Community (ecology) - Knowledge (XXG)

40: 728:: This occurs via the consumption of resources. When an individual of one species consumes a resource (e.g., food, shelter, sunlight, etc.), that resource is no longer available for consumption by a member of a second species. Exploitative competition is thought to be more common in nature, but care must be taken to distinguish it from the apparent competition. An example of exploitative competition could be between herbivores consuming vegetation; rabbit and deer both eating meadow grass. Exploitative competition varies: 1008: 4223: 776:, for example, a cow grazing. Herbivory is a type of predation in which a plant (the prey in this example) will attempt to dissuade the predator from eating the plant by pumping a toxin to the plant leaves. This may cause the predator to consume other areas of the plant or not consume the plant at all. Predation may affect the population size of predators and prey and the number of species coexisting in a community. 4886: 788: 314:

species results in large changes to the community, often reducing the stability of the community. Climate change and the introduction of invasive species can affect the functioning of key species and thus have knock-on effects on the community processes. Industrialization and the introduction of chemical pollutants into environments have forever altered communities and even entire ecosystems.

4874: 346: 717: 4906: 4896: 968:. The tadpoles consume large amounts of micro-algae. Making algae less abundant for the snail, the algae available for the snail is also of lower quality. The tadpole, therefore, has a negative effect on the snail without a gaining noticeable advantage from the snail. The tadpoles would obtain the same amount of food with or without the presence of the snail. 211: 695:. Many types of competition have been described, but proving the existence of these interactions is a matter of debate. Direct competition has been observed between individuals, populations and species, but there is little evidence that competition has been the driving force in the evolution of large groups. 342:) is a foundation species. Post fire disturbance the tree provides shade (due to its dense growth) enabling the regrowth of other plant species in the community, This growth prompts the return of invertebrates and microbes needed for decomposition. Whitebark pine seeds provide food for grizzly bears. 193:

Niche partitioning reduces competition between species such that species are able to coexist because they suppress their own growth more than they limit the growth of other species (i.e., the competition within a species is greater than the competition between species, or intraspecific competition is

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in the park, through predation. Without the wolves the elk population drastically increased, resulting in overgrazing. This negatively affected the other organisms in the park; the increased grazing from the elks removed food sources from other animals present. Wolves have since been reintroduced to

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Neutralism is where species interact, but the interaction has no noticeable effects on either species involved. Due to the interconnectedness of communities, true neutralism is rare. Examples of neutralism in ecological systems are hard to prove, due to the indirect effects that species can have on

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regularly do this type of parasitism. Cuckoos lay their eggs in the nest of another species of birds. The host, therefore, provides for the cuckoo chick as if it were as their own, unable to tell the difference. The cuckoo chicks eject the host's young from the nest meaning they get a greater level

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developed the individualistic (also known as open or continuum) concept of community, with the abundance of a population of a species changing gradually along complex environmental gradients. Each species changes independently in relation to other species present along the gradient. Association of

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processes (i.e., random births and deaths). Equivalence of the species in the community leads to ecological drift. Ecological drift leads to species' populations randomly fluctuating, whilst the overall number of individuals in the community remains constant. When an individual dies, there is an

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Certain species have a greater influence on the community through their direct and indirect interactions with other species. The population of influential species are affected by abiotic and biotic disturbances. These species are important in identifying communities of ecology. The loss of these

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An older, taller tree can inhibit the growth of smaller trees. A new sapling growing in the shade of a mature tree struggles to get light for photosynthesis. The mature tree also has a well-developed root system, helping it outcompete the sapling for nutrients. Growth of the sapling is therefore

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On a deeper level the meaning and value of the community concept in ecology is up for debate. Communities have traditionally been understood on a fine scale in terms of local processes constructing (or destructing) an assemblage of species, such as the way climate change is likely to affect the

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is hunting another species for food. This is a positive-negative interaction, the predator species benefits while the prey species is harmed. Some predators kill their prey before eating them, also known as kill and consume. For example, a hawk catching and killing a mouse. Other predators are

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Holistic theory refers to the idea that a community is defined by the interactions between the organisms in it. All species are interdependent, each playing a vital role in the working of the community. Due to this communities are repeatable and easy to identify, with similar abiotic factors

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The trophic level of an organism can change based on the other species present. For example, tuna can be an apex predator eating the smaller fish, such as mackerel. However, in a community where a shark species is present the shark becomes the apex predator, feeding on the tuna.

799:, often leading to population cycles. When prey is abundant predator species increases, thus eating more prey species and causing the prey population to decline. Due to lack of food the predator population declines. Due to lack of predation the prey population increases. See 190:. A species' niche determines how it interacts with the environment around it and its role within the community. By having different niches species are able to coexist. This is known as niche partitioning. For example, the time of day a species hunts or the prey it hunts. 3021:

Meier Eliane S., Eliane S; Kienast, Felix; Pearman, Peter B; Svenning, Jens-Christian; Thuiller, Wilfried; Araújo, Miguel B.; Antoine, Guisan; Zimmermann, Niklaus E. (2010). "Biotic and abiotic variables show little redundancy in explaining tree species distributions".

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or discrete unit, with sharp boundaries. Clements proposed this theory after noticing that certain plant species were regularly found together in habitats, he concluded that the species were dependent on each other. Formation of communities is non-random and involves

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play a role in the trophic pyramid. They provide energy source and nutrients to the plant species in the community. Decomposers such as fungi and bacteria recycle energy back to the base of the food web by feeding on dead organisms from all trophic levels.

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is a group of species in the community that utilize the same resources in a similar way. Organisms in the same guild experience competition due to their shared resource. Closely related species are often in the same guild, due to traits inherited through

875:, are the most commonly known pollinators. Bees get nectar from the plant that they use as an energy source. Un-transferred pollen provides protein for the bee. The plant benefits through fertilisation, whilst the bee is provided with food. 197:

The number of niches present in a community determines the number of species present. If two species have the same niche (e.g., the same food demands) then one species outcompetes the other. The more niches filled, the higher the

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A basic example of a food chain is; grass → rabbit → fox. Food chains become more complex when more species are present, often being food webs. Energy is passed up through trophic levels. Energy is lost at each level, due to

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evolve and others go extinct. Today, community ecology focuses on experiments and mathematical models, however, it used to focus primarily on patterns of organisms. For example, taxonomic subdivisions of communities are called

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Thompson, Ross M.; Brose, Ulrich; Dunne, Jennifer A.; Hall Jr., Robert O.; Hladyz, Sally; Kitching, Roger L.; Martinez, Neo D.; Rantala, Heidi; Romanuk, Tamara N.; Stouffer, Daniel B.; Tylianakis, Jason M. (December 2012).

702:: occurs when an individual of one species directly interferes with an individual of another species. This can be for food or for territory. Examples include a lion chasing a hyena from a kill, or a plant releasing 783:

Species can be solitary or group predators. The advantage of hunting in a group means bigger prey can be taken, however, the food source must be shared. Wolves are group predators, whilst tigers are solitary.

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A simple trophic cascade diagram. On the right shows when wolves are absent, showing an increase in elks and reduction in vegetation growth. The left one shows when wolves are present and controlling the elk

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have a disproportionate influence on the community than most species. Keystone species tend to be at the higher trophic levels, often being the apex predator. Removal of the keystone species causes top-down

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equal chance of each species colonising that plot. Stochastic changes can cause species within the community to go extinct, however, this can take a long time if there are many individuals of that species.

712:: occurs when two species share a predator. For example, a cougar preys on woodland caribou and deer. The populations of both species can be depressed by predation without direct exploitative competition. 425:, studies show biodiversity is increased. Burrowing by the beavers creates channels, increasing the connections between habitats. This aids the movement of other organisms in the community such as frogs. 779:

Predation can be specialist, for example the least weasel predates solely on the field vole. Or generalist, e.g. polar bear primarily eats seals but can switch diet to birds when seal population is low.

87:. The term community has a variety of uses. In its simplest form it refers to groups of organisms in a specific place or time, for example, "the fish community of Lake Ontario before industrialization". 772:

parasites that feed on prey while alive, for example, a vampire bat feeding on a cow. Parasitism can however lead to death of the host organism over time. Another example is the feeding on plants of

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largely influence the population, dynamics and processes of a community, by creating physical changes to the environment itself. These species can occupy any trophic level, but tend to be producers.

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species is random and due to coincidence. Varying environmental conditions and each species' probability of arriving and becoming established along the gradient influence the community composition.

822:, prey adapts to avoid predator, predator evolves. For example, a prey species develops a toxin that kills its predator and the predator evolves resistance to the toxin making it no longer lethal. 250:. These species are secondary and tertiary consumers. Additional levels to the trophic scale come when smaller omnivores or carnivores are eaten by larger ones. At the top of the food web is the 2938:; Diebel, Carol E.; et al. (2005). "Consistency and variation in kelp holdfast assemblages: Spatial patterns of biodiversity for the major phyla at different taxonomic resolutions". 1048:

of care and resources from the parents. Rearing for young is costly and can reduce the success of future offspring, thus the cuckoo attempts to avoid this cost through brood parasitism.

1238: 852:, the bacteria living on the roots of the legume. The plant provides compounds made during photosynthesis to the bacteria, that can be used as an energy source. Whilst Rhizobium is a 418:

is a species that maintains, modifies and creates aspects of a community. They cause physical changes to the habitat and alter the resources available to the other organisms present.

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Dam building beavers are ecological engineers. Through the cutting of trees to form dams they alter the flow of water in a community. These changes influence the vegetation on the

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is a type of relationship among organisms in which one organism benefits while the other organism is neither benefited nor harmed. The organism that benefited is called the

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Species can coexist because they are similar, resources and conditions apply a filter to the type of species that are present in the community. Each population has the same

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is the final form of commensalism. The commensal relies on the host to prepare an environment suitable for life. For example, Kelp has a root like system, called a

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impeded, often resulting in death. The relationship between the two trees is amensalism, the mature tree is unaffected by the presence of the smaller one.

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Wright, Justin P.; Jones, Clive G.; Flecker, Alexander S. (2002). "An ecosystem engineer, the beaver, increases species richness at the landscape scale".

1028:. Mosquitos get the parasite by feeding on an infected vertebrate. Inside the mosquito the plasmodium develops in the midgut's wall. Once developed to a 491:

Individualistic theory proposes that communities can exist as continuous entities, in addition to the discrete groups referred to in the holistic theory.

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Pellmyr, Olle; Thompson, John N. (1996). "Sources of variation in pollinator contribution within a guild: the effects of plant and pollinator factors".

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Davies, N.B.; Bourke, Andrew F.G.; de L. Brooke, M. (1989). "Cuckoos and parasitic ants: Interspecific brood parasitism as an evolutionary arms race".

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Menge, Bruce A.; Berlow, Eric L.; et al. (1994). "The Keystone Species Concept: Variation in Interaction Strength in a Rocky Intertidal Habitat".

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is the study of the interactions between species in communities on many spatial and temporal scales, including the distribution, structure, abundance,

3439: 957:, an interspecific relationship in which a product of one organism has a negative effect on another organism but the original organism is unaffected. 5440: 2810:"Nitrogen-fixing Rhizobium-legume symbiosis: are polyploidy and host peptide-governed symbiont differentiation general principles of endosymbiosis?" 3092:

HOGG, JON C.; HURD, HILARY (1995). "Malaria-induced reduction of fecundity during the first gonotrophic cycle of Anopheles Stephensi mosquitoes".

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Croonquist, Mary Jo; Brooks, Robert P. (1991). "Use of avian and mammalian guilds as indicators of cumulative impacts in riparian-wetland areas".

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Carnivores, omnivores and herbivores are all basic examples of guilds. A more precise guild would be vertebrates that forage for ground dwelling

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characteristics. It is important to understand the origin, maintenance, and consequences of species diversity when evaluating community ecology.

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Hood, Glynnis A.; Larson, David G. (2015). "Ecological engineering and aquatic connectivity: a new perspective from beaver-modified wetlands".

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orchid attached to the tree for support benefits the orchid but neither harms nor benefits the tree. This type of commensalism is called

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Dodds, Walter K.; Whiles, Matt R. (2020). "Nonpredatory Interspecific Interactions Among Plants and Animals in Freshwater Communities".

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the parasite moves to the salivary glands where it can be passed on to a vertebrate species, for example humans. The mosquito acts as a

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of coexisting populations. The primary focus of community ecology is on the interactions between populations as determined by specific

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McIntosh, Robert P. (1995). "H. A. Gleason's 'Individualistic Concept' and Theory of Animal Communities: A Continuing Controversy".

3343: 2621:"Analyzing size-symmetric vs. size-asymmetric and intra- vs. inter-specific competition in beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) mixed stands" 2253: 565:, etc. The organization of a biological community with respect to ecological interactions is referred to as community structure. 388: 4909: 5938: 5651: 5518: 5230: 3364: 1657:

Naeem, Shahid; Hahn, Daniel R.; Schuurman, Gregor (2000). "Producer–decomposer co-dependency influences biodiversity effects".

6196: 6323: 5968: 441:. Food webs are a map showing species networks and the energy that links the species together through trophic interactions. 6504: 6369: 5923: 5675: 4928: 3829: 2935: 5801: 2334:

Shipley, Bill; Keddy, Paul A. (April 1987). "The individualistic and community-unit concepts as falsifiable hypotheses".

1972:"Interactions among Foundation Species and Their Consequences for Community Organization, Biodiversity, and Conservation" 800: 4857: 30:"Ecological community" redirects here. For human community organized around economic and ecological sustainability, see 529:(competitive and dispersal abilities) and resources demand. Local and regional composition represent a balance between 6158: 5049: 4847: 1187: 737: 484: 295: 1284: 329:

is a foundation species in marine communities. The mangrove's root provides nursery grounds for young fish, such as

6499: 6223: 5943: 5147: 5044: 4295: 3309: 1055:. The host evolves to protect themselves from the parasite and the parasite evolves to overcome this restriction. 305:, this would contain certain birds and mammals. Flowering plants that have the same pollinator also form a guild. 254:, this animal species is not consumed by any other in the community. Herbivores, omnivores and carnivores are all 6404: 6016: 5908: 5766: 5751: 5746: 5137: 4330: 4290: 4255: 3867: 3446: 3423: 3391: 2908:

Houck, M A; OConnor, B M (January 1991). "Ecological and Evolutionary Significance of Phoresy in the Astigmata".

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Kozlovsky, Daniel G. (1968). "A Critical Evaluation of the Trophic Level Concept. I. Ecological Efficiencies".

1500:"Niche partitioning and the role of intraspecific niche variation in structuring a guild of generalist anurans" 3352: 3207:"Winning the arms race: host–parasite shared evolutionary history reduces infection risks in fish final hosts" 1310:

Dunson, William A.; Travis, Joseph (November 1991). "The Role of Abiotic Factors in Community Organization".

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a) A trophic pyramid showing the different trophic levels in a community. b) A food web of the same community

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for Malaria. The parasite tends to reduce the mosquito's lifespan and inhibits the production of offspring.

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Petrie, M.; Møller, A.P. (1991). "Laying eggs in others' nests: Intraspecific brood parasitism in birds".

1864: 1127: 1052: 819: 546: 242:(primary consumers), these species feed on vegetation for their energy source. Herbivores are consumed by 102: 2537:"Links between global taxonomic diversity, ecological diversity and the expansion of vertebrates on land" 152:, has argued that it is more useful to think of communities on a regional scale, drawing on evolutionary 6494: 6288: 6233: 6096: 6081: 5864: 5821: 5811: 5806: 5563: 5543: 5399: 5389: 5331: 5326: 5162: 5014: 4544: 4519: 4499: 3839: 3580: 3510: 3490: 2303:"A holistic approach to studying social-ecological systems and its application to southern Transylvania" 1033: 676: 670: 402: 263: 133: 56: 751:

The degree of size asymmetry has major effects on the structure and diversity of ecological communities

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due to differences in annual precipitation. Humans can also affect community structure through habitat

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is an interaction in which one organism, the host, is harmed while the other, the parasite, benefits.

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bacteria growing in nodules on the roots of legumes. This relationship between plant and bacteria is

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Adey, Walter H.; Loveland, Karen (2007). "Community Structure: Biodiversity in Model Ecosystems".

514:), species are functionally equivalent, and the abundance of a population of a species changes by 6475: 6424: 6419: 6228: 6191: 5889: 5854: 5711: 5636: 5538: 5470: 5460: 5394: 5341: 5152: 5097: 5059: 4984: 4794: 4774: 4759: 4584: 4579: 4377: 4325: 4208: 4203: 4118: 4073: 4000: 3922: 3872: 3434: 3429: 3117: 3003: 2790: 2517: 2449: 2351: 2165: 2114: 2071: 1845: 1794: 1751: 1690: 1598: 1480: 1447:

Albrecht, M.; Gotelli, N.J. (2001). "Spatial and temporal niche partitioning in grassland ants".

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Korňan, Martin; Kropil, Rudolf (2014). "What are ecological guilds? Dilemma of guild concepts".

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Jones, Clive G.; Lawton, John H.; Shachak, Moshe (1994). "Organisms as Ecosystem Engineers".

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perfect size symmetric - all individuals exploit the same amount of resource per unit biomass

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Table visualising size-symmetric competition, using fish as consumers and crabs as resources.

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Holt R.D. (1977). "Predation, apparent competition, and the structure of prey communities".

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is another type of commensalism, the commensal uses the host solely for transport. Many

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make-up of grass communities. Recently this local community focus has been criticized.

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A red-chested cuckoo chick being feed by a significantly smaller Cape robin-chat adult

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from a pollinator. A pollinator transfers pollen from the male flower to the female's

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absolute size-asymmetric - the largest individuals exploit all the available resource.

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Community structure is the composition of the community. It is often measured through

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Lehman, Clarence; Loberg, Shelby; Clark, Adam T; Schmitter, Daniel (22 April 2020).

2521: 2355: 1849: 1798: 1433: 1331: 476:—which refers to a system with many parts, all required for the system to function. 6444: 6429: 6086: 6056: 6001: 5884: 5849: 5726: 5225: 4769: 4749: 4714: 4709: 4699: 4694: 4674: 4654: 4564: 4534: 4494: 4474: 4464: 4444: 4439: 4434: 4429: 4310: 4300: 4275: 3932: 3766: 3683: 3641: 3570: 3502: 2453: 2169: 1755: 1708: 1555: 1484: 1086: 889: 884: 849: 787: 703: 562: 326: 199: 157: 3070: 1694: 740:- all individuals receive the same amount of resources, irrespective of their size 2636: 1110: – Framework explaining how competitor traits can maintain species diversity 120:

that influence species distributions or interactions (e.g. annual temperature or

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Ricketts, Taylor H., Eric Dinerstein, David M. Olson, Colby J. Loucks et al. (

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is their position in the food chain or web. At the bottom of the food web are

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while the other organism that is neither benefited nor harmed is called the

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species rely on another organism, such as birds or mammals, for dispersal.

298:. However, guilds are not exclusively composed of closely related species. 3113: 3078: 2445: 1468: 6409: 6338: 5869: 5376: 5288: 5235: 5190: 4809: 4734: 4664: 4594: 4589: 4414: 4348: 3945: 3902: 3801: 3673: 3548: 3524: 2605: 936: 904: 438: 2965:

Willey, Joanne M.; Sherwood, Linda M.; Woolverton Cristopher J. (2011).

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Vellend, Mark (June 2010). "Conceptual synthesis in community ecology".

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occupying the same geographical area at the same time, also known as a

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Beier, John C. (1998). "Malaria Parasite Development in Mosquitoes".

1970:

Angelini, Christine; Altieri, Andrew H.; et al. (October 2011).

1865:"Community ecology as a framework for predicting contaminant effects" 1678: 1029: 939:, such as sea snails, with a home that protects them from predation. 473: 148:, a professor of biology at the University of Missouri and author of 125: 2786: 2110: 2067: 1594: 1404:

Ricklefs R.E. (2008). "Disintegration of the Ecological Community".

406:, allowing enough resources for the other species in the community. 374:

the loss of the wolf population through overhunting resulted in the

2505: 2254:"Food webs: reconciling the structure and function of biodiversity" 1417: 1323: 1210: – Group of sympatric species with similar ecological function 4151: 4050: 3982: 3970: 3708: 3656: 3314:

Terrestrial Ecoregions of North America: a conservation assessment

2765:

Keith, Lloyd B. (1983). "Role of Food in Hare Population Cycles".

1927:

Ellison, Aaron M.; Bank, Michael S.; et al. (November 2005).

1130: – Increase in taxonomic diversity or morphological disparity 1006: 786: 715: 344: 209: 161: 38: 2859:

Hung, Keng-Lou James; Kingston, Jennifer M.; et al. (2018).

839:

is an interaction between species in which both species benefit.

4030: 4015: 3955: 3631: 3520: 3476: 3329:

https://stefanoallesina.github.io/Theoretical_Community_Ecology/

2471:(Print on Demand. ed.). Princeton : Princeton Univ. Press. 922: 5671: 4924: 3380: 3367:, Status and Trends of the Nation's Biological Resources, USGS. 791:

A generalised graph of a predator-prey population density cycle

3809: 1863:

Rohr, Jason R.; Kerby, Jacob L.; Sih, Andrew (November 2006).

1089: – Two or more species influencing each other's evolution 379: 1618:"Standardized diet compositions and trophic levels of sharks" 1234:"Recovery from the most profound mass extinction of all time" 1154: – Interaction of bacteriophages with their environments 1136: – Concept in theoretical ecology and community ecology 3693: 3327:

Stefano Allesina's Community Ecology course lecture notes:

2469:

The unified neutral theory of biodiversity and biogeography

2022:

10.1890/1540-9295(2005)003[0479:LOFSCF]2.0.CO;2

1946:

10.1890/1540-9295(2005)003[0479:LOFSCF]2.0.CO;2

3376: 3205:

Sheath, Danny J.; Dick, Jaimie T. A.; et al. (2018).

2620: 1166: – The empirical study of plant growth in communities 1083: – Interacting organisms living together in a habitat 935:, that attaches it to the seabed. Once rooted it provides 856:

bacteria, providing amino acids or ammonium to the plant.

803:

for more details on this. A well-known example of this is

378:

in the community. The wolves had controlled the number of

2405:. International Association for Vegetation Science (IAVS) 2003:

Ellison, Aaron M.; Bank, Michael S.; et al. (2005).

1051:

In a similar way to predation, parasitism can lead to an

1018:

is a result of a parasitic relationship between a female

43:

A bear with a salmon. Interspecific interactions such as

2865:

Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences

2369:

Verhoef, Herman A. (23 May 2012). "Community Ecology".

1239:

Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences

1197: