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758:. It can be divided into the physical study of aquatic ecosystems and the biological study of aquatic organisms. Ecohydrology includes the effects that organisms and aquatic ecosystems have on one another as well as how these ecoystems are affected by humans. Glaciology is the study of the cryosphere, including
893:
vary depending on the nature of the subjects being studied. Studies typically fall into one of three categories: observational, experimental, or theoretical. Earth scientists often conduct sophisticated computer analysis or visit an interesting location to study earth phenomena (e.g. Antarctica or
1894:
is defined as the study of the processes that control the abundance, composition, and distribution of chemical compounds and isotopes in geologic environments. Geochemists use the tools and principles of chemistry to study the composition, structure, processes, and other physical aspects of the
3061:
Finlay, C. C.; Maus, S.; Beggan, C. D.; Bondar, T. N.; Chambodut, A.; Chernova, T. A.; Chulliat, A.; Golovkov, V. P.; Hamilton, B.; Hamoudi, M.; Holme, R.; Hulot, G.; Kuang, W.; Langlais, B.; Lesur, V.; Lowes, F. J.; Lühr, H.; Macmillan, S.; Mandea, M.; McLean, S.; Manoj, C.; Menvielle, M.;
552:'s field in a period of normal polarity between reversals. The lines represent magnetic field lines, blue when the field points towards the center and yellow when away. The rotation axis of Earth is centered and vertical. The dense clusters of lines are within Earth's core.
905:, which states that "ancient geologic features are interpreted by understanding active processes that are readily observed." In other words, any geologic processes at work in the present have operated in the same ways throughout geologic time. This enables those who study
811:
and how they interact with one another as part of a single self-contained system. It incorporates astronomy, mathematical geography, meteorology, climatology, geology, geomorphology, biology, biogeography, pedology, and soils geography. Physical geography is distinct from
762:
and coverage of the Earth by ice and snow. Concerns of glaciology include access to glacial freshwater, mitigation of glacial hazards, obtaining resources that exist beneath frozen land, and addressing the effects of climate change on the cryosphere.
3645:
3340:
754:. The earliest exploitation of groundwater resources dates back to 3000 BC, and hydrogeology as a science was developed by hydrologists beginning in the 17th century. Ecohydrology is the study of ecological systems in the
1797:
as an Earth science. Physical geography is the study of Earth's seasons, climate, atmosphere, soil, streams, landforms, and oceans. Physical geography can be divided into several branches or related fields, as follows:
622:
corresponds to the north pole of Earth's magnetic field (because opposite magnetic poles attract and the north end of a magnet, like a compass needle, points toward Earth's South magnetic field,
3637:
3062:
Michaelis, I.; Olsen, N.; Rauberg, J.; Rother, M.; Sabaka, T. J.; Tangborn, A.; Tøffner-Clausen, L.; Thébault, E.; Thomson, A. W. P.; Wardinski, I.; Wei, Z.; Zvereva, T. I. (December 2010).
483:
are the five layers which make up Earth's atmosphere. 75% of the mass in the atmosphere is located within the troposphere, the lowest layer. In all, the atmosphere is made up of about 78.0%
334:, oceanic crust and lithosphere vehemently returns to the convecting mantle. Volcanoes result primarily from the melting of subducted crust material. Crust material that is forced into the
303:. This convection process causes the lithospheric plates to move, albeit slowly. The resulting process is known as plate tectonics. Areas of the crust where new crust is created are called
52:
related to the planet Earth. This is a branch of science dealing with the physical, chemical, and biological complex constitutions and synergistic linkages of Earth's four spheres: the
3332:
781:. This includes the study of nature and of how living things interact with the Earth and one another and the consequences of that. It considers how living things use resources such as
507:. This makes Earth's surface warm enough for liquid water and life. In addition to trapping heat, the atmosphere also protects living organisms by shielding the Earth's surface from
726:
and other branches of Earth science. Applied hydrology involves engineering to maintain aquatic environments and distribute water supplies. Subdisciplines of hydrology include
319:
result from the movement of the lithospheric plates, and they often occur near convergent boundaries where parts of the crust are forced into the earth as part of subduction.
1957:
are studies which focus on the movement, distribution, and quality of the water and involves all the components of the hydrologic cycle on the Earth and its atmosphere (or
746:. It includes the mapping of groundwater supplies and the analysis of groundwater contaminants. Applied hydrogeology seeks to prevent contamination of groundwater and
602:
The magnitude of Earth's magnetic field at its surface ranges from 25 to 65 μT (0.25 to 0.65 G). As an approximation, it is represented by a field of a
362:
204:
1939:
covers the interactions between organisms and their environment. This field of study differentiates the study of Earth from the study of other planets in the
2915:
1602:
1961:). "Sub-disciplines of hydrology include hydrometeorology, surface water hydrology, hydrogeology, watershed science, forest hydrology, and water chemistry."
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to apply knowledge of how the Earth's processes operate in the present to gain insight into how the planet has evolved and changed throughout long history.
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are usually located near the geographic poles, they slowly and continuously move over geological time scales, but sufficiently slowly for ordinary
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studies the deformation of rocks to produce mountains and lowlands. Resource geology studies how energy resources can be obtained from minerals.
1684:
In Earth science, it is common to conceptualize the Earth's surface as consisting of several distinct layers, often referred to as spheres: the
3636:
Miller, George A.; Christiane
Fellbaum; and Randee Tengi; and Pamela Wakefield; and Rajesh Poddar; and Helen Langone; Benjamin Haskell (2006).
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in calculating geomagnetic fields in the past. Such information in turn is helpful in studying the motions of continents and ocean floors. The
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Glatzmaier, Gary A.; Roberts, Paul H. (1995). "A three-dimensional self-consistent computer simulation of a geomagnetic field reversal".
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phenomena that can be explained in terms of physical and chemical processes in the Earth's crust. Beneath the Earth's crust lies the
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722:. It emphasizes the study of how humans use and interact with freshwater supplies. Study of water's movement is closely related to
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1700:, this concept of spheres is a useful tool for understanding the Earth's surface and its various processes these correspond to
88:
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and those where plates slide past each other, but no new lithospheric material is created or destroyed, are referred to as
122:. It includes the physical characteristics and processes that occur in the lithosphere as well as how they are affected by
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from the Earth to sustain themselves. It also considers how humans and other living creatures cause changes to nature.
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melts, and some portion of the melted material becomes light enough to rise to the surface—giving birth to volcanoes.
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in developing a comprehensive understanding of crustal geology, particularly in mineral and petroleum exploration.
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2011:
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Wood, Paul J.; Hannah, David M.; Sadler, Jonathan P. (2007). "Ecohydrology and
Hydroecology: An Introduction".
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Atmospheric science initially developed in the late-19th century as a means to forecast the weather through
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to remain useful for navigation. However, at irregular intervals averaging several hundred thousand years,
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816:, which studies the human populations on Earth, though it does include human effects on the environment.
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Plate tectonics might be thought of as the process by which the Earth is resurfaced. As the result of
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3295:. ©1997–2000. Wheeling Jesuit University/NASA Classroom of the Future. Retrieved November 11, 2007.
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595:: these convection currents are caused by heat escaping from the core, a natural process called a
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years old, it would have lost its atmosphere by now if there were no protective magnetosphere.
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126:. It incorporates aspects of chemistry, physics, and biology as elements of geology interact.
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172:, hazards associated with minerals, and the physical and chemical properties of minerals.
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activity of the lithosphere. Geophysics is commonly used to supplement the work of
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actually represents the South pole of Earth's magnetic field, and conversely the
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is a branch of petrology that studies the typology and classification of rocks.
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73:
57:
3697:
Tarbuck E. J., Lutgens F. K., and Tasa D., 2002. Earth
Science, Prentice Hall,
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to the near surface, through fissures, where it cools and solidifies. Through
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35:
17:
1993:(about 1000 km). Major subdisciplines include meteorology, climatology,
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cause the Earth's atmosphere to catch and hold the Sun's energy through the
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to understand plate tectonic movement, as well as predict seismic activity.
30:
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176:
is the study of rocks, including the formation and composition of rocks.
3596:
Allaby M., 2008. Dictionary of Earth
Sciences, Oxford University Press,
5025:
5013:
4951:
4881:
4856:
4816:
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is the study of minerals and includes the study of mineral formation,
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4679:
4647:
4348:
4215:
4195:
3016:
1565:
1272:
782:
488:
326:, new crust and lithosphere is created by the flow of magma from the
106:
is broadly the study of Earth's structure, substance, and processes.
3644:. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University/Cognitive Science Laboratory.
3362:"NOAA National Ocean Service Education: Global Positioning Tutorial"
3064:"International Geomagnetic Reference Field: the eleventh generation"
742:. Oceanography is the study of oceans. Hydrogeology is the study of
684:
that would otherwise strip away the upper atmosphere, including the
668:
that is defined by the extent of Earth's magnetic field in space or
254:
eruption is the release of stored energy from below Earth's surface.
1917:
covers the outermost layer of the Earth's crust that is subject to
5038:
4996:
4989:
4984:
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4695:
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492:
409:
296:
245:
87:
29:
4916:
4851:
4846:
4836:
4831:
4700:
4585:
4205:
3740:
3606:
Korvin G., 1998. Fractal Models in the Earth
Sciences, Elsvier,
3138:
Hölting, Bernward; Coldewey, Wilhelm G. (2019). "Introduction".
1729:
1713:
588:
4651:
4038:
3919:
3744:
3663:. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2005-03-08.
2654:"Earth sciences | Definition, Topics, & Facts | Britannica"
418:
shields the surface of Earth from the charged particles of the
1982:
1968:
1721:
1709:
1632:
1585:
916:
823:
576:
345:
187:
152:
studies geoscience as it pertains to extraterrestrial bodies.
3261:
Petersen, James F.; Sack, Dorothy; Gabler, Robert E. (2014).
652:
respectively, abruptly switch places. These reversals of the
164:
studies how pollution and contaminants affect soil and rock.
140:
studies the chemical components and processes of the Earth.
148:
studies fossilized biological material in the lithosphere.
672:. It extends several tens of thousands of kilometres into
606:
currently tilted at an angle of about 11° with respect to
515:—created by the internal motions of the core—produces the
1755:) and its historic development. Major subdisciplines are
4034:
3715:
3186:
1660:
369:
211:
901:
A foundational idea in Earth science is the notion of
614:
placed at that angle through the center of Earth. The
3410:. Texas A&M University-Kingsville. Archived from
1925:). Major subdivisions in this field of study include
1736:
are generally categorized within the Earth sciences:
676:, protecting Earth from the charged particles of the
76:). Earth science can be considered to be a branch of
3503:
American
Heritage dictionary of the English language
2809:
2807:
2805:
1732:) as an active and intermixed sphere. The following
307:, those where it is brought back into the Earth are
4915:
4872:
4794:
4736:
4686:
4594:
4578:
4535:
4480:
4422:
4357:
4304:
4234:
4186:
4143:
4090:
3642:
WordNet a lexical database for the
English language
2836:
2834:
1724:) as a distinct portion of the hydrosphere and the
3500:
718:Hydrology is the study of the hydrosphere and the
3554:. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall.
2780:
2778:
2776:
2774:
3661:"NOAA National Ocean Service Education: Geodesy"
2972:"How Did Scientists Calculate the Age of Earth?"
2869:(2nd ed.). Elsevier Science. pp. 1–3.
1943:, Earth being its only planet teeming with life.
295:. The mantle is not quite solid and consists of
495:, and small amounts of other gases including CO
3464:Earth Science: An illustrated guide to science
559:, also known as the geomagnetic field, is the
144:studies the physical properties of the Earth.
4663:
4050:
3931:
3756:
3620:. Oklahoma Climatological Survey. 1996–2004.
3240:(4th ed.). W. H. Freeman. pp. 3–4.
3236:Ricklefs, Robert E.; Miller, Gary L. (2000).
2901:
945:
656:leave a record in rocks that are of value to
440:was developed in the 20th century to measure
8:
3730:Geoethics in Planetary and Space Exploration
3390:Elissa Levine, 2001, The Pedosphere As A Hub
3304:
2946:
2889:
2784:
567:out into space, where it interacts with the
2867:Atmospheric Science: An Introductory Survey
2619:National Association of Geoscience Teachers
858:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
519:which protects Earth's atmosphere from the
130:is the application of geology to interpret
4921:
4670:
4656:
4648:
4057:
4043:
4035:
3938:
3924:
3916:
3763:
3749:
3741:
3548:How Does the Earth Work? Physical Geology
3315:
3313:
2865:Wallace, John M.; Hobbs, Peter V. (2006).
952:
938:
27:Fields of natural science related to Earth
3117:(3rd ed.). Routledge. pp. 1–2.
3113:Davie, Tim; Quinn, Nevil Wyndham (2019).
3097:
3087:
878:Learn how and when to remove this message
444:and expanded in the 1970s in response to
392:Learn how and when to remove this message
234:Learn how and when to remove this message
3483:Introduction to Mineralogy and Petrology
3319:
3144:(8th ed.). Springer. pp. 1–3.
2958:
2852:
2840:
2825:
2796:
2676:
3720:Universities Space Research Association
2813:
2765:
2645:
2607:List of unsolved problems in geoscience
363:not related to the topic of the article
205:not related to the topic of the article
3571:Earth Cycles: A historical perspective
3528:"The mechanism behind plate tectonics"
3404:"Lecture 1 Chapter 1 Why Study Soils?"
2700:
2688:
299:which is in a state of semi-perpetual
34:The rocky side of a mountain creek in
3462:Adams, Simon; Lambert, David (2006).
3042:. University of California Santa Cruz
2923:, Scientific American, archived from
579:. The magnetic field is generated by
7:
4609:Geology of solar terrestrial planets
4019:
3898:
3546:Smith, Gary A.; Pun, Aurora (2006).
1574:
1554:
1534:
1510:
1490:
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1410:
1386:
1366:
1346:
1326:
1306:
1286:
1259:
1239:
1219:
1199:
856:adding citations to reliable sources
114:, or Earth's surface, including the
3215:. Taylor & Francis. p. 1.
807:Physical geography is the study of
610:axis, as if there were an enormous
499:and water vapor. Water vapor and CO
3485:(2nd ed.). Elsevier Science.
3408:ENV320: Soil Science Lecture Notes
3265:. Cengage Learning. pp. 2–3.
3263:Fundamentals of Physical Geography
156:studies the origin of landscapes.
134:and how it has changed over time.
25:
3573:. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.
3068:Geophysical Journal International
1852:, its reaction to forces and its
5057:
5056:
4632:
4631:
4018:
4008:
3999:
3998:
3897:
3885:
3874:
3873:
3724:NASA Goddard Space Flight Center
3716:Earth Science Picture of the Day
3526:Simison, W. Brian (2007-02-05).
3089:10.1111/j.1365-246X.2010.04804.x
2976:education.nationalgeographic.org
2716:. London: Academic Press. 2000.
2602:List of geoscience organizations
2582:Earth sciences graphics software
2560:
2546:
2532:
2518:
1895:Earth. Major subdisciplines are
1716:. Also included by some are the
1637:
828:
536:This section is an excerpt from
350:
192:
4339:Human impact on the environment
3681:Earth Science: Decade by Decade
3667:from the original on 2005-05-08
3648:from the original on 2011-01-01
3624:from the original on 2007-11-17
3534:from the original on 2007-11-12
3440:from the original on 2017-01-11
3372:from the original on 2005-05-08
3343:from the original on 2019-05-15
3166:from the original on 2022-08-16
2748:from the original on 2008-08-27
80:but with a much older history.
4168:Climate variability and change
2577:American Geosciences Institute
1989:) between the surface and the
1652:format but may read better as
711:Movement of water through the
530:
315:(or conservative) boundaries.
1:
4604:Evolution of the Solar System
2914:Parker, Eugene (March 2006),
690:harmful ultraviolet radiation
372:or discuss this issue on the
214:or discuss this issue on the
4344:Evolutionary history of life
3434:"Hydrology of the Watershed"
2587:Four traditions of geography
1860:. Geophysicists explore the
777:Ecology is the study of the
110:is largely the study of the
3736:Geology Buzz: Earth Science
3683:. New York: Facts on File.
3466:. New York: Chelsea House.
5114:
2799:, pp. 13–17, 218, G-6
2787:, pp. 94–95, 100, 102
2009:
800:
770:
720:movement of water on Earth
700:
632:While the North and South
535:
403:
257:
5052:
4965:
4924:
4627:
4072:
3994:
3966:
3953:
3869:
3796:
3778:
3150:10.1007/978-3-662-56375-5
3115:Fundamentals of Hydrology
2714:Encyclopedia of Volcanoes
2592:Glossary of geology terms
2012:Outline of Earth sciences
1618:
930:
919:
750:and make it available as
688:that protects Earth from
4614:Location in the Universe
4545:Antarctic/Southern Ocean
4244:List of sovereign states
3679:Reed, Christina (2008).
3507:(4th ed.). Boston:
3305:Adams & Lambert 2006
3291:August 31, 2007, at the
2947:Adams & Lambert 2006
2890:Adams & Lambert 2006
2816:, pp. 101, 103, 104
2785:Adams & Lambert 2006
2597:List of Earth scientists
436:, the study of weather.
183:
3618:"Earth's Energy Budget"
3569:Oldroyd, David (2006).
3188:. Wiley. pp. 1–6.
2738:"Earth's Energy Budget"
2233:and planetary geography
2165:Geological oceanography
2159:Biological oceanography
1985:parts of the Earth (or
1971:parts of the Earth (or
1808:environmental geography
1661:converting this article
912:
587:of a mixture of molten
548:Computer simulation of
287:which is heated by the
48:includes all fields of
3481:Haldar, S. K. (2020).
3333:"WordNet Search – 3.1"
3209:Knight, Peter (1999).
2843:, pp. 325–26, 329
2634:Structure of the Earth
995:−10 —
985:−11 —
975:−12 —
965:−13 —
715:
642:Earth's field reverses
620:South geomagnetic pole
616:North geomagnetic pole
557:Earth's magnetic field
553:
538:Earth's magnetic field
531:Earth's magnetic field
429:
255:
100:
38:
5098:Science-related lists
4324:Biogeochemical cycles
4249:dependent territories
3806:Environmental science
2526:Earth sciences portal
2415:Environmental science
2209:Environmental geology
2154:Physical oceanography
2149:Chemical oceanography
2026:Atmospheric chemistry
2006:Earth science breakup
1995:atmospheric chemistry
1140:Accelerated expansion
1085:−1 —
1075:−2 —
1065:−3 —
1055:−4 —
1045:−5 —
1035:−6 —
1025:−7 —
1015:−8 —
1005:−9 —
710:
583:due to the motion of
547:
438:Atmospheric chemistry
413:
361:may contain material
309:convergent boundaries
249:
203:may contain material
162:Environmental geology
91:
33:
4937:Evolutionary history
4372:Computer cartography
4105:Prebiotic atmosphere
3638:"WordNet Search 3.0"
3320:Smith & Pun 2006
2959:Smith & Pun 2006
2853:Smith & Pun 2006
2841:Smith & Pun 2006
2826:Smith & Pun 2006
2797:Smith & Pun 2006
2677:Smith & Pun 2006
2613:Making North America
2410:Earth system science
2139:(freshwater science)
1979:Atmospheric sciences
1905:isotope geochemistry
1897:aqueous geochemistry
1358:NGC 188 star cluster
852:improve this section
650:South Magnetic Poles
571:, a stream of
370:improve this section
305:divergent boundaries
212:improve this section
4874:Natural environment
4515:Geologic time scale
4236:Culture and society
4100:Atmosphere of Earth
3801:Atmospheric science
3402:Gardiner, Duane T.
3080:2010GeoJI.183.1216F
3009:1995Natur.377..203G
2624:Solid-earth science
2204:Engineering geology
1999:atmospheric physics
1781:engineering geology
1482:Sexual reproduction
1422:Earliest known life
585:convection currents
575:emanating from the
426:image not to scale.
406:Atmospheric science
342:Atmospheric science
4510:Geological history
4384:Geodetic astronomy
3851:Physical geography
3552:Process of Science
3099:20.500.11850/27303
3038:Glatzmaier, Gary.
2658:www.britannica.com
2540:Environment portal
2430:Physical geography
2264:Physical geography
2247:Structural geology
2224:Quaternary geology
2219:Historical geology
1850:shape of the Earth
1791:Physical geography
1777:structural geology
1728:(corresponding to
1720:(corresponding to
1663:, if appropriate.
1546:Cambrian explosion
1462:Atmospheric oxygen
1161:Single-celled life
803:Physical geography
797:Physical geography
716:
664:extends above the
608:Earth's rotational
593:Earth's outer core
563:that extends from
554:
523:. As the Earth is
430:
324:seafloor spreading
260:Structure of Earth
256:
158:Structural geology
128:Historical geology
101:
39:
5093:Planetary science
5070:
5069:
5048:
5047:
4721:chemical elements
4645:
4644:
4596:Planetary science
4579:Natural satellite
4500:Extremes on Earth
4467:Signal processing
4032:
4031:
3913:
3912:
3703:978-0-13-035390-0
3690:978-0-8160-5533-3
3612:978-0-444-88907-2
3602:978-0-19-921194-4
3580:978-0-313-33229-6
3561:978-0-13-034129-7
3518:978-0-395-82517-4
3473:978-0-8160-6164-8
3003:(6546): 203–209.
2902:American Heritage
2892:, pp. 107–08
2679:, pp. 14–16.
2231:Planetary geology
2167:(marine geology)
2145:(marine science)
2109:Micropaleontology
2082:Landscape ecology
1824:coastal geography
1734:fields of science
1682:
1681:
1631:
1630:
1623:billion years ago
1597:
1596:
1573:
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1553:
1552:
1533:
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1345:
1344:
1338:Milky Way spirals
1325:
1324:
1305:
1304:
1285:
1284:
1258:
1257:
1238:
1237:
1218:
1217:
1211:Earliest Universe
903:uniformitarianism
888:
887:
880:
654:geomagnetic poles
581:electric currents
573:charged particles
505:greenhouse effect
402:
401:
394:
289:radioactive decay
244:
243:
236:
170:crystal structure
150:Planetary geology
124:geothermal energy
78:planetary science
16:(Redirected from
5105:
5060:
5059:
4932:
4922:
4862:tropical cyclone
4812:
4672:
4665:
4658:
4649:
4635:
4634:
4527:History of Earth
4178:Paleoclimatology
4059:
4052:
4045:
4036:
4022:
4021:
4012:
4002:
4001:
3981:Physical science
3940:
3933:
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3900:
3889:
3877:
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3765:
3758:
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3654:
3653:
3632:
3630:
3629:
3584:
3565:
3542:
3540:
3539:
3522:
3509:Houghton Mifflin
3506:
3496:
3477:
3449:
3448:
3446:
3445:
3432:Craig, Kendall.
3429:
3423:
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3101:
3091:
3074:(3): 1216–1230.
3058:
3052:
3051:
3049:
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3035:
3029:
3028:
3017:10.1038/377203a0
2992:
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2985:
2983:
2982:
2968:
2962:
2956:
2950:
2949:, pp. 21–22
2944:
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2556:
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2542:
2537:
2536:
2528:
2523:
2522:
2521:
2214:Forensic geology
2199:Economic geology
2171:Paleoceanography
2161:(marine biology)
2053:Paleoclimatology
2048:Hydrometeorology
1848:investigate the
1677:
1674:
1668:
1659:You can help by
1641:
1640:
1633:
1611:
1580:
1575:
1566:Earliest mammals
1560:
1555:
1540:
1535:
1522:Earliest animals
1516:
1511:
1496:
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1471:
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1431:
1416:
1411:
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1387:
1372:
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1332:
1327:
1318:Andromeda Galaxy
1312:
1307:
1292:
1287:
1279:
1265:
1260:
1245:
1240:
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1205:
1200:
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1130:
1127:Matter-dominated
1117:
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954:
947:
940:
934:
924:
917:
898:island chains).
883:
876:
872:
869:
863:
832:
824:
624:Ellesmere Island
565:Earth's interior
397:
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386:
383:
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184:Earth's interior
94:sedimentary rock
21:
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5073:
5072:
5071:
5066:
5044:
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4868:
4810:
4790:
4781:Gaia hypothesis
4771:Plate tectonics
4732:
4682:
4676:
4646:
4641:
4623:
4590:
4574:
4531:
4522:Geologic record
4476:
4462:Plate tectonics
4452:Mineral physics
4432:Earth structure
4418:
4353:
4300:
4230:
4182:
4139:
4086:
4068:
4063:
4033:
4028:
3990:
3962:
3949:
3947:Natural science
3944:
3914:
3909:
3865:
3846:Paleogeoscience
3792:
3774:
3769:
3722:, sponsored by
3718:, a service of
3712:
3707:
3691:
3678:
3670:
3668:
3659:
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3649:
3635:
3627:
3625:
3616:
3592:
3590:Further reading
3587:
3581:
3568:
3562:
3545:
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3535:
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3511:Company. 1992.
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3355:
3346:
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3326:
3318:
3311:
3303:
3299:
3293:Wayback Machine
3286:Earth's Spheres
3284:
3280:
3273:
3260:
3259:
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3060:
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3055:
3045:
3043:
3040:"The Geodynamo"
3037:
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2994:
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2970:
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2920:
2917:Shielding Space
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2638:
2629:Science tourism
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2559:
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2524:
2519:
2517:
2514:
2509:
2447:Systems geology
2442:Systems ecology
2437:Gaia hypothesis
2425:Human geography
2338:Crystallography
2259:Human geography
2094:Geomicrobiology
2067:Biogeochemistry
2014:
2008:
1909:biogeochemistry
1868:as well as the
1812:palaeogeography
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1442:Earliest oxygen
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1251:Earliest galaxy
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1234:
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923:Nature timeline
922:
915:
913:Earth's spheres
884:
873:
867:
864:
849:
833:
822:
814:human geography
809:Earth's systems
805:
799:
775:
769:
748:mineral springs
705:
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658:paleomagnetists
604:magnetic dipole
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269:mountain ranges
265:Plate tectonics
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3710:External links
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2089:Geoarchaeology
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2015:
2010:Main article:
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1921:processes (or
1919:soil formation
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801:Main article:
798:
795:
771:Main article:
768:
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752:drinking water
701:Main article:
698:
695:
634:magnetic poles
591:and nickel in
561:magnetic field
542:
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513:magnetic field
500:
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458:climate change
404:Main article:
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293:heavy elements
258:Main article:
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98:Makhtesh Ramon
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18:Earth Sciences
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4286:World history
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4276:World economy
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3986:Space science
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3971:Earth science
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3772:Earth science
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3428:
3425:
3414:on 2018-02-09
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2479:Geostatistics
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2286:Geochronology
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2276:Geomorphology
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2237:Sedimentology
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1882:Seismologists
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1800:geomorphology
1796:
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1785:sedimentology
1782:
1778:
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1765:geomorphology
1762:
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1754:
1750:
1749:Earth's crust
1747:parts of the
1746:
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1691:
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1667:is available.
1666:
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1655:
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1646:This article
1644:
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1624:
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1610:
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1586:Earliest apes
1582:
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904:
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891:Methodologies
882:
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846:
842:
837:This section
835:
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724:geomorphology
721:
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683:
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675:
671:
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663:
662:magnetosphere
659:
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517:magnetosphere
514:
510:
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470:
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461:
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455:
451:
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442:air pollution
439:
435:
427:
421:
417:
416:magnetosphere
412:
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375:
371:
365:
364:
359:This section
357:
348:
347:
341:
339:
337:
336:asthenosphere
333:
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306:
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201:This section
199:
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175:
171:
167:
163:
159:
155:
154:Geomorphology
151:
147:
143:
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132:Earth history
129:
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67:
63:
59:
55:
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47:
43:
42:Earth science
37:
32:
19:
5037:
4970:Biodiversity
4956:astrobiology
4745:
4678:Elements of
4619:Solar System
4570:Oceanography
4560:Indian Ocean
4550:Arctic Ocean
4494:
4490:Age of Earth
4442:Geomagnetism
4125:Thermosphere
4115:Stratosphere
3902:
3890:
3878:
3856:Soil science
3841:Oceanography
3771:
3680:
3669:. Retrieved
3650:. Retrieved
3641:
3626:. Retrieved
3570:
3551:
3547:
3536:. Retrieved
3502:
3482:
3463:
3442:. Retrieved
3427:
3416:. Retrieved
3412:the original
3407:
3397:
3392:broken link?
3385:
3374:. Retrieved
3365:
3356:
3345:. Retrieved
3336:
3327:
3307:, p. 20
3300:
3281:
3262:
3256:
3237:
3231:
3211:
3204:
3185:
3179:
3168:. Retrieved
3141:Hydrogeology
3140:
3133:
3114:
3108:
3071:
3067:
3056:
3044:. Retrieved
3033:
3000:
2996:
2990:
2979:. Retrieved
2975:
2966:
2954:
2942:
2932:, retrieved
2925:the original
2916:
2909:
2897:
2885:
2866:
2860:
2848:
2821:
2814:Oldroyd 2006
2792:
2766:Simison 2007
2761:
2750:. Retrieved
2741:
2732:
2713:
2708:
2696:
2684:
2672:
2661:. Retrieved
2657:
2648:
2611:
2568:World portal
2386:Soil science
2355:Petrophysics
2328:Hydrogeology
2301:Geomagnetism
2271:Geochemistry
2242:Stratigraphy
2143:Oceanography
2130:Hydrogeology
2099:Paleontology
2072:Biogeography
1951:oceanography
1941:Solar System
1915:Soil science
1892:Geochemistry
1862:Earth's core
1804:biogeography
1773:stratigraphy
1769:paleontology
1683:
1670:
1665:Editing help
1647:
1402:Solar System
1116:Reionization
900:
889:
874:
865:
850:Please help
838:
806:
776:
736:ecohydrology
732:hydrogeology
728:oceanography
717:
601:
555:
491:, and 0.92%
477:thermosphere
469:stratosphere
462:
452:studies the
431:
425:
388:
379:
368:Please help
360:
321:
308:
304:
263:
230:
221:
210:Please help
202:
146:Paleontology
138:Geochemistry
136:
102:
45:
41:
40:
5021:Prokaryotes
4809:Atmosphere
4804:Meteorology
4367:Cartography
4306:Environment
4173:Climatology
4110:Troposphere
3861:Volcanology
3836:Meteorology
3322:, p. 5
2701:Haldar 2020
2689:Haldar 2020
2498:Hydrography
2464:Cartography
2367:Volcanology
2291:Geodynamics
2182:Lithosphere
2118:Hydrosphere
2041:Meteorology
2036:Climatology
1967:covers the
1959:hydrosphere
1820:meteorology
1816:climatology
1793:focuses on
1753:lithosphere
1690:hydrosphere
1686:lithosphere
1673:August 2022
1191:Vertebrates
933:This box:
868:August 2022
820:Methodology
756:hydrosphere
744:groundwater
713:water cycle
686:ozone layer
682:cosmic rays
630:, Canada).
525:4.5 billion
509:cosmic rays
465:troposphere
450:Climatology
434:meteorology
382:August 2022
317:Earthquakes
277:earthquakes
224:August 2022
178:Petrography
112:lithosphere
74:lithosphere
58:hydrosphere
5077:Categories
4902:Wilderness
4755:geological
4472:Tomography
4457:Seismology
4424:Geophysics
4399:Navigation
4291:Time zones
4256:In culture
4201:Antarctica
4188:Continents
4120:Mesosphere
4092:Atmosphere
3826:Glaciology
3821:Geophysics
3671:2007-11-17
3652:2007-11-10
3628:2007-11-17
3538:2007-11-17
3444:2017-04-04
3418:2019-01-07
3376:2007-11-17
3347:2010-10-13
3170:2022-08-16
3046:20 October
2981:2023-08-19
2934:2017-05-24
2752:2007-06-20
2663:2023-08-19
2641:References
2391:Edaphology
2374:Pedosphere
2362:Speleology
2333:Mineralogy
2323:Glaciology
2316:Seismology
2306:Gravimetry
2293:(see also
2281:Geophysics
2104:Palynology
2019:Atmosphere
1987:atmosphere
1981:cover the
1973:cryosphere
1965:Glaciology
1927:edaphology
1923:pedosphere
1886:geophysics
1878:geologists
1842:Geophysics
1836:glaciology
1757:mineralogy
1726:pedosphere
1718:cryosphere
1696:, and the
1694:atmosphere
1277:black hole
740:glaciology
678:solar wind
666:ionosphere
612:bar magnet
569:solar wind
521:solar wind
473:mesosphere
420:solar wind
332:subduction
301:convection
281:geological
166:Mineralogy
142:Geophysics
92:Layers of
66:atmosphere
62:cryosphere
46:geoscience
36:Costa Rica
4980:Eukaryota
4947:Hierarchy
4942:Biosphere
4907:Wildfires
4897:Radiation
4887:Ecosystem
4827:Moonlight
4761:Structure
4716:particles
4389:Geomatics
4334:Ecosystem
4319:Biosphere
4281:Etymology
4261:Earth Day
4211:Australia
4130:Exosphere
3831:Hydrology
2488:Surveying
2473:GIScience
2459:Geography
2420:Geography
2381:Geography
2350:Petrology
2295:Tectonics
2254:Geography
2186:geosphere
2137:Limnology
2125:Hydrology
2060:Biosphere
2031:Geography
1991:exosphere
1955:limnology
1947:Hydrology
1828:hydrology
1795:geography
1761:petrology
1698:biosphere
1271:Earliest
1105:Dark Ages
839:does not
791:nutrients
779:biosphere
703:Hydrology
697:Hydrology
638:compasses
597:geodynamo
481:exosphere
446:acid rain
374:talk page
313:transform
273:volcanoes
216:talk page
174:Petrology
70:geosphere
54:biosphere
5062:Category
5031:bacteria
5014:protista
4975:Organism
4842:Sunlight
4688:Universe
4637:Category
4004:Category
3880:Category
3665:Archived
3646:Archived
3622:Archived
3532:Archived
3438:Archived
3370:Archived
3366:noaa.gov
3341:Archived
3289:Archived
3212:Glaciers
3164:Archived
2746:Archived
2512:See also
2396:Pedology
2343:Gemology
1931:pedology
1870:tectonic
1854:magnetic
896:hot spot
760:glaciers
670:geospace
644:and the
487:, 20.9%
485:nitrogen
252:volcanic
5039:Viruses
5026:archaea
5002:animals
4954: (
4952:Biology
4929:Origin
4882:Ecology
4857:tornado
4817:Climate
4811:(Earth)
4796:Weather
4766:Geology
4753: (
4751:History
4482:Geology
4394:Gravity
4359:Geodesy
4329:Ecology
4145:Climate
4135:Weather
4082:History
4077:Outline
4024:Commons
3958:Outline
3904:Commons
3816:Geology
3811:Geodesy
3783:Outline
3550:and the
3455:Sources
3238:Ecology
3076:Bibcode
3025:4265765
3005:Bibcode
2484:Geodesy
2404:Systems
2310:Geodesy
2194:Geology
2077:Ecology
1983:gaseous
1937:Ecology
1874:seismic
1846:geodesy
1832:ecology
1741:Geology
1579:←
1559:←
1539:←
1515:←
1495:←
1475:←
1455:←
1435:←
1415:←
1391:←
1371:←
1351:←
1331:←
1311:←
1291:←
1264:←
1244:←
1224:←
1204:←
1090:–
1080:–
1070:–
1060:–
1050:–
1040:–
1030:–
1020:–
1010:–
1000:–
990:–
980:–
970:–
860:removed
845:sources
773:Ecology
767:Ecology
628:Nunavut
454:climate
108:Geology
104:Geology
84:Geology
4990:plants
4822:Clouds
4786:Future
4776:Oceans
4728:Change
4711:Matter
4706:Energy
4680:nature
4537:Oceans
4505:Future
4349:Nature
4271:Symbol
4216:Europe
4196:Africa
3892:Portal
3701:
3687:
3610:
3600:
3577:
3558:
3515:
3489:
3470:
3269:
3244:
3219:
3192:
3156:
3121:
3023:
2997:Nature
2873:
2742:ou.edu
2720:
2453:Others
1997:, and
1866:mantle
1783:, and
1692:, the
1688:, the
1648:is in
1590:humans
1526:plants
1273:quasar
789:, and
783:oxygen
738:, and
511:. The
489:oxygen
479:, and
328:mantle
285:mantle
275:, and
68:, and
5088:Earth
5009:fungi
4997:fauna
4985:flora
4892:Field
4847:Tides
4738:Earth
4696:Space
4314:Biome
4296:World
4066:Earth
3788:Index
3021:S2CID
2928:(PDF)
2921:(PDF)
1745:rocky
1706:water
1702:rocks
1654:prose
1398:Earth
787:water
674:space
646:North
550:Earth
493:argon
297:magma
120:rocks
116:crust
4917:Life
4852:Wind
4837:Snow
4832:Rain
4701:Time
4586:Moon
4266:Flag
4206:Asia
3699:ISBN
3685:ISBN
3608:ISBN
3598:ISBN
3575:ISBN
3556:ISBN
3513:ISBN
3487:ISBN
3468:ISBN
3267:ISBN
3242:ISBN
3217:ISBN
3190:ISBN
3154:ISBN
3119:ISBN
3048:2013
2871:ISBN
2718:ISBN
2486:and
1953:and
1929:and
1907:and
1884:use
1872:and
1864:and
1856:and
1844:and
1759:and
1751:(or
1730:soil
1714:life
1712:and
1650:list
1181:life
953:edit
946:talk
939:view
843:any
841:cite
680:and
648:and
589:iron
463:The
456:and
414:The
279:are
118:and
72:(or
3146:doi
3094:hdl
3084:doi
3072:183
3013:doi
3001:377
1969:icy
1722:ice
1710:air
1129:era
854:by
577:Sun
291:of
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