985:—may be used. The advantage of aluminum is its light weight, which reduces the moving mass compared to copper. This raises the resonant frequency of the speaker and increases its efficiency. A disadvantage of aluminum is that it is not easily soldered, and so connections must be robustly crimped together and sealed. Voice-coil wire cross sections can be circular, rectangular, or hexagonal, giving varying amounts of wire volume coverage in the magnetic gap space. The coil is oriented co-axially inside the gap; it moves back and forth within a small circular volume (a hole, slot, or groove) in the magnetic structure. The gap establishes a concentrated magnetic field between the two poles of a permanent magnet; the outside ring of the gap is one pole, and the center post (called the pole piece) is the other. The pole piece and backplate are often made as a single piece, called the poleplate or yoke.
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operating without a baffle. The directivity of a dipole is a figure 8 shape with maximum output along a vector that connects the two sources and minimums to the sides when the observing point is equidistant from the two sources, where the sum of the positive and negative waves cancel each other. While most drivers are dipoles, depending on the enclosure to which they are attached, they may radiate as monopoles, dipoles (or bipoles). If mounted on a finite baffle, and these out-of-phase waves are allowed to interact, dipole peaks and nulls in the frequency response result. When the rear radiation is absorbed or trapped in a box, the diaphragm becomes a monopole radiator. Bipolar speakers, made by mounting in-phase monopoles (both moving out of or into the box in unison) on opposite sides of a box, are a method of approaching omnidirectional radiation patterns.
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2071:. This is called speaker boundary interference response (SBIR). Low frequencies excite these modes the most, since long wavelengths are not much affected by furniture compositions or placement. The mode spacing is critical, especially in small and medium size rooms like recording studios, home theaters and broadcast studios. The proximity of the loudspeakers to room boundaries affects how strongly the resonances are excited as well as affecting the relative strength at each frequency. The location of the listener is critical, too, as a position near a boundary can have a great effect on the perceived balance of frequencies. This is because standing wave patterns are most easily heard in these locations and at lower frequencies, below the
1123:: a small, light cone attached to the joint between the voice coil and the primary cone. The whizzer cone extends the high-frequency response of the driver and broadens its high-frequency directivity, which would otherwise be greatly narrowed due to the outer diameter cone material failing to keep up with the central voice coil at higher frequencies. The main cone in a whizzer design is manufactured so as to flex more in the outer diameter than in the center. The result is that the main cone delivers low frequencies and the whizzer cone contributes most of the higher frequencies. Since the whizzer cone is smaller than the main diaphragm, output dispersion at high frequencies is improved relative to an equivalent single larger diaphragm.
2670:; thus, it can accelerate very quickly, yielding a very good high-frequency response. Ribbon loudspeakers are often very fragile. Most ribbon tweeters emit sound in a dipole pattern. A few have backings that limit the dipole radiation pattern. Above and below the ends of the more or less rectangular ribbon, there is less audible output due to phase cancellation, but the precise amount of directivity depends on the ribbon length. Ribbon designs generally require exceptionally powerful magnets, which makes them costly to manufacture. Ribbons have a very low resistance that most amplifiers cannot drive directly. As a result, a step down transformer is typically used to increase the current through the ribbon. The amplifier
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dynamic drivers. They also have a relatively narrow dispersion pattern that can make for precise sound-field positioning. However, their optimum listening area is small and they are not very efficient speakers. They have the disadvantage that the diaphragm excursion is severely limited because of practical construction limitations—the further apart the stators are positioned, the higher the voltage must be to achieve acceptable efficiency. This increases the tendency for electrical arcs as well as increasing the speaker's attraction of dust particles. Arcing remains a potential problem with current technologies, especially when the panels are allowed to collect dust or dirt and are driven with high signal levels.
2700:, who had been a radar development engineer in WWII. He became interested in audio equipment design and his last project was a unique, one-way speaker using a single driver. The cone faced down into a sealed, airtight enclosure. Rather than move back and forth as conventional speakers do, the cone rippled and created sound in a manner known in RF electronics as a "transmission line". The new speaker created a cylindrical sound field. Lincoln Walsh died before his speaker was released to the public. The Ohm Acoustics firm has produced several loudspeaker models using the Walsh driver design since then. German Physiks, an audio equipment firm in Germany, also produces speakers using this approach.
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impedance, are operated at the same frequency within both driver's respective passbands, and that power compression and distortion are insignificant. A speaker 3 dB more sensitive than another produces double the sound power (is 3 dB louder) for the same electrical power input. Thus, a 100 W driver (A) rated at 92 dB for 1 W @ 1 m sensitivity puts out twice as much acoustic power as a 200 W driver (B) rated at 89 dB for 1 W @ 1 m when both are driven with 100 W of electrical power. In this example, when driven at 100 W, speaker A produces the same SPL, or
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1363:. These components are combined to form a filter network and are most often placed between the full frequency-range power amplifier and the loudspeaker drivers to divide the amplifier's signal into the necessary frequency bands before being delivered to the individual drivers. Passive crossover circuits need no external power beyond the audio signal itself, but have some disadvantages: they may require larger inductors and capacitors due to power handling requirements. Unlike active crossovers which include a built-in amplifier, passive crossovers have an inherent attenuation within the
1629:. Given identical signals, motion in the cone of an out of polarity loudspeaker is in the opposite direction of the others. This typically causes monophonic material in a stereo recording to be canceled out, reduced in level, and made more difficult to localize, all due to destructive interference of the sound waves. The cancellation effect is most noticeable at frequencies where the loudspeakers are separated by a quarter wavelength or less; low frequencies are affected the most. This type of miswiring error does not damage speakers, but is not optimal for listening.
1002:, may be included as a thin copper cap fitted over the pole tip or as a heavy ring situated within the magnet-pole cavity. The benefits of this complication is reduced impedance at high frequencies, providing extended treble output, reduced harmonic distortion, and a reduction in the inductance modulation that typically accompanies large voice coil excursions. On the other hand, the copper cap requires a wider voice-coil gap, with increased magnetic reluctance; this reduces available flux, requiring a larger magnet for equivalent performance.
2096:
965:, treated paper or a ring of corrugated, resin-coated fabric; it is attached to both the outer cone circumference and to the upper frame. These diverse surround materials, their shape and treatment can dramatically affect the acoustic output of a driver; each implementation has advantages and disadvantages. Polyester foam, for example, is lightweight and economical, though usually leaks air to some degree and is degraded by time, exposure to ozone, UV light, humidity and elevated temperatures, limiting useful life before failure.
1395:, and change the load seen by the amplifier. The changes are matters of concern for many in the hi-fi world. When high output levels are required, active crossovers may be preferable. Active crossovers may be simple circuits that emulate the response of a passive network or may be more complex, allowing extensive audio adjustments. Some active crossovers, usually digital loudspeaker management systems, may include electronics and controls for precise alignment of phase and time between frequency bands, equalization,
2014:
2023:
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repeated echoes) from flat reflective walls, floor, and ceiling. The addition of hard-surfaced furniture, wall hangings, shelving and even baroque plaster ceiling decoration changes the echoes, primarily because of diffusion caused by reflective objects with shapes and surfaces having sizes on the order of the sound wavelengths. This somewhat breaks up the simple reflections otherwise caused by bare flat surfaces, and spreads the reflected energy of an incident wave over a larger angle on reflection.
2756:, a large US retail store chain, also sold speaker systems using such tweeters for a time. There are several manufacturers of these drivers (at least two in Germany—one of which produces a range of high-end professional speakers using tweeters and mid-range drivers based on the technology) and the drivers are increasingly used in professional audio. Martin Logan produces several AMT speakers in the US and GoldenEar Technologies incorporates them in its entire speaker line.
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1153:, the speaker aperture does not have to face the audience, and subwoofers can be mounted in the bottom of the enclosure, facing the floor. This is eased by the limitations of human hearing at low frequencies; Such sounds cannot be located in space, due to their large wavelengths compared to higher frequencies which produce differential effects in the ears due to shadowing by the head, and diffraction around it, both of which we rely upon for localization clues.
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high-frequency drivers, and they can be used without a crossover due to their electrical properties. There are also disadvantages: some amplifiers can oscillate when driving capacitive loads like most piezoelectrics, which results in distortion or damage to the amplifier. Additionally, their frequency response, in most cases, is inferior to that of other technologies. This is why they are generally used in single-frequency (beeper) or non-critical applications.
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1027:, which are made from a mix of ceramic clay and fine particles of barium or strontium ferrite. Although the energy per kilogram of these ceramic magnets is lower than alnico, it is substantially less expensive, allowing designers to use larger yet more economical magnets to achieve a given performance. Due to increases in transportation costs and a desire for smaller, lighter devices, there is a trend toward the use of more compact
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1441:) with the drivers mounted in holes in it. However, in this approach, sound frequencies with a wavelength longer than the baffle dimensions are canceled out because the antiphase radiation from the rear of the cone interferes with the radiation from the front. With an infinitely large panel, this interference could be entirely prevented. A sufficiently large sealed box can approach this behavior.
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decoratively. There are two related problems with flat panel techniques: first, a flat panel is necessarily more flexible than a cone shape in the same material, and therefore moves as a single unit even less, and second, resonances in the panel are difficult to control, leading to considerable distortions. Some progress has been made using such lightweight, rigid, materials such as
1256:
found in home stereo systems, and horn-loaded compression drivers are common in professional sound reinforcement. Ribbon tweeters have gained popularity as the output power of some designs has been increased to levels useful for professional sound reinforcement, and their output pattern is wide in the horizontal plane, a pattern that has convenient applications in concert sound.
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low-order filtering, or complex to allow steep slopes such as 18 or 24 dB per octave. Passive crossovers can also be designed to compensate for undesired characteristics of driver, horn, or enclosure resonances, and can be tricky to implement, due to component interaction. Passive crossovers, like the driver units that they feed, have power handling limits, have
1956:. Clearly then, sensitivity does not correlate precisely with efficiency, as it also depends on the directivity of the driver being tested and the acoustic environment in front of the actual loudspeaker. For example, a cheerleader's horn produces more sound output in the direction it is pointed by concentrating sound waves from the cheerleader in one direction, thus
1722:, and peak power a loudspeaker can handle. A driver may be damaged at much less than its rated power if driven past its mechanical limits at lower frequencies. In some jurisdictions, power handling has a legal meaning allowing comparisons between loudspeakers under consideration. Elsewhere, the variety of meanings for power handling capacity can be quite confusing.
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887:. For example, paper is light and typically well-damped, but is not stiff; metal may be stiff and light, but it usually has poor damping; plastic can be light, but typically, the stiffer it is made, the poorer the damping. As a result, many cones are made of some sort of composite material. For example, a cone might be made of cellulose paper, into which some
1674:, but they receive audio signals using radio frequency (RF) waves rather than over audio cables. There is an amplifier integrated in the speaker's cabinet because the RF waves alone are not enough to drive the speaker. Wireless speakers still need power, so require a nearby AC power outlet, or onboard batteries. Only the wire for the audio is eliminated.
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1862:) creates a magnetic field around the coil. The electric current variations that pass through the speaker are thus converted to a varying magnetic field, whose interaction with the driver's magnetic field moves the speaker diaphragm, which thus forces the driver to produce air motion that is similar to the original signal from the amplifier.
1880:, which combines properties of the driver, its mechanical motion, the effects of crossover components (if any are in the signal path between amplifier and driver), and the effects of air loading on the driver as modified by the enclosure and its environment. Most amplifiers' output specifications are given at a specific power into an ideal
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422:, for the highest audible frequencies and beyond. The terms for different speaker drivers differ, depending on the application. In two-way systems there is no mid-range driver, so the task of reproducing the mid-range sounds is divided between the woofer and tweeter. When multiple drivers are used in a system, a filter network, called an
2109:
directivity of a loudspeaker with a circular diaphragm is close to that of a flat circular piston, so it can be used as an illustrative simplification for discussion. As a simple example of the mathematical physics involved, consider the following: the formula for far field directivity of a flat circular piston in an infinite baffle is
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fragile than ribbons and considerably more efficient (and able to produce higher absolute output levels) than ribbon, electrostatic, or planar magnetic tweeter designs. ESS, a
California manufacturer, licensed the design, employed Heil, and produced a range of speaker systems using his tweeters during the 1970s and 1980s.
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the center, long waves are absorbed by a surrounding damper. Such transducers can cover a wide frequency range (80 Hz to 35,000 Hz) and have been promoted as being close to an ideal point sound source. This uncommon approach is being taken by only a very few manufacturers, in very different arrangements.
1149:-approved systems. Because the intended range of frequencies is limited, subwoofer system design is usually simpler in many respects than for conventional loudspeakers, often consisting of a single driver enclosed in a suitable enclosure. Since sound in this frequency range can easily bend around corners by
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Planar magnetic speakers (having printed or embedded conductors on a flat diaphragm) are sometimes described as ribbons, but are not truly ribbon speakers. The term planar is generally reserved for speakers with roughly rectangular flat surfaces that radiate in a bipolar (i.e. front and back) manner.
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Electrostatics are usually driven through a step-up transformer that multiplies the voltage swings produced by the power amplifier. This transformer also multiplies the capacitive load that is inherent in electrostatic transducers, which means the effective impedance presented to the power amplifiers
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Electrostatics are inherently dipole radiators and due to the thin flexible membrane are less suited for use in enclosures to reduce low-frequency cancellation as with common cone drivers. Due to this and the low excursion capability, full-range electrostatic loudspeakers are large by nature, and the
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Electrostatic loudspeakers use a high-voltage electric field (rather than a magnetic field) to drive a thin statically charged membrane. Because they are driven over the entire membrane surface rather than from a small voice coil, they ordinarily provide a more linear and lower-distortion motion than
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across the entire frequency range). Speakers with very wide, or rapidly increasing directivity at high frequencies, can give the impression that there is too much treble (if the listener is on axis) or too little (if the listener is off axis). This is part of the reason why on-axis frequency response
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output divided by the electrical power input. Most loudspeakers are inefficient transducers; only about 1% of the electrical energy sent by an amplifier to a typical home loudspeaker is converted to acoustic energy. The remainder is converted to heat, mostly in the voice coil and magnet assembly. The
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within the cabinet, compared to the simpler enclosure-based designs. Instead of reverberating in a fairly simple damped enclosure, sound from the back of the bass speaker is directed into a long (generally folded) damped pathway within the speaker enclosure, which allows greater control and efficient
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Passive crossovers are commonly installed inside speaker boxes and are by far the most common type of crossover for home and low-power use. In car audio systems, passive crossovers may be in a separate box, necessary to accommodate the size of the components used. Passive crossovers may be simple for
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A full- or wide-range driver is a speaker driver designed to be used alone to reproduce an audio channel without the help of other drivers and therefore must cover the audio frequency range required by the application. These drivers are small, typically 3 to 8 inches (7.6 to 20.3 cm) in diameter
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thin film, whose working mechanism is a thermoacoustic effect. Sound frequency electric currents are used to periodically heat the CNT and thus result in sound generation in the surrounding air. The CNT thin film loudspeaker is transparent, stretchable and flexible. In 2013, researchers of
Tsinghua
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Bending wave transducers use a diaphragm that is intentionally flexible. The rigidity of the material increases from the center to the outside. Short wavelengths radiate primarily from the inner area, while longer waves reach the edge of the speaker. To prevent reflections from the outside back into
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Directivity is an important issue because it affects the frequency balance of sound a listener hears, and also the interaction of the speaker system with the room and its contents. A very directive (sometimes termed 'beamy') speaker (i.e. on an axis perpendicular to the speaker face) may result in a
1964:
Typical home loudspeakers have sensitivities of about 85 to 95 dB for 1 W @ 1 m—an efficiency of 0.5–4%. Sound reinforcement and public address loudspeakers have sensitivities of perhaps 95 to 102 dB for 1 W @ 1 m—an efficiency of 4–10%. Rock concert, stadium PA, marine
1833: – The sound pressure level produced by a loudspeaker in a non-reverberant environment, often specified in dB and measured at 1 meter with an input of 1 watt (2.83 rms volts into 8 Ω), typically at one or more specified frequencies. Manufacturers often use this rating in marketing material.
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of individual drivers. For cone drivers, the quoted size is generally the outside diameter of the basket. However, it may less commonly also be the diameter of the cone surround, measured apex to apex, or the distance from the center of one mounting hole to its opposite. Voice-coil diameter may also
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To make the transition between drivers as seamless as possible, system designers have attempted to time align the drivers by moving one or more driver mounting locations forward or back so that the acoustic center of each driver is in the same vertical plane. This may also involve tilting the driver
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In typical installations, subwoofers are physically separated from the rest of the speaker cabinets. Because of propagation delay and positioning, their output may be out of phase with the rest of the sound. Consequently, a subwoofer's power amp often has a phase-delay adjustment which may be used
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speaker systems, the use of wide-range drivers can avoid undesirable interactions between multiple drivers caused by non-coincident driver location or crossover network issues but also may limit frequency response and output abilities (most especially at low frequencies). Hi-fi speaker systems built
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to ensure the speaker can be measured independently of room effects, or any of several electronic techniques that, to some extent, substitute for such chambers. Some developers eschew anechoic chambers in favor of specific standardized room setups intended to simulate real-life listening conditions.
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The key difference in the Rice and
Kellogg design was the adjustment of mechanical parameters so that the fundamental resonance of the moving system took place at a lower frequency than that at which the cone's radiation impedance had become uniform. Over this range, the motion of the cone was mass
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transducer coils mounted to flat panels to act as sound sources, most accurately called exciter/panel drivers. These can then be made in a neutral color and hung on walls where they are less noticeable than many speakers, or can be deliberately painted with patterns, in which case they can function
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vs. sound pressure level (SPL) output, using any of several test signals; stored energy (i.e. ringing) at various frequencies; impedance vs. frequency; and small-signal vs. large-signal performance. Most of these measurements require sophisticated and often expensive equipment to perform. The sound
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horns can reduce the total size, but compel designers to make compromises and accept increased cost and construction complications. Some horn designs not only fold the low-frequency horn but use the walls in a room corner as an extension of the horn mouth. In the late 1940s, horns whose mouths took
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The size of the throat, mouth, the length of the horn, as well as the area expansion rate along it must be carefully chosen to match the driver to properly provide this transforming function over a range of frequencies. The length and cross-sectional mouth area required to create a bass or sub-bass
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Since panels of infinite dimensions are impossible, most enclosures function by containing the rear radiation from the moving diaphragm. A sealed enclosure prevents transmission of the sound emitted from the rear of the loudspeaker by confining the sound in a rigid and airtight box. Techniques used
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power amplification, thus requiring at least one power amplifier for each band. Passive filtering may also be used in this way before power amplification, but it is an uncommon solution, being less flexible than active filtering. Any technique that uses crossover filtering followed by amplification
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from thin sheet steel in lighter-structure drivers. Other materials such as molded plastic and damped plastic compound baskets are becoming common, especially for inexpensive, low-mass drivers. A metallic chassis can play an important role in conducting heat away from the voice coil; heating during
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Various manufacturers use different driver mounting arrangements to create a specific type of sound field in the space for which they are designed. The resulting radiation patterns may be intended to more closely simulate the way sound is produced by real instruments, or simply create a controlled
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In real life, individual drivers are complex 3D shapes such as cones and domes, and they are placed on a baffle for various reasons. A mathematical expression for the directivity of a complex shape, based on modeling combinations of point sources, is usually not possible, but in the far field, the
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A significant factor in the sound of a loudspeaker system is the amount of absorption and diffusion present in the environment. Clapping one's hands in a typical empty room, without draperies or carpet, produces a zippy, fluttery echo due both to a lack of absorption and to reverberation (that is,
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In the 1930s, loudspeaker manufacturers began to combine two and three drivers or sets of drivers each optimized for a different frequency range in order to improve frequency response and increase sound pressure level. In 1937, the first film industry-standard loudspeaker system, "The
Shearer Horn
2595:
Instead of a voice coil driving a speaker cone, a magnetostatic speaker uses an array of metal strips bonded to a large film membrane. The magnetic field produced by signal current flowing through the strips interacts with the field of permanent bar magnets mounted behind them. The force produced
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The original loudspeaker design was the moving iron. Unlike the newer dynamic (moving coil) design, a moving-iron speaker uses a stationary coil to vibrate a magnetized piece of metal (called the iron, reed, or armature). The metal is either attached to the diaphragm or is the diaphragm itself.
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A planar source radiates sound uniformly for low frequencies' wavelengths longer than the dimensions of the planar source, and as frequency increases, the sound from such a source focuses into an increasingly narrower angle. The smaller the driver, the higher the frequency where this narrowing of
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load; however, a loudspeaker does not have a constant impedance across its frequency range. Instead, the voice coil is inductive, the driver has mechanical resonances, the enclosure changes the driver's electrical and mechanical characteristics, and a passive crossover between the drivers and the
1527:
in front of or behind the driver to increase the directivity of the loudspeaker and to transform a small diameter, high-pressure condition at the driver cone surface to a large diameter, low-pressure condition at the mouth of the horn. This improves the acoustic—electro/mechanical impedance match
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ultrasonic sound wave radiators, but their use has spread also to audio speaker systems. Magnetostrictive speaker drivers have some special advantages: they can provide greater force (with smaller excursions) than other technologies; low excursion can avoid distortions from large excursion as in
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The interaction of a loudspeaker system with its environment is complex and is largely out of the loudspeaker designer's control. Most listening rooms present a more or less reflective environment, depending on size, shape, volume, and furnishings. This means the sound reaching a listener's ears
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It is typically not possible to combine high efficiency (especially at low frequencies) with compact enclosure size and adequate low-frequency response. One can, for the most part, choose only two of the three parameters when designing a speaker system. So, for example, if extended low-frequency
1968:
Since sensitivity and power handling are largely independent properties, a driver with a higher maximum power rating cannot necessarily be driven to louder levels than a lower-rated one. In the example that follows, assume (for simplicity) that the drivers being compared have the same electrical
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A tweeter is a high-frequency driver that reproduces the highest frequencies in a speaker system. A major problem in tweeter design is achieving wide angular sound coverage (off-axis response), since high-frequency sound tends to leave the speaker in narrow beams. Soft-dome tweeters are widely
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driver, in 1943. It incorporated a high-frequency horn that sent sound through a hole in the pole piece of a 15-inch woofer for near-point-source performance. Altec's "Voice of the
Theatre" loudspeaker system was first sold in 1945, offering better coherence and clarity at the high output levels
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which couples that motor's movement to motion of air, that is, sound. An audio signal, typically from a microphone, recording, or radio broadcast, is amplified electronically to a power level capable of driving that motor in order to reproduce the sound corresponding to the original unamplified
2751:
invented the air motion transducer in the 1960s. In this approach, a pleated diaphragm is mounted in a magnetic field and forced to close and open under control of a music signal. Air is forced from between the pleats in accordance with the imposed signal, generating sound. The drivers are less
2091:
One simple combination is two simple sources separated by a distance and vibrating out of phase, one miniature sphere expanding while the other is contracting. The pair is known as a doublet, or dipole, and the radiation of this combination is similar to that of a very small dynamic loudspeaker
1080:
Individual electrodynamic drivers provide their best performance within a limited frequency range. Multiple drivers (e.g. subwoofers, woofers, mid-range drivers, and tweeters) are generally combined into a complete loudspeaker system to provide performance beyond that constraint. The three most
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The diaphragm is usually manufactured with a cone- or dome-shaped profile. A variety of different materials may be used, but the most common are paper, plastic, and metal. The ideal material is rigid, to prevent uncontrolled cone motions, has low mass to minimize starting force requirements and
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of carefully placed magnets on either side of the diaphragm, causing the membrane to vibrate more or less uniformly and without much bending or wrinkling. The driving force covers a large percentage of the membrane surface and reduces resonance problems inherent in coil-driven flat diaphragms.
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In 2013, a research team introduced a transparent ionic conduction speaker which has two sheets of transparent conductive gel and a layer of transparent rubber in between to make high voltage and high actuation work to reproduce good sound quality. The speaker is suitable for robotics, mobile
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Any object radiating sound, including a loudspeaker system, can be thought of as being composed of combinations of such simple point sources. The radiation pattern of a combination of point sources is not the same as for a single source, but depends on the distance and orientation between the
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that the loudspeaker was connected to. AC ripple in the current was attenuated by the action of passing through the choke coil. However, AC line frequencies tended to modulate the audio signal going to the voice coil and added to the audible hum. In 1930 Jensen introduced the first commercial
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televisions and they hope the speakers will also be used in PCs and tablets. Besides medium-size, there are also large and small sizes which can all produce relatively the same quality of sound and volume within 180 degrees. The highly responsive speaker material provides better clarity than
2083:
Acousticians, in studying the radiation of sound sources have developed some concepts important to understanding how loudspeakers are perceived. The simplest possible radiating source is a point source, sometimes called a simple source. An ideal point source is an infinitesimally small point
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consists not only of sound directly from the speaker system, but also the same sound delayed by traveling to and from (and being modified by) one or more surfaces. These reflected sound waves, when added to the direct sound, cause cancellation and addition at assorted frequencies (e.g. from
483:
was issued a
British patent for a system using compressed air as an amplifying mechanism for his early cylinder phonographs, but he ultimately settled for the familiar metal horn driven by a membrane attached to the stylus. In 1898, Horace Short patented a design for a loudspeaker driven by
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and other electronic devices, and are sometimes used as tweeters in less-expensive speaker systems, such as computer speakers and portable radios. Piezoelectric speakers have several advantages over conventional loudspeakers: they are resistant to overloads that would normally destroy most
2050:), thus changing the timbre and character of the sound at the listener's ears. The human brain is very sensitive to small variations, including some of these, and this is part of the reason why a loudspeaker system sounds different at different listening positions or in different rooms.
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as speaker B would produce with 200 W input. Thus, a 3 dB increase in the sensitivity of the speaker means that it needs half the amplifier power to achieve a given SPL. This translates into a smaller, less complex power amplifier—and often, to reduced overall system cost.
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The sound pressure output is measured at (or mathematically scaled to be equivalent to a measurement taken at) one meter from the loudspeaker and on-axis (directly in front of it), under the condition that the loudspeaker is radiating into an infinitely large space and mounted on an
1885:
amplifier contributes its own variations. The result is a load impedance that varies widely with frequency, and usually a varying phase relationship between voltage and current as well, also changing with frequency. Some amplifiers can cope with the variation better than others can.
2853:, the result is a very linear output at frequencies far higher than the audible range. Problems of maintenance and reliability for this approach tend to make it unsuitable for mass market use. In 1978 Alan E. Hill of the Air Force Weapons Laboratory in Albuquerque, NM, designed the
2453:, as they are useful in checking the signal just recorded in a studio). An example of the first is a room corner system with many small drivers on the surface of a 1/8 sphere. A system design of this type was patented and produced commercially by Professor Amar Bose—the 2201. Later
1943:
Driver ratings based on the SPL for a given input are called sensitivity ratings and are notionally similar to efficiency. Sensitivity is usually defined as the SPL in decibels at 1 W electrical input, measured at 1 meter, often at a single frequency. The voltage used is often
1096:
to permit reasonable high-frequency response, and carefully designed to give low-distortion output at low frequencies, though with reduced maximum output level. Full-range drivers are found, for instance, in public address systems, in televisions, small radios, intercoms, and some
1939:
of the drive unit and the air it radiates into. The efficiency of loudspeaker drivers varies with frequency as well. For instance, the output of a woofer driver decreases as the input frequency decreases because of the increasingly poor impedance match between air and the driver.
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The + and − connections on the speaker and amplifier should be connected + to + and − to −; speaker cable is almost always marked so that one conductor of a pair can be distinguished from the other, even if it has run under or behind things in its run from amplifier to speaker
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a load that is the ribbon's resistance times the transformer turns ratio squared. The transformer must be carefully designed so that its frequency response and parasitic losses do not degrade the sound, further increasing cost and complication relative to conventional designs.
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at a frequency corresponding to a quarter wavelength of the narrowest panel dimension. To reduce the size of commercial products, they are sometimes used as a high-frequency driver in combination with a conventional dynamic driver that handles the bass frequencies effectively.
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The cone-shaped speaker system is 95 mm in diameter and 90 mm high. It features an actuator using a magnetostrictor that extends and shrinks in line with magnetic field changes. The actuator converts input sound into the vibration and conveys it to the tabletop thus rendering
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The D2 is unlike traditional speaker technology because it uses a very high powered magnetostrictive smart material as the driver instead of a moving coil. The material was originally developed by the US military for sonar applications and is now de-restricted for commercial
993:
The size and type of magnet and details of the magnetic circuit differ, depending on design goals. For instance, the shape of the pole piece affects the magnetic interaction between the voice coil and the magnetic field, and is sometimes used to modify a driver's behavior. A
1429:
Most loudspeaker systems consist of drivers mounted in an enclosure, or cabinet. The role of the enclosure is to prevent sound waves emanating from the back of a driver from interfering destructively with those from the front. The sound waves emitted from the back are 180°
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The German firm Manger has designed and produced a bending wave driver that at first glance appears conventional. In fact, the round panel attached to the voice coil bends in a carefully controlled way to produce full-range sound. Josef W. Manger was awarded with the
1203:
to produce suitable low frequencies. Some loudspeaker systems use a woofer for the lowest frequencies, sometimes well enough that a subwoofer is not needed. Additionally, some loudspeakers use the woofer to handle middle frequencies, eliminating the mid-range driver.
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as high as 110 dB at 2.83 volts (1 watt at 8 ohms) at 1 meter. This is a hundredfold increase in output compared to a speaker rated at 90 dB sensitivity and is invaluable in applications where high sound levels are required or amplifier power is limited.
863:, generating a mechanical force that moves the coil (and thus, the attached cone). Application of alternating current moves the cone back and forth, accelerating and reproducing sound under the control of the applied electrical signal coming from the amplifier.
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them. The horn also improves impedance matching between the voice and the air, which produces more acoustic power for a given speaker power. In some cases, improved impedance matching (via careful enclosure design) lets the speaker produce more acoustic power.
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To accurately reproduce very low bass notes, subwoofer systems must be solidly constructed and properly braced to avoid unwanted sounds from cabinet vibrations. As a result, good subwoofers are typically quite heavy. Many subwoofer systems include integrated
1477:
The speaker mounting scheme (including cabinets) can also cause diffraction, resulting in peaks and dips in the frequency response. The problem is usually greatest at higher frequencies, where wavelengths are similar to, or smaller than, cabinet dimensions.
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Balanced armature drivers (a type of moving iron driver) use an armature that moves like a see-saw or diving board. Since they are not damped, they are highly efficient, but they also produce strong resonances. They are still used today for high-end
1448:
However, a rigid enclosure reflects sound internally, which can then be transmitted back through the loudspeaker diaphragm—again resulting in degradation of sound quality. This can be reduced by internal absorption using absorptive materials such as
524:. Like previous loudspeakers these used horns to amplify the sound produced by a small diaphragm. Jensen was denied patents. Being unsuccessful in selling their product to telephone companies, in 1915 they changed their target market to radios and
1839: – The highest output the loudspeaker can manage, short of damage or not exceeding a particular distortion level. Manufacturers often use this rating in marketing material—commonly without reference to frequency range or distortion level.
603:
were generally not available at a reasonable price. The coil of an electromagnet, called a field coil, was energized by a current through a second pair of connections to the driver. This winding usually served a dual role, acting also as a
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directivity occurs. Even if the diaphragm is not perfectly circular, this effect occurs such that larger sources are more directive. Several loudspeaker designs approximate this behavior. Most are electrostatic or planar magnetic designs.
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Class 3: maximum SPL 130-139 dB, high power-capable loudspeakers used in main systems in small to medium spaces; also used as fill speakers for class 4 speakers; typically 6.5" to 12" woofers and 2" or 3" compression drivers for high
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The chassis, frame, or basket, is designed to be rigid, preventing deformation that could change critical alignments with the magnet gap, perhaps allowing the voice coil to rub against the magnet around the gap. Chassis are typically
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other designs; the magnetizing coil is stationary and therefore more easily cooled; they are robust because delicate suspensions and voice coils are not required. Magnetostrictive speaker modules have been produced by Fostex and
496:, produced record players using compressed-air loudspeakers. Compressed-air designs are significantly limited by their poor sound quality and their inability to reproduce sound at low volume. Variants of the design were used for
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according to the requirements of each driver. Hence the drivers receive power only in the sound frequency range they were designed for, thereby reducing distortion in the drivers and interference between them. Crossovers can be
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sources, the position relative to them from which the listener hears the combination, and the frequency of the sound involved. Using geometry and calculus, some simple combinations of sources are easily solved; others are not.
1019:, an alloy of aluminum, nickel, and cobalt became popular after WWII, since it dispensed with the problems of field-coil drivers. Alnico was commonly used until the 1960s, despite the problem of alnico magnets being partially
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consists of a thin metal-film ribbon suspended in a magnetic field. The electrical signal is applied to the ribbon, which moves with it to create the sound. The advantage of a ribbon driver is that the ribbon has very little
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are: amplitude and phase characteristics vs. frequency; impulse response under one or more conditions (e.g. square waves, sine wave bursts, etc.); directivity vs. frequency (e.g. horizontally, vertically, spherically, etc.);
2897:
University further present a thermoacoustic earphone of carbon nanotube thin yarn and a thermoacoustic surface-mounted device. They are both fully integrated devices and compatible with Si-based semiconducting technology.
1758:
Class 2: maximum SPL 120-129 dB, the type of medium power-capable loudspeaker used for reinforcement in small to medium spaces or as fill speakers for Class 3 or Class 4 speakers; typically 5" to 8" woofers and dome
1453:, wool, or synthetic fiber batting, within the enclosure. The internal shape of the enclosure can also be designed to reduce this by reflecting sounds away from the loudspeaker diaphragm, where they may then be absorbed.
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Class 4: maximum SPL 140 dB and higher, very high power-capable loudspeakers used as mains in medium to large spaces (or for fill speakers for these medium to large spaces); 10" to 15" woofers and 3" compression
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nodes in each of the three dimensions: left-right, up-down and forward-backward. Furthermore, there are more complex resonance modes involving three, four, five and even all six boundary surfaces combining to create
1130:. These drivers are less elaborate and less expensive than wide-range drivers, and they may be severely compromised to fit into very small mounting locations. In these applications, sound quality is a low priority.
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controls a driver, which is either fully 'on' or 'off'. Problems with this design have led manufacturers to abandon it as impractical for the present. First, for a reasonable number of bits (required for adequate
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A subwoofer is a woofer driver used only for the lowest-pitched part of the audio spectrum: typically below 200 Hz for consumer systems, below 100 Hz for professional live sound, and below 80 Hz in
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The suspension system keeps the coil centered in the gap and provides a restoring (centering) force that returns the cone to a neutral position after moving. A typical suspension system consists of two parts: the
1788: – The measured, or specified, output over a specified range of frequencies for a constant input level varied across those frequencies. It sometimes includes a variance limit, such as within "± 2.5 dB."
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Some loudspeaker designs use a combination of passive and active crossover filtering, such as a passive crossover between the mid- and high-frequency drivers and an active crossover for the low-frequency driver.
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loudspeaker taken at six frequencies. Note how the pattern is nearly omnidirectional at low frequencies, converging to a wide fan-shaped pattern at 1 kHz, then separating into lobes and getting weaker at higher
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In Heil's air motion transducer, current through the membrane 2 causes it to move left and right in magnetic field 6, moving air in and out along directions 8; barriers 4 prevent air from moving in unintended
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The most notable improvements to date in modern dynamic drivers, and the loudspeakers that employ them, are improvements in cone materials, the introduction of higher-temperature adhesives, improved permanent
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cabinets well into the 1950s; there were economic savings in those using tube amplifiers as the field coil could, and usually did, do double duty as a power supply choke. Very few manufacturers still produce
1226:(rather like some tweeter designs). If the mid-range driver is a direct radiator, it can be mounted on the front baffle of a loudspeaker enclosure, or, if a compression driver, mounted at the throat of a
316:
often in its own (large) enclosure. In a two-way or three-way speaker system (one with drivers covering two or three different frequency ranges) there is a small amount of passive electronics called a
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frequencies, which are difficult to impossible to achieve on a traditional speaker with a diaphragm. They are often employed in movie theaters to recreate rumbling bass effects, such as explosions.
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frequencies (between the woofer and tweeter). Mid-range driver diaphragms can be made of paper or composite materials and can be direct radiation drivers (rather like smaller woofers) or they can be
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radiating sound. It may be easier to imagine a tiny pulsating sphere, uniformly increasing and decreasing in diameter, sending out sound waves in all directions equally, independent of frequency.
475:
patented his first electric loudspeaker (a moving iron type capable of reproducing intelligible speech) as part of his telephone in 1876, which was followed in 1877 by an improved version from
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decomposition of air in an earlier generation of plasma tweeters made by the pioneering DuKane
Corporation, who produced the Ionovac (marketed as the Ionofane in the UK) during the 1950s.
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fixed-magnet loudspeaker; however, the large, heavy iron magnets of the day were impractical and field-coil speakers remained predominant until the widespread availability of lightweight
700:
company to manufacture and market speaker systems using this principle. Subsequently, continuous developments in enclosure design and materials led to significant audible improvements.
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A three-way loudspeaker that uses horns in front of each of the three drivers: a shallow horn for the tweeter, a long, straight horn for mid frequencies and a folded horn for the woofer
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back, providing a separate enclosure mounting for each driver, or using electronic techniques to achieve the same effect. These attempts have resulted in some unusual cabinet designs.
500:
applications, and more recently, other variations have been used to test space-equipment resistance to the very loud sound and vibration levels that the launching of rockets produces.
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improve performance of the system as a whole. Subwoofers are widely used in large concert and mid-sized venue sound reinforcement systems. Subwoofer cabinets are often built with a
2561:). They have advantages in these applications, not the least of which is simple and solid-state construction that resists seawater better than a ribbon or cone-based device would.
288:, an often rectangular box made of wood, but sometimes metal or plastic. The enclosure's design plays an important acoustic role thus determining the resulting sound quality. Most
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theory, and tracked with high-precision measurements and the observations of experienced listeners. A few of the issues speaker and driver designers must confront are distortion,
4364:
634:. It used four 15" low-frequency drivers, a crossover network set for 375 Hz, and a single multi-cellular horn with two compression drivers providing the high frequencies.
2635:
Schematic showing an electrostatic speaker's construction and its connections. The thickness of the diaphragm and grids has been exaggerated for the purpose of illustration.
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models have deliberately emphasized production of both direct and reflected sound by the loudspeaker itself, regardless of its environment. The designs are controversial in
324:
system, the power amplifier actually feeding the speaker drivers is built into the enclosure itself; these have become more and more common especially as computer speakers.
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is essentially a fan with blades that constantly change their pitch, allowing them to easily push the air back and forth. Rotary woofers are able to efficiently reproduce
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varies widely by frequency. A speaker that is nominally 8 ohms may actually present a load of 1 ohm at higher frequencies, which is challenging to some amplifier designs.
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connectors. Speakon connectors are considered to be safer for high-wattage amplifiers, because the connector is designed so that human users cannot touch the connectors.
1052:
and sound quality, measurements and experiments. Adjusting a design to improve performance is done using a combination of magnetic, acoustic, mechanical, electrical, and
434:: a two-way system will have a woofer and a tweeter; a three-way system employs a woofer, a mid-range, and a tweeter. Loudspeaker drivers of the type pictured are termed
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with those emitted forward, so without an enclosure they typically cause cancellations which significantly degrade the level and quality of sound at low frequencies.
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applications in which piezoelectric variants are used as both output devices (generating underwater sound) and as input devices (acting as the sensing components of
573:
The first commercial version of the speaker, sold with the RCA Radiola receiver, had only a 6-inch cone. In 1926 it sold for $ 250, equivalent to about $ 3000 today.
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To adequately and accurately reproduce a wide range of frequencies with even coverage, most loudspeaker systems employ more than one driver, particularly for higher
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operation changes resistance, causes physical dimensional changes, and if extreme, broils the varnish on the voice coil; it may even demagnetize permanent magnets.
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frequency as determined by its usage. In practice, all three of these criteria cannot be met simultaneously using existing materials; thus, driver design involves
907:
fibers have been added; or it might use a honeycomb sandwich construction; or a coating might be applied to it so as to provide additional stiffening or damping.
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controlled, and the cone looked into a rising radiation impedance. This in effect provided a significant frequency region of flat power response for the design.
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system is combined with a zoned sound reinforcement system, both suspended on an overhead steel trellis, to synthesize an indoor acoustic environment outdoors.
1948:, which results in 1 watt into a nominal 8 Ω speaker impedance. Measurements taken with this reference are quoted as dB with 2.83 V @ 1 m.
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speaker enclosures, cables and some type of jack or connector are typically used. Lower- and mid-priced sound system and instrument speaker cabinets often use
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principle of loudspeaker design. This allowed for better bass response than previously obtainable from drivers mounted in larger cabinets. He and his partner
273:. In addition to dynamic speakers, several other technologies are possible for creating sound from an electrical signal, a few of which are in commercial use.
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Other enclosure types alter the rear sound radiation so it can add constructively to the output from the front of the cone. Designs that do this (including
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588:. The key difference between previous attempts and the patent by Rice and Kellogg is the adjustment of mechanical parameters to provide a reasonably flat
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There have been many attempts to reduce the size of speaker systems, or alternatively to make them less obvious. One such attempt was the development of
954:. Variations of this topology included the addition of a felt disc to provide a barrier to particles that might otherwise cause the voice coil to rub.
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reverberant field lacking in high frequencies, giving the impression the speaker is deficient in treble even though it measures well on axis (e.g.
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necessary in movie theaters. The
Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences immediately began testing its sonic characteristics; they made it the
3147:
1165:-filters, with additional controls relevant to low-frequency reproduction (e.g. a crossover knob and a phase switch). These variants are known as
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A four-way, high fidelity loudspeaker system. Each of the four drivers outputs a different frequency range; the fifth aperture at the bottom is a
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up much of a room wall were not unknown among hi-fi fans. Room-sized installations became much less acceptable when two or more were required.
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to reduce the transmission of sound through the walls of the cabinet include thicker cabinet walls, internal bracing and lossy wall material.
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which helps direct components of the electronic signal to the speaker drivers best capable of reproducing those frequencies. In a so-called
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942:, which helps center the coil/cone assembly and allows free pistonic motion aligned with the magnetic gap. The spider is usually made of a
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2509:
Moving iron drivers are inefficient and can only produce a small band of sound. They require large magnets and coils to increase force.
1218:
A mid-range speaker is a loudspeaker driver that reproduces a band of frequencies generally between 1–6 kHz, otherwise known as the
946:
fabric disk, impregnated with a stiffening resin. The name comes from the shape of early suspensions, which were two concentric rings of
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with four identical 4-inch drivers arranged vertically in an enclosure 841 mm (33.1 in)ch) high. Polar prediction software is
4372:
2876:
A less expensive variation on this theme is the use of a flame for the driver, as flames contain ionized (electrically charged) gases.
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moves the membrane and so the air in front of it. Typically, these designs are less efficient than conventional moving-coil speakers.
561:
Prototype moving-coil cone loudspeaker by
Kellogg and Rice in 1925, with electromagnet pulled back, showing voice coil attached to cone
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3157:
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introduced piezoelectric ultra-thin medium-size film speakers with only 1 millimeter of thickness and 7 grams of weight for their 55"
280:
so that the sound emanating from its rear does not cancel out the (intended) sound from the front; this generally takes the form of a
4465:
A giant-magnetostrictive speaker exhibiting good acoustic characteristics when it is used while being placed on a horizontal surface.
426:, separates the incoming signal into different frequency ranges and routes them to the appropriate driver. A loudspeaker system with
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Piezoelectric speakers can have extended high-frequency output, and this is useful in some specialized circumstances; for instance,
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in the voice coil, making it a variable electromagnet. The coil and the driver's magnetic system interact in a manner similar to a
1965:
hailing, etc. speakers generally have higher sensitivities of 103 to 110 dB for 1 W @ 1 m—an efficiency of 10–20%.
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Most home hi-fi loudspeakers use two wiring points to connect to the source of the signal (for example, to the audio amplifier or
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Class 1: maximum SPL 110-119 dB, the type of loudspeaker used for reproducing a person speaking in a small space or for
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A coaxial driver is a loudspeaker driver with two or more combined concentric drivers. Coaxial drivers have been produced by
489:
66:
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1470:, etc.) are often used to extend the effective low-frequency response and increase the low-frequency output of the driver.
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is commonly known as bi-amping, tri-amping, quad-amping, and so on, depending on the minimum number of amplifier channels.
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A 4-ohm loudspeaker with two pairs of binding posts capable of accepting bi-wiring after the removal of two metal straps
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An unusual three-way speaker system. The cabinet is narrow to raise the frequency where a diffraction effect called the
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To make sound, a loudspeaker is driven by modulated electric current (produced by an amplifier) that passes through a
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402:(SPL) or maximum accuracy. Individual drivers are used to reproduce different frequency ranges. The drivers are named
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3954:, September 1978. Peter W. Mitchell: "The D-23 crossover can be used for bi-amping, tri-amping, or even quad-amping."
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speaker systems (picture at right) include two or more sorts of speaker drivers, each specialized in one part of the
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In a typical rectangular listening room, the hard, parallel surfaces of the walls, floor and ceiling cause primary
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1755:; mainly used as fill speakers for Class 2 or Class 3 speakers; typically small 4" or 5" woofers and dome tweeters
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In order for a speaker to efficiently produce sound, especially at lower frequencies, the speaker driver must be
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with wide-range drivers may require large, elaborate or, expensive enclosures to approach optimum performance.
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as a radiating element. Since plasma has minimal mass, but is charged and therefore can be manipulated by an
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be specified. If the loudspeaker has a compression horn driver, the diameter of the horn throat may be given.
95:
5132:
4866:
Xiao, Lin; Kaili Jiang (2008). "Flexible, Stretchable, Transparent Carbon
Nanotube Thin Film Loudspeakers".
4396:"Kyocera Piezoelectric Film Speaker Delivers 180-Degree Sound to Thin TVs and Tablets (Update: Live Photos)"
3740:
We often give lip service to the fact that audio allows its practitioners to engage in both art and science.
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to reduce vibrations continuing after the signal has stopped with little or no audible ringing due to its
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Sound Systems: Design and Optimization: Modern Techniques and Tools for Sound System Design and Alignment
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Planar magnetic speakers consist of a flexible membrane with a voice coil printed or mounted on it. The
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A piezoelectric buzzer. The white ceramic piezoelectric material can be seen fixed to a metal diaphragm.
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between the driver and ambient air, increasing efficiency, and focusing the sound over a narrower area.
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port, a design feature which if properly engineered improves bass performance and increases efficiency.
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A woofer is a driver that reproduces low frequencies. The driver works with the characteristics of the
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532:. Jensen was, for years after the invention of the loudspeaker, a part owner of The Magnavox Company.
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capable of moving axially in a cylindrical gap containing a concentrated magnetic field produced by a
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in 1861; it was capable of reproducing clear tones, but later revisions could also reproduce muffled
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1780:(multi-driver systems only) – The nominal frequency boundaries of the division between drivers.
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While dynamic cone speakers remain the most popular choice, many other speaker technologies exist.
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1644:. Higher-priced and higher-powered sound system cabinets and instrument speaker cabinets often use
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4246:"Sensitivity and Hoffman's Iron Law, or 'Why You Can't Have Hour Cake and Eat It Too' – Audioblog"
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to accompany the desired output. No workable scheme has been found to adequately deal with this.
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488:, who was issued several additional British patents before 1910. A few companies, including the
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Wei, Yang; Xiaoyang Lin (2013). "Thermoacoustic Chips with Carbon Nanotube Thin Yarn Arrays".
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Electrical and Electronic Technologies: A Chronology of Events and Inventors from 1900 to 1940
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quality), the physical size of a speaker system becomes very large. Secondly, due to inherent
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driver, by far the most common type, is a linear motor in the same basic configuration as the
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in his role as chief engineer for Cinaudagraph. High-frequency drivers were likely made by
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in 1898. The first practical moving-coil loudspeakers were manufactured by Danish engineer
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range. The smaller drivers capable of reproducing the highest audio frequencies are called
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At low frequencies, improving this match is the main purpose of speaker enclosure designs.
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The most common type of driver, commonly called a dynamic loudspeaker, uses a lightweight
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3319:"Historical Perspectives and Technology Overview of Loudspeakers for Sound Reinforcement"
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Every horn performs poorly outside its acoustic limits, at both high and low frequencies.
2378:{\displaystyle \lambda ={\frac {c}{f}}={\frac {\text{speed of sound}}{\text{frequency}}}}
866:
The following is a description of the individual components of this type of loudspeaker.
102:
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2725:, and there have been several flat panel systems commercially produced in recent years.
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is an electronic filter circuit that divides the signal into individual frequency bands
1335:, the crossover is an assembly of filters that separate the input signal into different
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Loudspeakers by Lansing: First Time in History. A Two-Way Loud Speaker in Compact Form.
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269:(as it is usually conically shaped for sturdiness) in contact with air, thus creating
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for extraordinary developments and inventions by the German institute of inventions.
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2207:{\displaystyle p(\theta )={\frac {p_{0}J_{1}(k_{a}\sin \theta )}{k_{a}\sin \theta }}}
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476:
419:
289:
4452:
4036:
2739:
2470:
measurement is not a complete characterization of the sound of a given loudspeaker.
1587:
1126:
Limited-range drivers, also used alone, are typically found in computers, toys, and
5468:
5428:
5370:
5263:
5233:
5190:
5112:
4740:"Transparent Gel Speaker Plays Music through the Magic of Ionic Conduction (Video)"
3059:
3054:
3029:
3004:
1978:
performance and small box size are important, one must accept low efficiency. This
1792:
1641:
1614:
1591:
1431:
1417:
888:
609:
513:
277:
210:
199:
5007:
Conversion of sensitivity to energy efficiency in percent for passive loudspeakers
3596:
1492:
1060:, phase effects, off-axis response, and crossover artifacts. Designers can use an
580:
The moving-coil principle commonly used today in speakers was patented in 1925 by
4422:"Fostex Prototypes Tabletop Vibration Speaker System Using Super Magnetostrictor"
3373:
792:
Cutaway view of a dynamic tweeter with acoustic lens and a dome-shaped membrane.
5709:
5704:
5663:
5648:
5572:
5557:
5516:
5473:
4018:
3905:
3019:
2958:
2923:
2885:
1927:
1870:
1719:
1458:
1315:
1182:
1150:
1127:
1081:
commonly used sound radiation systems are the cone, dome and horn-type drivers.
1073:
943:
693:
160:
44:
2449:
energy distribution from the input signal (some using this approach are called
1323:
761:
737:
5699:
5689:
5506:
5294:
5258:
5127:
5122:
3014:
2973:
2963:
2928:
2910:
2812:
2748:
1874:
1698:
1520:
1450:
1162:
1020:
833:
716:
electrical network theory has been used to optimize bass driver and enclosure
655:
605:
348:
332:
270:
246:
219:
195:
5319:
5238:
4799:"NOx production in plasma reactors by pulsed spark discharges, J.Phys, 2020"
3968:
2834:
2783:
2722:
2514:
1881:
1633:
1601:
1524:
1516:
1360:
1139:
1032:
884:
880:
463:
403:
352:
313:
4938:
4895:
4325:. Loudspeaker information was gathered by the manufacturer into a CF2 file.
1296:
4594:
2587:
546:
in 1925 holding the large driver of the first moving-coil cone loudspeaker
438:(short for electrodynamic) to distinguish them from other sorts including
5511:
5488:
5478:
5418:
5205:
3039:
2948:
2800:
2645:
1970:
1400:
1364:
1356:
978:
947:
860:
841:
529:
493:
356:
308:. Sometimes the reproduction of the very lowest frequencies (20–~50
5607:
5352:
4231:
2565:
1908:
1645:
1285:
1239:
717:
650:, a very large two-way public address system was mounted on a tower at
415:
297:
4930:
4887:
2517:
and hearing aids, where small size and high efficiency are important.
1865:
The load that a driver presents to an amplifier consists of a complex
1519:
dates at least to the 17th century, and horns were used in mechanical
245:. When the electrical current from an audio signal passes through its
145:
Hi-fi speaker system for home use with three types of dynamic drivers
4952:
4322:
4202:
EIA RS-299 "Loudspeakers, Dynamic; Magnetic Structures and Impedance"
2858:
2811:(half the sampling frequency), causing an unacceptably high level of
2807:
at equal amplitude in the frequency domain, on the other side of the
2614:
1613:). To accept the wire connection, the loudspeaker enclosure may have
1269:
1194:
1049:
1016:
982:
974:
958:
904:
892:
705:
618:
468:
407:
305:
4245:
5016:
3621:
Small, R.H. (1972). "Direct Radiator Loudspeaker System Analysis".
1244:
788:
5673:
5643:
2862:
2833:
2738:
2681:
current flowing through the coil interacts with the magnetic field
2631:
2630:
2609:
2586:
2554:
2546:
2536:
2496:
2094:
2036:
1912:
1681:
1661:
1600:
1586:
1575:
1499:
1491:
1416:
1322:
1314:
1295:
1243:
1110:
1104:
1067:
1023:. In the 1960s, most driver manufacturers switched from alnico to
787:
760:
736:
534:
309:
203:
140:
4001:"Q. What's the Difference between Ported and Un-Ported Monitors?"
3806:. Crutchfield.com (June 21, 2010). Retrieved on October 12, 2010.
1012:
electrodynamic loudspeakers with electrically powered field coils
5443:
4953:"Eminent Technology TRW-17 Subwoofer Part I: The Only Subwoofer"
2667:
2569:
1355:
is an electronic circuit that uses a combination of one or more
962:
900:
5020:
1742:(complete speaker systems only) – two-way, three-way, etc.
5210:
2866:
2787:
1277:
1146:
920:
from aluminum alloy, in heavier magnet-structure speakers; or
38:
27:
Converts an electrical audio signal into a corresponding sound
741:
Cutaway view of a dynamic loudspeaker for the bass register.
218:
electronic signal. This is thus the opposite function to the
4684:
Computational Science/Intelligence & Applied Informatics
3849:"Setting the Subwoofer / LFE Crossover for Best Performance"
1796:(individual drivers only) – these include the driver's
1119:
Full-range drivers often employ an additional cone called a
5552:
2884:
In 2008, researchers of Tsinghua University demonstrated a
2696:
The Ohm Walsh loudspeakers use a unique driver designed by
2075:—typically around 200–300 Hz, depending on room size.
1931:
main reason for this is the difficulty of achieving proper
1907:
pressure level (SPL) a loudspeaker produces is measured in
844:
glued in the cone's center prevents dust, most importantly
4451:. World Intellectual Property Organization. Archived from
3372:
Spanias, Andreas; Painter, Ted; Atti, Venkatraman (2007).
1825:(the equivalent air compliance volume of the driver), etc.
851:
When an electrical signal is applied to the voice coil, a
630:
System for Theatres", a two-way system, was introduced by
257:—the coil is forced to move rapidly back and forth due to
4095:
The Audio Dictionary: Third Edition, Revised and Expanded
3122:
A different measurement technique is used for headphones.
2545:
Piezoelectric speakers are frequently used as beepers in
2506:
This design originally appeared in the early telephone.
1230:
for added output level and control of radiation pattern.
1048:
Speaker system design involves subjective perceptions of
3231:"The Auxetophone & Other Compressed-Air Gramophones"
1736:(enclosed systems only) – Sealed, bass reflex, etc.
1115:
A full-range drive unit loudspeaker using a whizzer cone
3965:"KF300/600 Series — Compact three-way VAT Systems"
3925:. Genelec. September 2009. pp. 3–4. Archived from
2857:
Hill Type I, a tweeter whose plasma was generated from
654:. The eight 27" low-frequency drivers were designed by
1511:
are the oldest form of loudspeaker system. The use of
5012:
Article on sensitivity and efficiency of loudspeakers
4841:"Flame Amplification and a Better Hi-Fi Loudspeaker?"
4286:"Is Speaker-Boundary Interference Killing Your Bass?"
3818:"In-Depth: The Aux-Fed Subwoofer Technique Explained"
3644:(6th ed.). Oxford, UK: Focal Press. p. 81.
2786:
as far back as the 1920s. The design is simple; each
2415:
2393:
2345:
2323:
2301:
2272:
2222:
2116:
4593:. Economic Zones World. January 2010. Archived from
4591:"MINDCo launches FeONIC Invisible & Green audio"
3983:"U215 Speaker – 1600w 2x15 / 3x5 inch / 1 inch"
1580:
Grip connectors on a loudspeaker to connect it to a
5682:
5616:
5540:
5487:
5409:
5351:
5328:
5282:
5224:
5166:
5082:
5054:
4193:
EIA RS-278-B "Mounting Dimensions for Loudspeakers"
4092:White, Glenn D.; Louie, Gary J. (October 1, 2011).
712:, and finite element analysis. At low frequencies,
387:may refer to individual transducers (also known as
187:, and electrical connections (possibly including a
69:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
4709:"Abuzhen Mini Portable Wireless Bluetooth Speaker"
4344:. Vol. 1. John F. Rider Publisher. p. 63
3666:"Speaker Geeks: Alnico or Ceramic ... What Gives?"
2782:have been the subject of experiments performed by
2428:
2399:
2377:
2329:
2307:
2285:
2256:
2206:
1850:Electrical characteristics of dynamic loudspeakers
1844:Electrical characteristics of dynamic loudspeakers
391:) or to complete speaker systems consisting of an
4449:"(WO/2006/118205) Giant-Magnetostrictive Speaker"
3528:. No. October. Audio Engineering. p. 25
2099:Polar plots of a four-driver industrial columnar
1730: – typically 4 Ω (ohms), 8 Ω, etc.
1523:as early as 1877. Horn loudspeakers use a shaped
840:through a cylindrical magnetic gap. A protective
359:speaker systems are used for home hi-fi systems (
304:drivers and those for low frequencies are called
159:The hole below the lowest woofer is a port for a
2257:{\displaystyle k_{a}={\frac {2\pi a}{\lambda }}}
646:all played roles in creating the system. At the
508:The first experimental moving-coil (also called
2617:and subwoofer drivers have also been produced.
1563:is a loudspeaker enclosure design that uses an
828:, via a flexible suspension, commonly called a
4979:"World's Most Amazing Subwoofer Has No Woofer"
4365:"How Balanced Armature Receivers/Drivers Work"
4058:Davis, Gary; Davis, Gary D. (April 14, 1989).
1327:A bi-amplified system with an active crossover
327:Smaller speakers are found in devices such as
5032:
3906:"Compact Ribbon Tweeter/Midrange Loudspeaker"
3141:
3139:
8:
4047:(11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
3400:"Lansingheritage.com: (1937 brochure image)
2803:is unavoidable, so that the audio output is
973:The wire in a voice coil is usually made of
765:Cutaway view of a dynamic midrange speaker.
708:materials, improved measurement techniques,
237:The dynamic speaker was invented in 1925 by
5659:Professional Lighting and Sound Association
1437:The simplest driver mount is a flat panel (
1177:subwoofers require external amplification.
484:compressed air; he then sold the rights to
5249:Comparison of analog and digital recording
5039:
5025:
5017:
1690:Speaker specifications generally include:
300:, those for middle frequencies are called
3523:"Revolutionary Loudspeaker and Enclosure"
2420:
2414:
2392:
2365:
2352:
2344:
2322:
2300:
2277:
2271:
2236:
2227:
2221:
2186:
2162:
2149:
2139:
2132:
2115:
1926:Loudspeaker efficiency is defined as the
1014:, as was common in the earliest designs.
672:, which became their most famous coaxial
461:installed an electric loudspeaker in his
430:separate frequency bands is described as
230:which uses such a motor in reverse, as a
129:Learn how and when to remove this message
4565:"Terfenol-D: No Speakers = Great Sound!"
3824:. ProSoundWeb. p. 2. Archived from
3721:(2 ed.). Focal Press. p. 350.
3640:Rumsey, Francis; McCormick, Tim (2009).
3623:Journal of the Audio Engineering Society
3326:Journal of the Audio Engineering Society
950:material, joined by six or eight curved
4622:. FeONIC. November 2008. Archived from
3597:"The History Of Acoustic Research / AR"
3135:
3087:
2657:Ribbon and planar magnetic loudspeakers
2604:Magnetostrictive transducers, based on
1670:Wireless speakers are similar to wired
4126:Alten, Stanley R. (January 22, 2013).
3881:. ETS-eTech. p. 1. Archived from
3550:
3539:
3442:
3431:
2765:computing and adaptive optics fields.
1869:—a combination of resistance and both
1367:, typically leading to a reduction in
731:Electrodynamic speaker driver § Design
371:in theaters and concert halls, and in
5720:New Interfaces for Musical Expression
4977:Guttenberg, Steve (August 29, 2010).
4038:"Trumpet, Speaking and Hearing"
3715:"Loudspeakers and Loudspeaker Arrays"
3692:. Taylor & Francis. p. 361.
1686:Specifications label on a loudspeaker
1532:horn dictates a horn many feet long.
7:
4788:described. Retrieved March 26, 2007.
4363:Hertsens, Tyll (December 16, 2014).
3402:The Shearer Horn System for Theatres
3152:(4th ed.). Taylor and Francis.
2760:Transparent ionic conduction speaker
67:adding citations to reliable sources
4653:(review by Dick Olsher, June 1987)"
4533:. FeONIC. p. 1. Archived from
4447:Onohara, Hirofumi (November 2006).
4420:Yamada, Takeyoshi (November 2005).
3847:DellaSala, Gene (August 29, 2004).
3713:Davis, Don; Davis, Carolyn (1997).
3201:"The Forgotten Johann Philipp Reis"
724:Driver design: dynamic loudspeakers
4563:Tibu, Florin (February 26, 2008).
4163:Guide to Sound Systems for Worship
4098:. University of Washington Press.
3375:Audio Signal Processing and Coding
3274:"The Loudspeaker Is 100 Years Old"
2608:, have been predominantly used as
1621:, the loudspeakers are said to be
1594:on a loudspeaker, connected using
1005:Electromagnets were often used in
875:energy storage issues and is well
418:(high frequencies); and sometimes
179:) is a combination of one or more
25:
5780:Audiovisual introductions in 1924
5269:Reel-to-reel audio tape recording
4738:Grey, Melissa (August 30, 2013).
4306:Polar pattern File: Speaker is a
4017:. Record Producer. Archived from
3272:Kornum, Rene (November 4, 2015).
2989:List of loudspeaker manufacturers
1632:With sound reinforcement system,
1540:A horn-loaded speaker can have a
5738:
4957:International Audio/Video Review
4160:Eiche, Jon F. (April 14, 1990).
4061:The Sound Reinforcement Handbook
3853:Tips & Tricks: Get Good Bass
2021:
2012:
1504:Klipschorn speaker drawing, 1948
729:This section is an excerpt from
566:
554:
43:
5254:Experimental musical instrument
4394:Fingas, Jon (August 29, 2013).
3920:"Genelec 8260A Technical Paper"
3816:Young, Tom (December 1, 2008).
3351:. Scarecrow Press. p. 75.
3176:Audio Engineer's Reference Book
1697:(individual units only) –
1300:Electronic symbol for a speaker
1280:, SEAS, B&C Speakers, BMS,
848:debris, from entering the gap.
54:needs additional citations for
3904:Nieuwendijk, Joris A. (1988).
3754:"Aerial Model 20T loudspeaker"
3752:Fremer, Michael (April 2004).
3173:Talbot-Smith, Michael (1999).
2177:
2155:
2126:
2120:
1889:Electromechanical measurements
595:These first loudspeakers used
520:and Edwin Pridham in 1915, in
512:) loudspeaker was invented by
490:Victor Talking Machine Company
365:electronic musical instruments
312:) is augmented by a so-called
209:The driver can be viewed as a
1:
5439:Electronic musical instrument
4617:"FeONIC S–Drive Bass Sounder"
4335:Crowhurst, Norman H. (1959).
3778:Fantel, Hans (June 6, 1993).
3569:"Edgar M. Villchur 1917-2011"
1561:transmission line loudspeaker
1555:Transmission line loudspeaker
1549:Transmission line loudspeaker
1007:musical instrument amplifiers
5745:Record production portal
5634:Institute of Broadcast Sound
4681:Lee, Roger (July 31, 2018).
4003:. Sound on Sound. June 2004.
3908:. Audio Engineering Society.
3780:"Speaker Design Goes Modern"
3497:"Biography of John Hilliard"
3149:Handbook for Sound Engineers
2797:analog-to-digital conversion
1837:Maximum sound pressure level
1333:multi-driver speaker systems
1031:made from materials such as
621:magnets after World War II.
406:(for very low frequencies);
198:that converts an electrical
191:). The speaker driver is an
34:Loudspeaker (disambiguation)
5654:Musical Electronics Library
4567:. Softpedia. Archived from
4317:September 18, 2008, at the
4270:Beranek, Leo (1954). "10".
4166:. Hal Leonard Corporation.
4064:. Hal Leonard Corporation.
3985:. Yorkville. Archived from
3689:Audio Engineering Explained
3179:. CRC Press. p. 2.52.
2729:Heil air motion transducers
855:is created by the electric
681:industry standard in 1955.
171:(commonly referred to as a
5806:
5401:Sound reinforcement system
5310:Sound reinforcement system
4352:– via Tubebooks.org.
3347:Davis, Henry B.O. (1983).
2999:Long Range Acoustic Device
2886:thermoacoustic loudspeaker
2827:
2772:
2732:
2624:
2621:Electrostatic loudspeakers
2580:
2577:Magnetostatic loudspeakers
2530:
2524:
2490:
2408:is the angle off axis and
2001:
1922:Efficiency vs. sensitivity
1904:intermodulation distortion
1847:
1655:
1565:acoustic transmission line
1552:
1485:
1410:
1308:
1237:
1211:
1192:
1137:
1088:
772:Cooler (sometimes present)
728:
648:1939 New York World's Fair
599:, because large, powerful
528:, and named their product
259:Faraday's law of induction
31:
18:Electrodynamic loudspeaker
5734:
5624:Audio Engineering Society
5522:Software effect processor
5502:Digital audio workstation
5343:Digital signal processing
5107:Digital audio workstation
4312:LA1-UW36-x columnar model
4183:– via Google Books.
4149:– via Google Books.
4115:– via Google Books.
4081:– via Google Books.
3950:Boston Acoustic Society.
3576:Audio Engineering Society
3481:1966 Voice of the Theatre
3424:Bozak, R.T. (June 1940).
3205:Integrated Network Cables
2688:Bending wave loudspeakers
2627:Electrostatic loudspeaker
2600:Magnetostrictive speakers
2591:Magnetostatic loudspeaker
2583:Magnetostatic loudspeaker
2573:traditional TV speakers.
2294:is the pressure on axis,
1397:dynamic range compression
1173:subwoofers. In contrast,
957:The cone surround can be
625:First loudspeaker systems
395:and one or more drivers.
5715:Professional audio store
5617:People and organizations
5603:Sound recording engineer
4816:"Ionovac Plasma Tweeter"
4501:. FeONIC. Archived from
4216:. CRC Press. p. 70.
3719:Sound System Engineering
3521:Villchur, Edgar (1954).
2964:Ferrofluid#Heat transfer
2799:problems, the effect of
2487:Moving-iron loudspeakers
2338:is the wavelength (i.e.
2330:{\displaystyle \lambda }
1818:at resonant frequency),
1778:Crossover frequency(ies)
1734:Baffle or enclosure type
1666:HP Roar Wireless Speaker
5133:Microphone preamplifier
4855:– via DerAmp.com.
4651:Ohm Walsh 5 loudspeaker
4649:"Stereophile magazine.
4528:"FeONIC D2 Audio Drive"
4044:Encyclopædia Britannica
3549:Cite magazine requires
3332:(4): 412–432 (p. 416).
2880:Thermoacoustic speakers
2843:Plasma arc loudspeakers
2712:Flat panel loudspeakers
2400:{\displaystyle \theta }
1895:loudspeaker measurement
1803:(resonance frequency),
1793:Thiele/Small parameters
1568:use of speaker energy.
1371:before the voice coil.
820:, connected to a rigid
720:since the early 1970s.
714:Thiele/Small parameters
5074:Electronic and digital
4212:McCarthy, Bob (2016).
3804:Home Speakers Glossary
3686:Self, Douglas (2012).
3378:. Wiley-Interscience.
2861:gas. This avoided the
2839:
2745:
2735:Air Motion Transformer
2706:Rudolf-Diesel-Medaille
2636:
2592:
2559:underwater microphones
2542:
2521:Piezoelectric speakers
2502:
2430:
2401:
2379:
2331:
2316:is the piston radius,
2309:
2287:
2258:
2208:
2105:
1701:, woofer, tweeter, or
1695:Speaker or driver type
1687:
1667:
1606:
1598:
1584:
1505:
1497:
1426:
1328:
1320:
1301:
1252:
1116:
1077:
809:
785:
758:
640:James Bullough Lansing
547:
526:public address systems
414:(middle frequencies);
373:public address systems
337:portable audio players
164:
4571:on September 17, 2011
4375:on September 14, 2015
4021:on November 12, 2005.
3967:. EAW. Archived from
3465:(1943 catalog image)"
3317:; Gander, M. (2004).
3252:"Loudspeaker History"
3146:Ballou, Glen (2008).
3035:Sound from ultrasound
3010:Parabolic loudspeaker
2994:Loudspeaker acoustics
2837:
2742:
2634:
2590:
2540:
2527:Piezoelectric speaker
2500:
2474:Other speaker designs
2459:high fidelity circles
2431:
2429:{\displaystyle J_{1}}
2402:
2380:
2332:
2310:
2288:
2286:{\displaystyle p_{0}}
2259:
2209:
2098:
2033:Jay Pritzker Pavilion
1998:Listening environment
1685:
1665:
1604:
1592:Two-way binding posts
1590:
1579:
1503:
1495:
1420:
1413:Loudspeaker enclosure
1326:
1318:
1299:
1247:
1114:
1071:
791:
764:
740:
710:computer-aided design
636:John Kenneth Hilliard
538:
473:Alexander Graham Bell
442:, and speakers using
261:; this attaches to a
202:into a corresponding
144:
5785:Consumer electronics
5532:Software synthesizer
5497:Digital audio editor
5283:Playback transducers
5143:Multitrack recording
4668:"Acoustical Reality"
4629:on February 21, 2010
4540:on December 29, 2009
4508:on February 21, 2010
4496:"Whispering Windows"
4228:"Hofmann's Iron Law"
4132:. Cengage Learning.
3932:on December 30, 2010
2984:Isobaric loudspeaker
2413:
2391:
2343:
2321:
2299:
2270:
2220:
2114:
1982:is sometimes called
1893:Examples of typical
1867:electrical impedance
1858:which then (through
1814:; more or less, its
1638:instrument amplifier
1515:as voice-amplifying
832:, that constrains a
479:. During this time,
440:moving iron speakers
400:sound pressure level
63:improve this article
32:For other uses, see
5770:American inventions
4923:2013NanoL..13.4795W
4880:2008NanoL...8.4539X
4845:Popular Electronics
4719:on December 6, 2018
4655:. January 17, 2008.
4288:. November 11, 2014
3879:Home Theater Design
3875:"Glossary of Terms"
3828:on January 14, 2010
3642:Sound and Recording
3479:"Lansing Heritage.
3461:"Lansing Heritage.
2934:Bandwidth extension
2824:Plasma arc speakers
2819:Without a diaphragm
2501:Moving iron speaker
2493:Moving iron speaker
2441:of the first kind.
2073:Schroeder frequency
2048:resonant room modes
1619:electrical polarity
1319:A passive crossover
1224:compression drivers
690:acoustic suspension
632:Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer
459:Johann Philipp Reis
410:(low frequencies);
369:sound reinforcement
5583:Re-recording mixer
5386:Keyboard amplifier
5102:Binaural recording
4786:Hill Plasmatronics
4765:"Speaker Exchange"
3989:on March 22, 2012.
3971:on April 24, 2012.
3952:The B.A.S. Speaker
3784:The New York Times
2840:
2793:sound reproduction
2746:
2637:
2593:
2543:
2503:
2426:
2397:
2375:
2327:
2305:
2283:
2254:
2204:
2106:
2064:acoustic resonance
1984:Hofmann's Iron Law
1937:acoustic impedance
1933:impedance matching
1785:Frequency response
1688:
1668:
1607:
1599:
1585:
1572:Wiring connections
1506:
1498:
1427:
1329:
1321:
1302:
1253:
1117:
1091:Full-range speaker
1085:Full-range drivers
1078:
1029:rare-earth magnets
810:
786:
759:
590:frequency response
548:
412:mid-range speakers
341:personal computers
228:dynamic microphone
175:or, more fully, a
165:
5775:Audio engineering
5752:
5751:
5558:Guitar technician
5454:Music workstation
5338:Digital recording
5315:Speaker enclosure
5234:8-track cartridge
5176:Phonograph record
4931:10.1021/nl402408j
4888:10.1021/nl802750z
4874:(12): 4539–4545.
4694:978-3-319-96806-3
4666:Manger, Josef W.
4478:JP WO/2006/118205
4455:on August 5, 2012
4369:InnerFidelity.com
4234:on March 5, 2008.
4015:"Infinite Baffle"
3728:978-0-240-80305-0
3651:978-0-240-52163-3
3501:AudioHeritage.org
3441:Missing or empty
3385:978-0-470-04196-3
2954:Echo cancellation
2944:Directional sound
2436:
2407:
2385:
2373:
2372:
2369:
2360:
2337:
2315:
2308:{\displaystyle a}
2293:
2264:
2252:
2214:
2202:
1740:Number of drivers
1652:Wireless speakers
1625:or more properly
1509:Horn loudspeakers
1482:Horn loudspeakers
1468:transmission line
1353:passive crossover
1251:of a dome tweeter
1214:Mid-range speaker
1201:speaker enclosure
1098:computer speakers
1054:materials science
698:Acoustic Research
601:permanent magnets
582:Edward W. Kellogg
345:computer speakers
318:crossover network
294:audible frequency
282:speaker enclosure
239:Edward W. Kellogg
189:crossover network
139:
138:
131:
113:
16:(Redirected from
5797:
5790:Music technology
5743:
5742:
5741:
5629:Goji Electronics
5568:Monitor engineer
5527:Software sampler
5434:Electronic drums
5411:Electronic music
5381:Guitar amplifier
5226:Analog recording
5186:Compact cassette
5148:Music production
5056:Music technology
5048:Music technology
5041:
5034:
5027:
5018:
4994:
4993:
4991:
4989:
4974:
4968:
4967:
4965:
4963:
4949:
4943:
4942:
4917:(10): 4795–801.
4906:
4900:
4899:
4863:
4857:
4856:
4854:
4852:
4837:
4831:
4830:
4828:
4826:
4812:
4806:
4805:
4803:
4795:
4789:
4783:
4777:
4776:
4774:
4772:
4767:. April 11, 2010
4761:
4755:
4754:
4752:
4750:
4735:
4729:
4728:
4726:
4724:
4715:. Archived from
4705:
4699:
4698:
4678:
4672:
4671:
4663:
4657:
4656:
4645:
4639:
4638:
4636:
4634:
4628:
4621:
4613:
4607:
4606:
4604:
4602:
4597:on July 10, 2011
4587:
4581:
4580:
4578:
4576:
4560:
4554:
4553:
4547:
4545:
4539:
4532:
4524:
4518:
4517:
4515:
4513:
4507:
4500:
4492:
4486:
4485:
4484:
4480:
4474:
4468:
4467:
4462:
4460:
4444:
4438:
4437:
4431:
4429:
4417:
4411:
4410:
4408:
4406:
4391:
4385:
4384:
4382:
4380:
4371:. Archived from
4360:
4354:
4353:
4351:
4349:
4343:
4332:
4326:
4304:
4298:
4297:
4295:
4293:
4282:
4276:
4275:
4267:
4261:
4260:
4258:
4256:
4242:
4236:
4235:
4230:. Archived from
4224:
4218:
4217:
4209:
4203:
4200:
4194:
4191:
4185:
4184:
4182:
4180:
4157:
4151:
4150:
4148:
4146:
4123:
4117:
4116:
4114:
4112:
4089:
4083:
4082:
4080:
4078:
4055:
4049:
4048:
4040:
4029:
4023:
4022:
4011:
4005:
4004:
3997:
3991:
3990:
3979:
3973:
3972:
3961:
3955:
3948:
3942:
3941:
3939:
3937:
3931:
3924:
3916:
3910:
3909:
3901:
3895:
3894:
3892:
3890:
3885:on July 23, 2012
3871:
3865:
3864:
3862:
3860:
3844:
3838:
3837:
3835:
3833:
3813:
3807:
3801:
3795:
3794:
3792:
3790:
3775:
3769:
3768:
3766:
3764:
3749:
3743:
3742:
3737:
3735:
3710:
3704:
3703:
3683:
3677:
3676:
3674:
3672:
3662:
3656:
3655:
3637:
3631:
3630:
3629:(June): 383–395.
3618:
3612:
3611:
3609:
3607:
3593:
3587:
3586:
3584:
3582:
3573:
3565:
3559:
3558:
3552:
3547:
3545:
3537:
3535:
3533:
3527:
3518:
3512:
3511:
3509:
3507:
3493:
3487:
3486:
3483:(catalog image)"
3475:
3469:
3468:
3457:
3451:
3450:
3444:
3439:
3437:
3429:
3421:
3415:
3414:
3412:
3410:
3396:
3390:
3389:
3369:
3363:
3362:
3344:
3338:
3337:
3323:
3311:
3305:
3304:
3302:
3300:
3294:"Jensen History"
3290:
3284:
3283:
3269:
3263:
3262:
3260:
3258:
3248:
3242:
3241:
3239:
3237:
3227:
3221:
3220:
3218:
3216:
3211:on June 12, 2015
3207:. Archived from
3197:
3191:
3190:
3170:
3164:
3163:
3143:
3123:
3120:
3114:
3111:
3105:
3101:
3095:
3092:
2780:Digital speakers
2769:Digital speakers
2606:magnetostriction
2482:With a diaphragm
2435:
2433:
2432:
2427:
2425:
2424:
2409:
2406:
2404:
2403:
2398:
2387:
2384:
2382:
2381:
2376:
2374:
2370:
2367:
2366:
2361:
2353:
2339:
2336:
2334:
2333:
2328:
2317:
2314:
2312:
2311:
2306:
2295:
2292:
2290:
2289:
2284:
2282:
2281:
2266:
2263:
2261:
2260:
2255:
2253:
2248:
2237:
2232:
2231:
2216:
2213:
2211:
2210:
2205:
2203:
2201:
2191:
2190:
2180:
2167:
2166:
2154:
2153:
2144:
2143:
2133:
2110:
2025:
2016:
1773:and optionally:
1753:background music
1748:of loudspeaker:
1672:powered speakers
1658:Wireless speaker
1582:speaker terminal
1488:Horn loudspeaker
1464:passive radiator
1393:insertion losses
1376:active crossover
1359:, inductors and
1208:Mid-range driver
1159:power amplifiers
1062:anechoic chamber
660:Western Electric
652:Flushing Meadows
608:, filtering the
570:
558:
522:Napa, California
255:permanent magnet
149:Mid-range driver
134:
127:
123:
120:
114:
112:
71:
47:
39:
21:
5805:
5804:
5800:
5799:
5798:
5796:
5795:
5794:
5755:
5754:
5753:
5748:
5739:
5737:
5730:
5678:
5612:
5578:Record producer
5563:Mixing engineer
5536:
5483:
5449:MIDI controller
5424:Circuit bending
5405:
5347:
5324:
5300:Monitor speaker
5278:
5220:
5168:Recording media
5162:
5153:Music sequencer
5138:Monitor speaker
5084:Sound recording
5078:
5050:
5045:
5003:
4998:
4997:
4987:
4985:
4976:
4975:
4971:
4961:
4959:
4951:
4950:
4946:
4908:
4907:
4903:
4865:
4864:
4860:
4850:
4848:
4839:
4838:
4834:
4824:
4822:
4820:RadioMuseum.org
4814:
4813:
4809:
4801:
4797:
4796:
4792:
4784:
4780:
4770:
4768:
4763:
4762:
4758:
4748:
4746:
4737:
4736:
4732:
4722:
4720:
4707:
4706:
4702:
4695:
4680:
4679:
4675:
4665:
4664:
4660:
4647:
4646:
4642:
4632:
4630:
4626:
4619:
4615:
4614:
4610:
4600:
4598:
4589:
4588:
4584:
4574:
4572:
4562:
4561:
4557:
4543:
4541:
4537:
4530:
4526:
4525:
4521:
4511:
4509:
4505:
4498:
4494:
4493:
4489:
4482:
4476:
4475:
4471:
4458:
4456:
4446:
4445:
4441:
4427:
4425:
4419:
4418:
4414:
4404:
4402:
4393:
4392:
4388:
4378:
4376:
4362:
4361:
4357:
4347:
4345:
4341:
4334:
4333:
4329:
4319:Wayback Machine
4305:
4301:
4291:
4289:
4284:
4283:
4279:
4269:
4268:
4264:
4254:
4252:
4244:
4243:
4239:
4226:
4225:
4221:
4211:
4210:
4206:
4201:
4197:
4192:
4188:
4178:
4176:
4174:
4159:
4158:
4154:
4144:
4142:
4140:
4125:
4124:
4120:
4110:
4108:
4106:
4091:
4090:
4086:
4076:
4074:
4072:
4057:
4056:
4052:
4031:
4030:
4026:
4013:
4012:
4008:
3999:
3998:
3994:
3981:
3980:
3976:
3963:
3962:
3958:
3949:
3945:
3935:
3933:
3929:
3922:
3918:
3917:
3913:
3903:
3902:
3898:
3888:
3886:
3873:
3872:
3868:
3858:
3856:
3846:
3845:
3841:
3831:
3829:
3815:
3814:
3810:
3802:
3798:
3788:
3786:
3777:
3776:
3772:
3762:
3760:
3751:
3750:
3746:
3733:
3731:
3729:
3712:
3711:
3707:
3700:
3685:
3684:
3680:
3670:
3668:
3664:
3663:
3659:
3652:
3639:
3638:
3634:
3620:
3619:
3615:
3605:
3603:
3595:
3594:
3590:
3580:
3578:
3571:
3567:
3566:
3562:
3551:|magazine=
3548:
3538:
3531:
3529:
3525:
3520:
3519:
3515:
3505:
3503:
3495:
3494:
3490:
3477:
3476:
3472:
3459:
3458:
3454:
3440:
3430:
3423:
3422:
3418:
3408:
3406:
3398:
3397:
3393:
3386:
3371:
3370:
3366:
3359:
3346:
3345:
3341:
3321:
3315:Eargle, John M.
3313:
3312:
3308:
3298:
3296:
3292:
3291:
3287:
3271:
3270:
3266:
3256:
3254:
3250:
3249:
3245:
3235:
3233:
3229:
3228:
3224:
3214:
3212:
3199:
3198:
3194:
3187:
3172:
3171:
3167:
3160:
3145:
3144:
3137:
3132:
3127:
3126:
3121:
3117:
3112:
3108:
3102:
3098:
3093:
3089:
3084:
3079:
2939:Digital speaker
2919:
2903:
2894:carbon nanotube
2882:
2845:use electrical
2832:
2826:
2821:
2777:
2775:Digital speaker
2771:
2762:
2754:Lafayette Radio
2737:
2731:
2714:
2690:
2659:
2629:
2623:
2602:
2585:
2579:
2535:
2529:
2523:
2495:
2489:
2484:
2476:
2439:Bessel function
2416:
2411:
2410:
2389:
2388:
2341:
2340:
2319:
2318:
2297:
2296:
2273:
2268:
2267:
2238:
2223:
2218:
2217:
2182:
2181:
2158:
2145:
2135:
2134:
2112:
2111:
2081:
2060:
2043:
2042:
2041:
2040:
2028:
2027:
2026:
2018:
2017:
2006:
2000:
1954:infinite baffle
1947:
1924:
1916:
1891:
1852:
1846:
1824:
1809:
1802:
1680:
1660:
1654:
1627:out of polarity
1574:
1557:
1551:
1490:
1484:
1415:
1409:
1337:frequency bands
1313:
1311:Audio crossover
1307:
1294:
1262:
1260:Coaxial drivers
1242:
1236:
1216:
1210:
1197:
1191:
1161:and electronic
1142:
1136:
1093:
1087:
1058:acoustic lobing
1046:
1044:Speaker systems
1041:
1040:
1037:samarium cobalt
1025:ferrite magnets
991:
971:
931:
913:
872:
808:
784:
757:
734:
726:
668:introduced the
644:Douglas Shearer
627:
586:Chester W. Rice
578:
577:
576:
575:
574:
571:
563:
562:
559:
518:Peter L. Jensen
506:
486:Charles Parsons
456:
424:audio crossover
381:
322:powered speaker
286:speaker cabinet
243:Chester W. Rice
224:dynamic speaker
193:electroacoustic
181:speaker drivers
158:
135:
124:
118:
115:
72:
70:
60:
48:
37:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
5803:
5801:
5793:
5792:
5787:
5782:
5777:
5772:
5767:
5757:
5756:
5750:
5749:
5735:
5732:
5731:
5729:
5728:
5723:
5717:
5712:
5707:
5702:
5697:
5692:
5686:
5684:
5683:Related topics
5680:
5679:
5677:
5676:
5671:
5666:
5661:
5656:
5651:
5646:
5641:
5639:Lejaren Hiller
5636:
5631:
5626:
5620:
5618:
5614:
5613:
5611:
5610:
5605:
5600:
5598:Sound operator
5595:
5593:Sound follower
5590:
5588:Sound designer
5585:
5580:
5575:
5570:
5565:
5560:
5555:
5550:
5548:Audio engineer
5544:
5542:
5538:
5537:
5535:
5534:
5529:
5524:
5519:
5514:
5509:
5504:
5499:
5493:
5491:
5485:
5484:
5482:
5481:
5476:
5471:
5466:
5461:
5456:
5451:
5446:
5441:
5436:
5431:
5426:
5421:
5415:
5413:
5407:
5406:
5404:
5403:
5398:
5393:
5388:
5383:
5378:
5373:
5368:
5366:Bass amplifier
5363:
5361:Mixing console
5357:
5355:
5349:
5348:
5346:
5345:
5340:
5334:
5332:
5326:
5325:
5323:
5322:
5317:
5312:
5307:
5302:
5297:
5292:
5286:
5284:
5280:
5279:
5277:
5276:
5271:
5266:
5261:
5256:
5251:
5246:
5241:
5236:
5230:
5228:
5222:
5221:
5219:
5218:
5213:
5208:
5203:
5198:
5193:
5188:
5183:
5178:
5172:
5170:
5164:
5163:
5161:
5160:
5155:
5150:
5145:
5140:
5135:
5130:
5125:
5120:
5115:
5110:
5104:
5099:
5097:Mixing console
5094:
5088:
5086:
5080:
5079:
5077:
5076:
5071:
5066:
5060:
5058:
5052:
5051:
5046:
5044:
5043:
5036:
5029:
5021:
5015:
5014:
5009:
5002:
5001:External links
4999:
4996:
4995:
4969:
4944:
4901:
4858:
4832:
4807:
4790:
4778:
4756:
4730:
4713:DesireEasy.com
4700:
4693:
4673:
4658:
4640:
4608:
4582:
4555:
4519:
4487:
4469:
4439:
4412:
4386:
4355:
4327:
4299:
4277:
4274:. McGraw Hill.
4262:
4237:
4219:
4204:
4195:
4186:
4172:
4152:
4138:
4129:Audio in Media
4118:
4104:
4084:
4070:
4050:
4035:, ed. (1911).
4033:Chisholm, Hugh
4024:
4006:
3992:
3974:
3956:
3943:
3911:
3896:
3866:
3839:
3808:
3796:
3770:
3744:
3727:
3705:
3698:
3678:
3657:
3650:
3632:
3613:
3588:
3560:
3513:
3488:
3470:
3452:
3416:
3391:
3384:
3364:
3357:
3339:
3306:
3285:
3264:
3243:
3222:
3192:
3186:978-1136119743
3185:
3165:
3159:978-1136122538
3158:
3134:
3133:
3131:
3128:
3125:
3124:
3115:
3106:
3096:
3086:
3085:
3083:
3080:
3078:
3077:
3075:Surround sound
3072:
3067:
3065:Studio monitor
3062:
3057:
3052:
3050:Speaker stands
3047:
3045:Speaker driver
3042:
3037:
3032:
3027:
3022:
3017:
3012:
3007:
3002:
2996:
2991:
2986:
2981:
2979:High-end audio
2976:
2971:
2969:Guitar speaker
2966:
2961:
2956:
2951:
2946:
2941:
2936:
2931:
2926:
2920:
2918:
2915:
2902:
2901:Rotary woofers
2899:
2881:
2878:
2851:electric field
2838:Plasma speaker
2830:Plasma speaker
2828:Main article:
2825:
2822:
2820:
2817:
2773:Main article:
2770:
2767:
2761:
2758:
2733:Main article:
2730:
2727:
2713:
2710:
2689:
2686:
2663:ribbon speaker
2658:
2655:
2625:Main article:
2622:
2619:
2601:
2598:
2581:Main article:
2578:
2575:
2525:Main article:
2522:
2519:
2491:Main article:
2488:
2485:
2483:
2480:
2475:
2472:
2423:
2419:
2396:
2368:speed of sound
2364:
2359:
2356:
2351:
2348:
2326:
2304:
2280:
2276:
2251:
2247:
2244:
2241:
2235:
2230:
2226:
2200:
2197:
2194:
2189:
2185:
2179:
2176:
2173:
2170:
2165:
2161:
2157:
2152:
2148:
2142:
2138:
2131:
2128:
2125:
2122:
2119:
2101:public address
2080:
2077:
2069:standing waves
2059:
2056:
2030:
2029:
2020:
2019:
2011:
2010:
2009:
2008:
2007:
2004:Room acoustics
2002:Main article:
1999:
1996:
1945:
1923:
1920:
1914:
1890:
1887:
1848:Main article:
1845:
1842:
1841:
1840:
1834:
1826:
1822:
1816:damping factor
1807:
1800:
1789:
1781:
1771:
1770:
1769:
1768:
1764:
1760:
1756:
1743:
1737:
1731:
1723:
1713:
1706:
1679:
1678:Specifications
1676:
1656:Main article:
1653:
1650:
1573:
1570:
1553:Main article:
1550:
1547:
1486:Main article:
1483:
1480:
1411:Main article:
1408:
1405:
1369:damping factor
1309:Main article:
1306:
1303:
1293:
1290:
1261:
1258:
1238:Main article:
1235:
1232:
1212:Main article:
1209:
1206:
1193:Main article:
1190:
1187:
1138:Main article:
1135:
1132:
1089:Main article:
1086:
1083:
1045:
1042:
990:
987:
981:—and, rarely,
970:
967:
930:
927:
912:
909:
871:
868:
853:magnetic field
807:
806:
803:
800:
797:
793:
783:
782:
779:
776:
773:
770:
766:
756:
755:
752:
749:
746:
742:
735:
727:
725:
722:
688:developed the
686:Edgar Villchur
626:
623:
597:electromagnets
572:
565:
564:
560:
553:
552:
551:
550:
549:
505:
502:
498:public address
455:
452:
432:n-way speakers
380:
377:
213:attached to a
177:speaker system
157:
156:
153:
150:
146:
137:
136:
51:
49:
42:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5802:
5791:
5788:
5786:
5783:
5781:
5778:
5776:
5773:
5771:
5768:
5766:
5763:
5762:
5760:
5747:
5746:
5733:
5727:
5726:Vehicle audio
5724:
5721:
5718:
5716:
5713:
5711:
5708:
5706:
5703:
5701:
5698:
5696:
5695:High fidelity
5693:
5691:
5688:
5687:
5685:
5681:
5675:
5672:
5670:
5667:
5665:
5662:
5660:
5657:
5655:
5652:
5650:
5647:
5645:
5642:
5640:
5637:
5635:
5632:
5630:
5627:
5625:
5622:
5621:
5619:
5615:
5609:
5606:
5604:
5601:
5599:
5596:
5594:
5591:
5589:
5586:
5584:
5581:
5579:
5576:
5574:
5571:
5569:
5566:
5564:
5561:
5559:
5556:
5554:
5551:
5549:
5546:
5545:
5543:
5539:
5533:
5530:
5528:
5525:
5523:
5520:
5518:
5515:
5513:
5510:
5508:
5505:
5503:
5500:
5498:
5495:
5494:
5492:
5490:
5486:
5480:
5477:
5475:
5472:
5470:
5467:
5465:
5462:
5460:
5457:
5455:
5452:
5450:
5447:
5445:
5442:
5440:
5437:
5435:
5432:
5430:
5427:
5425:
5422:
5420:
5417:
5416:
5414:
5412:
5408:
5402:
5399:
5397:
5394:
5392:
5389:
5387:
5384:
5382:
5379:
5377:
5374:
5372:
5369:
5367:
5364:
5362:
5359:
5358:
5356:
5354:
5350:
5344:
5341:
5339:
5336:
5335:
5333:
5331:
5330:Digital audio
5327:
5321:
5318:
5316:
5313:
5311:
5308:
5306:
5303:
5301:
5298:
5296:
5293:
5291:
5288:
5287:
5285:
5281:
5275:
5274:Tape recorder
5272:
5270:
5267:
5265:
5262:
5260:
5257:
5255:
5252:
5250:
5247:
5245:
5244:Cassette deck
5242:
5240:
5237:
5235:
5232:
5231:
5229:
5227:
5223:
5217:
5214:
5212:
5209:
5207:
5204:
5202:
5199:
5197:
5194:
5192:
5189:
5187:
5184:
5182:
5181:Magnetic tape
5179:
5177:
5174:
5173:
5171:
5169:
5165:
5159:
5158:Outboard gear
5156:
5154:
5151:
5149:
5146:
5144:
5141:
5139:
5136:
5134:
5131:
5129:
5126:
5124:
5121:
5119:
5116:
5114:
5111:
5108:
5105:
5103:
5100:
5098:
5095:
5093:
5092:Audio channel
5090:
5089:
5087:
5085:
5081:
5075:
5072:
5070:
5067:
5065:
5062:
5061:
5059:
5057:
5053:
5049:
5042:
5037:
5035:
5030:
5028:
5023:
5022:
5019:
5013:
5010:
5008:
5005:
5004:
5000:
4984:
4980:
4973:
4970:
4958:
4954:
4948:
4945:
4940:
4936:
4932:
4928:
4924:
4920:
4916:
4912:
4905:
4902:
4897:
4893:
4889:
4885:
4881:
4877:
4873:
4869:
4862:
4859:
4846:
4842:
4836:
4833:
4821:
4817:
4811:
4808:
4800:
4794:
4791:
4787:
4782:
4779:
4766:
4760:
4757:
4745:
4741:
4734:
4731:
4718:
4714:
4710:
4704:
4701:
4696:
4690:
4686:
4685:
4677:
4674:
4669:
4662:
4659:
4654:
4652:
4644:
4641:
4625:
4618:
4612:
4609:
4596:
4592:
4586:
4583:
4570:
4566:
4559:
4556:
4552:
4536:
4529:
4523:
4520:
4504:
4497:
4491:
4488:
4479:
4473:
4470:
4466:
4454:
4450:
4443:
4440:
4436:
4423:
4416:
4413:
4401:
4397:
4390:
4387:
4374:
4370:
4366:
4359:
4356:
4340:
4339:
4331:
4328:
4324:
4320:
4316:
4313:
4309:
4303:
4300:
4287:
4281:
4278:
4273:
4266:
4263:
4251:
4250:SalkSound.com
4247:
4241:
4238:
4233:
4229:
4223:
4220:
4215:
4208:
4205:
4199:
4196:
4190:
4187:
4175:
4173:9780793500291
4169:
4165:
4164:
4156:
4153:
4141:
4139:9781285675299
4135:
4131:
4130:
4122:
4119:
4107:
4105:9780295801704
4101:
4097:
4096:
4088:
4085:
4073:
4071:9780881889000
4067:
4063:
4062:
4054:
4051:
4046:
4045:
4039:
4034:
4028:
4025:
4020:
4016:
4010:
4007:
4002:
3996:
3993:
3988:
3984:
3978:
3975:
3970:
3966:
3960:
3957:
3953:
3947:
3944:
3936:September 24,
3928:
3921:
3915:
3912:
3907:
3900:
3897:
3884:
3880:
3876:
3870:
3867:
3855:. Audioholics
3854:
3850:
3843:
3840:
3827:
3823:
3819:
3812:
3809:
3805:
3800:
3797:
3785:
3781:
3774:
3771:
3759:
3755:
3748:
3745:
3741:
3730:
3724:
3720:
3716:
3709:
3706:
3701:
3699:9781136121258
3695:
3691:
3690:
3682:
3679:
3667:
3661:
3658:
3653:
3647:
3643:
3636:
3633:
3628:
3624:
3617:
3614:
3602:
3598:
3592:
3589:
3577:
3570:
3564:
3561:
3556:
3543:
3542:cite magazine
3524:
3517:
3514:
3502:
3498:
3492:
3489:
3484:
3482:
3474:
3471:
3466:
3464:
3456:
3453:
3448:
3435:
3434:cite magazine
3427:
3420:
3417:
3405:
3403:
3395:
3392:
3387:
3381:
3377:
3376:
3368:
3365:
3360:
3354:
3350:
3343:
3340:
3336:
3331:
3327:
3320:
3316:
3310:
3307:
3295:
3289:
3286:
3281:
3280:
3275:
3268:
3265:
3253:
3247:
3244:
3232:
3226:
3223:
3210:
3206:
3202:
3196:
3193:
3188:
3182:
3178:
3177:
3169:
3166:
3161:
3155:
3151:
3150:
3142:
3140:
3136:
3129:
3119:
3116:
3110:
3107:
3100:
3097:
3091:
3088:
3081:
3076:
3073:
3071:
3070:Super tweeter
3068:
3066:
3063:
3061:
3058:
3056:
3053:
3051:
3048:
3046:
3043:
3041:
3038:
3036:
3033:
3031:
3028:
3026:
3025:Rotary woofer
3023:
3021:
3018:
3016:
3013:
3011:
3008:
3006:
3003:
3000:
2997:
2995:
2992:
2990:
2987:
2985:
2982:
2980:
2977:
2975:
2972:
2970:
2967:
2965:
2962:
2960:
2957:
2955:
2952:
2950:
2947:
2945:
2942:
2940:
2937:
2935:
2932:
2930:
2927:
2925:
2922:
2921:
2916:
2914:
2912:
2908:
2907:rotary woofer
2900:
2898:
2895:
2891:
2887:
2879:
2877:
2874:
2872:
2868:
2864:
2860:
2856:
2855:Plasmatronics
2852:
2848:
2844:
2836:
2831:
2823:
2818:
2816:
2814:
2810:
2809:Nyquist limit
2806:
2802:
2798:
2794:
2789:
2785:
2781:
2776:
2768:
2766:
2759:
2757:
2755:
2750:
2741:
2736:
2728:
2726:
2724:
2719:
2711:
2709:
2707:
2701:
2699:
2698:Lincoln Walsh
2694:
2687:
2685:
2682:
2676:
2673:
2669:
2664:
2656:
2654:
2650:
2647:
2641:
2633:
2628:
2620:
2618:
2616:
2611:
2607:
2599:
2597:
2589:
2584:
2576:
2574:
2571:
2567:
2562:
2560:
2556:
2551:
2548:
2539:
2534:
2533:Piezo tweeter
2528:
2520:
2518:
2516:
2510:
2507:
2499:
2494:
2486:
2481:
2479:
2473:
2471:
2468:
2462:
2460:
2456:
2452:
2446:
2442:
2440:
2421:
2417:
2394:
2362:
2357:
2354:
2349:
2346:
2324:
2302:
2278:
2274:
2249:
2245:
2242:
2239:
2233:
2228:
2224:
2198:
2195:
2192:
2187:
2183:
2174:
2171:
2168:
2163:
2159:
2150:
2146:
2140:
2136:
2129:
2123:
2117:
2102:
2097:
2093:
2089:
2085:
2078:
2076:
2074:
2070:
2065:
2057:
2055:
2051:
2049:
2038:
2034:
2024:
2015:
2005:
1997:
1995:
1993:
1989:
1985:
1981:
1980:rule of thumb
1975:
1972:
1966:
1962:
1959:
1955:
1949:
1941:
1938:
1934:
1929:
1921:
1919:
1917:
1910:
1905:
1901:
1896:
1888:
1886:
1883:
1879:
1876:
1872:
1868:
1863:
1861:
1857:
1851:
1843:
1838:
1835:
1832:
1831:
1827:
1821:
1817:
1813:
1806:
1799:
1795:
1794:
1790:
1787:
1786:
1782:
1779:
1776:
1775:
1774:
1765:
1761:
1757:
1754:
1750:
1749:
1747:
1744:
1741:
1738:
1735:
1732:
1729:
1728:
1724:
1721:
1717:
1714:
1710:
1707:
1704:
1700:
1696:
1693:
1692:
1691:
1684:
1677:
1675:
1673:
1664:
1659:
1651:
1649:
1647:
1643:
1639:
1635:
1630:
1628:
1624:
1620:
1616:
1615:binding posts
1612:
1603:
1597:
1593:
1589:
1583:
1578:
1571:
1569:
1566:
1562:
1556:
1548:
1546:
1543:
1538:
1535:
1529:
1526:
1522:
1518:
1514:
1510:
1502:
1494:
1489:
1481:
1479:
1475:
1471:
1469:
1465:
1461:
1460:
1454:
1452:
1446:
1442:
1440:
1435:
1433:
1424:
1419:
1414:
1406:
1404:
1402:
1398:
1394:
1388:
1384:
1381:
1377:
1372:
1370:
1366:
1362:
1358:
1354:
1349:
1347:
1343:
1338:
1334:
1325:
1317:
1312:
1304:
1298:
1292:System design
1291:
1289:
1287:
1283:
1279:
1275:
1271:
1267:
1259:
1257:
1250:
1249:Exploded view
1246:
1241:
1233:
1231:
1229:
1225:
1221:
1215:
1207:
1205:
1202:
1196:
1188:
1186:
1184:
1178:
1176:
1172:
1168:
1164:
1160:
1154:
1152:
1148:
1141:
1133:
1131:
1129:
1124:
1122:
1113:
1109:
1106:
1101:
1099:
1092:
1084:
1082:
1075:
1070:
1066:
1063:
1059:
1055:
1051:
1043:
1038:
1034:
1030:
1026:
1022:
1018:
1015:
1013:
1008:
1003:
1001:
997:
996:shorting ring
988:
986:
984:
980:
976:
968:
966:
964:
961:or polyester
960:
955:
953:
949:
945:
941:
937:
928:
926:
923:
919:
910:
908:
906:
902:
898:
894:
890:
886:
882:
878:
869:
867:
864:
862:
858:
854:
849:
847:
846:ferromagnetic
843:
839:
835:
831:
827:
823:
819:
815:
804:
801:
798:
795:
794:
790:
780:
777:
774:
771:
768:
767:
763:
753:
750:
747:
744:
743:
739:
732:
723:
721:
719:
715:
711:
707:
701:
699:
695:
691:
687:
682:
680:
675:
671:
667:
666:Altec Lansing
663:
661:
657:
653:
649:
645:
641:
637:
633:
624:
622:
620:
615:
611:
607:
602:
598:
593:
591:
587:
583:
569:
557:
545:
541:
537:
533:
531:
527:
523:
519:
515:
511:
503:
501:
499:
495:
491:
487:
482:
481:Thomas Edison
478:
477:Ernst Siemens
474:
470:
466:
465:
460:
453:
451:
449:
448:electrostatic
445:
444:piezoelectric
441:
437:
433:
429:
425:
421:
420:supertweeters
417:
413:
409:
405:
401:
396:
394:
390:
386:
378:
376:
374:
370:
366:
362:
358:
354:
350:
346:
342:
338:
334:
330:
325:
323:
319:
315:
311:
307:
303:
299:
295:
291:
290:high fidelity
287:
283:
279:
274:
272:
268:
264:
260:
256:
252:
248:
244:
240:
235:
233:
229:
225:
222:; indeed the
221:
216:
212:
207:
205:
201:
197:
194:
190:
186:
182:
178:
174:
170:
162:
154:
151:
148:
147:
143:
133:
130:
122:
111:
108:
104:
101:
97:
94:
90:
87:
83:
80: –
79:
78:"Loudspeaker"
75:
74:Find sources:
68:
64:
58:
57:
52:This article
50:
46:
41:
40:
35:
30:
19:
5765:Loudspeakers
5736:
5469:Sound module
5429:Drum machine
5371:Effects unit
5289:
5264:Player piano
5191:Compact disc
5113:Effects unit
4986:. Retrieved
4982:
4972:
4960:. Retrieved
4956:
4947:
4914:
4911:Nano Letters
4910:
4904:
4871:
4868:Nano Letters
4867:
4861:
4849:. Retrieved
4844:
4835:
4823:. Retrieved
4819:
4810:
4793:
4781:
4769:. Retrieved
4759:
4747:. Retrieved
4743:
4733:
4721:. Retrieved
4717:the original
4712:
4703:
4687:. Springer.
4683:
4676:
4661:
4650:
4643:
4631:. Retrieved
4624:the original
4611:
4599:. Retrieved
4595:the original
4585:
4573:. Retrieved
4569:the original
4558:
4549:
4542:. Retrieved
4535:the original
4522:
4510:. Retrieved
4503:the original
4490:
4472:
4464:
4457:. Retrieved
4453:the original
4442:
4433:
4426:. Retrieved
4415:
4403:. Retrieved
4399:
4389:
4379:September 5,
4377:. Retrieved
4373:the original
4368:
4358:
4346:. Retrieved
4337:
4330:
4302:
4292:February 15,
4290:. Retrieved
4280:
4271:
4265:
4253:. Retrieved
4249:
4240:
4232:the original
4222:
4213:
4207:
4198:
4189:
4177:. Retrieved
4162:
4155:
4143:. Retrieved
4128:
4121:
4109:. Retrieved
4094:
4087:
4075:. Retrieved
4060:
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3977:
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3927:the original
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3883:the original
3878:
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3857:. Retrieved
3852:
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3826:the original
3821:
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3783:
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3757:
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3288:
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3246:
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3225:
3213:. Retrieved
3209:the original
3204:
3195:
3175:
3168:
3148:
3118:
3109:
3099:
3090:
3060:Speakerphone
3055:Speaker wire
3030:Shelf stereo
3005:Music center
2904:
2889:
2883:
2875:
2869:produced by
2841:
2804:
2778:
2763:
2747:
2717:
2715:
2702:
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2477:
2466:
2463:
2447:
2443:
2107:
2090:
2086:
2082:
2061:
2052:
2044:
1988:J.A. Hofmann
1983:
1976:
1967:
1963:
1957:
1950:
1942:
1935:between the
1925:
1892:
1864:
1856:speaker coil
1855:
1853:
1836:
1828:
1819:
1811:
1810:(a driver's
1804:
1797:
1791:
1783:
1777:
1772:
1745:
1739:
1733:
1725:
1715:
1708:
1694:
1689:
1669:
1631:
1626:
1623:out of phase
1622:
1608:
1596:banana plugs
1558:
1539:
1533:
1530:
1507:
1476:
1472:
1467:
1463:
1457:
1455:
1447:
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1432:out of phase
1428:
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1389:
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1330:
1263:
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1219:
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1179:
1174:
1170:
1166:
1155:
1143:
1128:clock radios
1125:
1120:
1118:
1102:
1094:
1079:
1047:
1021:demagnetized
1004:
1000:Faraday loop
999:
995:
992:
972:
956:
951:
939:
935:
932:
914:
889:carbon fiber
873:
865:
850:
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825:
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817:
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683:
669:
664:
628:
610:power supply
594:
579:
514:Oliver Lodge
509:
507:
462:
457:
435:
431:
427:
397:
388:
384:
382:
360:
326:
285:
275:
267:speaker cone
266:
251:coil of wire
236:
223:
211:linear motor
208:
200:audio signal
176:
172:
168:
166:
125:
116:
106:
99:
92:
85:
73:
61:Please help
56:verification
53:
29:
5710:Music store
5705:Home cinema
5664:Robert Moog
5649:Max Mathews
5573:Piano tuner
5541:Professions
5517:Scorewriter
5474:Synthesizer
5290:Loudspeaker
4851:October 12,
4825:October 12,
4601:January 19,
4338:Basic Audio
3758:Stereophile
3581:October 12,
3426:Electronics
3299:January 20,
3257:January 20,
3236:January 20,
3020:Planephones
2959:Electronics
2924:Audio power
2890:thermophone
2813:ultrasonics
2744:directions.
2104:frequencies
2079:Directivity
1990:, the H in
1944:2.83 V
1928:sound power
1830:Sensitivity
1763:frequencies
1716:Rated power
1542:sensitivity
1521:gramophones
1459:bass reflex
1423:baffle step
1183:bass reflex
1151:diffraction
1074:bass reflex
696:formed the
694:Henry Kloss
504:Moving-coil
385:loudspeaker
379:Terminology
333:televisions
271:sound waves
169:loudspeaker
161:bass reflex
5759:Categories
5700:Home audio
5690:Audiophile
5507:GarageBand
5353:Live music
5295:Headphones
5259:Phonograph
5128:Microphone
5123:Headphones
5069:Electrical
5064:Mechanical
4847:. May 1968
4633:October 5,
4575:October 5,
4544:October 5,
4512:October 5,
4459:October 5,
4428:October 5,
4424:. Tech-On!
4323:CLF viewer
3822:Study Hall
3601:Aural HiFi
3532:August 30,
3409:August 30,
3358:0810815907
3279:Ingeniøren
3130:References
3015:Phase plug
2974:Headphones
2929:Audiophile
2749:Oskar Heil
2531:See also:
1871:capacitive
1860:inductance
1699:full-range
1642:1/4" jacks
1517:megaphones
1451:glass wool
1407:Enclosures
1361:capacitors
969:Voice coil
944:corrugated
929:Suspension
885:trade-offs
834:voice coil
805:Suspension
778:Suspension
751:Suspension
679:film house
656:Rudy Bozak
606:choke coil
404:subwoofers
355:. Larger,
349:headphones
247:voice coil
220:microphone
196:transducer
119:April 2024
89:newspapers
5464:Sequencer
5391:PA system
5320:Subwoofer
5305:PA system
5239:Amplifier
5201:Hard disk
5118:Equalizer
4988:April 29,
4962:April 29,
4723:April 14,
4405:April 30,
4348:April 30,
4272:Acoustics
4255:April 14,
4179:April 14,
4145:April 14,
4111:April 14,
4077:April 14,
3789:March 30,
3763:March 30,
3734:March 30,
3671:April 26,
3606:April 18,
3104:location.
2805:reflected
2784:Bell Labs
2723:Styrofoam
2646:rolls off
2564:In 2013,
2515:earphones
2395:θ
2371:frequency
2347:λ
2325:λ
2250:λ
2243:π
2199:θ
2196:
2175:θ
2172:
2124:θ
2058:Placement
1882:resistive
1878:reactance
1875:inductive
1727:Impedance
1703:mid-range
1634:PA system
1525:waveguide
1357:resistors
1305:Crossover
1140:Subwoofer
1134:Subwoofer
1033:neodymium
977:, though
881:resonance
870:Diaphragm
814:diaphragm
802:Diaphragm
799:Voicecoil
781:Diaphragm
775:Voicecoil
754:Diaphragm
748:Voicecoil
684:In 1954,
614:amplifier
464:telephone
450:systems.
393:enclosure
383:The term
353:earphones
314:subwoofer
302:mid-range
263:diaphragm
232:generator
215:diaphragm
185:enclosure
5512:ProTools
5489:Software
5479:Theremin
5419:Chiptune
5376:Foldback
5206:MiniDisc
4939:24041369
4896:19367976
4744:Engadget
4400:Engadget
4315:Archived
4310:36 watt
3889:March 3,
3859:March 3,
3832:March 3,
3215:June 11,
3040:Soundbar
2949:Earphone
2917:See also
2911:subsonic
2801:aliasing
2451:monitors
1971:loudness
1958:focusing
1909:decibels
1900:harmonic
1759:tweeters
1718: –
1611:receiver
1401:limiting
1365:passband
1331:Used in
1163:subsonic
979:aluminum
948:Bakelite
940:surround
861:solenoid
842:dust cap
836:to move
530:Magnavox
416:tweeters
298:tweeters
5608:Tape op
5459:Sampler
4919:Bibcode
4876:Bibcode
4749:May 12,
2718:exciter
2566:Kyocera
2547:watches
2437:is the
1986:(after
1767:drivers
1646:Speakon
1342:passive
1286:Genelec
1282:Cabasse
1274:Pioneer
1240:Tweeter
1234:Tweeter
1175:passive
1171:powered
1121:whizzer
922:stamped
857:current
838:axially
718:synergy
612:of the
540:Kellogg
510:dynamic
454:History
436:dynamic
408:woofers
389:drivers
361:stereos
306:woofers
278:baffled
173:speaker
163:system.
155:Woofers
152:Tweeter
103:scholar
5722:(NIME)
5396:Reverb
4937:
4894:
4771:May 1,
4691:
4483:
4435:sound.
4170:
4136:
4102:
4068:
3725:
3696:
3648:
3506:May 6,
3382:
3355:
3183:
3156:
3001:(LRAD)
2859:helium
2847:plasma
2615:FeONIC
2215:where
1534:Folded
1439:baffle
1425:occurs
1380:before
1346:active
1270:Tannoy
1195:Woofer
1189:Woofer
1167:active
1050:timbre
1017:Alnico
989:Magnet
983:silver
975:copper
959:rubber
936:spider
911:Basket
905:bamboo
893:Kevlar
877:damped
830:spider
822:basket
796:Magnet
769:Magnet
745:Magnet
706:magnet
674:Duplex
642:, and
619:alnico
469:speech
357:louder
351:, and
329:radios
105:
98:
91:
84:
76:
5674:STEIM
5669:SMPTE
5644:IRCAM
5109:(DAW)
4802:(PDF)
4627:(PDF)
4620:(PDF)
4538:(PDF)
4531:(PDF)
4506:(PDF)
4499:(PDF)
4342:(PDF)
4308:Bosch
3930:(PDF)
3923:(PDF)
3572:(PDF)
3526:(PDF)
3322:(PDF)
3082:Notes
2892:) of
2863:ozone
2644:bass
2610:sonar
2555:sonar
2037:LARES
1746:Class
1720:power
1513:horns
1266:Altec
1105:hi-fi
1076:port.
998:, or
897:glass
826:frame
824:, or
816:, or
494:Pathé
204:sound
183:, an
110:JSTOR
96:books
5444:MIDI
5216:Opus
4990:2024
4983:Cnet
4964:2024
4935:PMID
4892:PMID
4853:2021
4827:2021
4773:2012
4751:2024
4725:2018
4689:ISBN
4635:2009
4603:2010
4577:2009
4551:use.
4546:2009
4514:2009
4461:2009
4430:2009
4407:2024
4381:2015
4350:2024
4294:2022
4257:2018
4181:2018
4168:ISBN
4147:2018
4134:ISBN
4113:2018
4100:ISBN
4079:2018
4066:ISBN
3938:2009
3891:2010
3861:2010
3834:2010
3791:2010
3765:2010
3736:2010
3723:ISBN
3694:ISBN
3673:2024
3646:ISBN
3608:2022
3583:2021
3555:help
3534:2024
3508:2009
3447:help
3411:2024
3380:ISBN
3353:ISBN
3301:2019
3259:2019
3238:2019
3217:2015
3181:ISBN
3154:ISBN
2888:(or
2865:and
2672:sees
2668:mass
2570:OLED
2467:flat
2455:Bose
2035:, a
1902:and
1873:and
1709:Size
1636:and
1399:and
1284:and
1228:horn
1035:and
963:foam
952:legs
918:cast
901:hemp
818:cone
584:and
544:Rice
542:and
492:and
241:and
82:news
5211:MP3
5196:DAT
4927:doi
4884:doi
2867:NOx
2788:bit
2193:sin
2169:sin
2031:At
1994:).
1992:KLH
1946:RMS
1918:).
1915:spl
1374:An
1344:or
1278:KEF
1220:mid
1169:or
1147:THX
1103:In
903:or
670:604
446:or
363:),
347:),
284:or
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