549:doi
1477:doi
1465:746
1433:hdl
1423:doi
1382:doi
1341:hdl
1331:doi
1291:doi
1255:doi
1189:doi
1118:doi
1086:doi
1040:doi
1028:395
999:doi
964:doi
929:doi
902:doi
859:doi
847:321
751:doi
739:222
711:doi
209:.
67:EAR
3758::
2166:.
2143:.
2135:.
2123:.
2078:.
2068:95
2066:.
2043:.
2033:.
2023:.
2011:.
2007:.
1984:.
1976:.
1964:.
1941:.
1933:.
1925:.
1913:.
1890:.
1882:.
1874:.
1862:.
1839:.
1829:.
1819:48
1817:.
1813:.
1790:.
1780:.
1770:55
1768:.
1764:.
1739:.
1729:32
1727:.
1723:.
1685:.
1675:.
1667:.
1657:70
1655:.
1651:.
1625:.
1619:.
1594:.
1588:.
1572:13
1570:.
1545:18
1543:.
1539:.
1512:^
1483:.
1475:.
1463:.
1459:.
1431:.
1421:.
1409:.
1405:.
1380:.
1370:20
1368:.
1364:.
1339:.
1329:.
1319:16
1317:.
1313:.
1289:.
1279:41
1277:.
1253:.
1243:48
1241:.
1187:.
1177:83
1175:.
1130:^
1116:.
1084:.
1074:96
1072:.
1060:^
1046:.
1038:.
1026:.
1011:^
997:.
985:.
962:.
952:39
950:.
925:22
900:.
890:43
888:.
865:.
857:.
845:.
831:^
799:^
772:.
749:.
737:.
707:46
705:.
701:.
591:.
521:.
492:,
473:,
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185:,
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97:.
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2207:e
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2177:.
2151:.
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