862:– the freeze-fracture method has been modified to allow the identification of the components of the fracture face by immunogold labeling. Instead of removing all the underlying tissue of the thawed replica as the final step before viewing in the microscope the tissue thickness is minimized during or after the fracture process. The thin layer of tissue remains bound to the metal replica so it can be immunogold labeled with antibodies to the structures of choice. The thin layer of the original specimen on the replica with gold attached allows the identification of structures in the fracture plane. There are also related methods which label the surface of etched cells and other replica labeling variations.
255:
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used to increase the z-resolution. More recently, back scattered electron (BSE) images can be acquired of a larger series of sections collected on silicon wafers, known as SEM array tomography. An alternative approach is to use BSE SEM to image the block surface instead of the section, after each section has been removed. By this method, an ultramicrotome installed in an SEM chamber can increase automation of the workflow; the specimen block is loaded in the chamber and the system programmed to continuously cut and image through the sample. This is known as serial block face SEM. A related method uses
841:
848:
some ice sublime) is then shadowed with evaporated platinum or gold at an average angle of 45° in a high vacuum evaporator. The second coat of carbon, evaporated perpendicular to the average surface plane is often performed to improve the stability of the replica coating. The specimen is returned to room temperature and pressure, then the extremely fragile "pre-shadowed" metal replica of the fracture surface is released from the underlying biological material by careful chemical digestion with acids,
1028:
338:. According to patent law (U.S. Patent No. 2058914 and 2070318, both filed in 1932), he is the inventor of the electron microscope, but it is not clear when he had a working instrument. He stated in a very brief article in 1932 that Siemens had been working on this for some years before the patents were filed in 1932, claiming that his effort was parallel to the university development. He died in 1961, so similar to Max Knoll, was not eligible for a share of the 1986 Nobel prize.
908:. This mixture is applied to an EM grid, pre-coated with a plastic film such as formvar, blotted, then allowed to dry. Viewing of this preparation in the TEM should be carried out without delay for best results. The method is important in microbiology for fast but crude morphological identification, but can also be used as the basis for high-resolution 3D reconstruction using EM tomography methodology when carbon films are used for support.
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Electron microscopes are now frequently used in more complex workflows, with each workflow typically using multiple technologies to enable more complex and/or more quantitative analyses of a sample. A few examples are outlined below, but this should not be considered an exhaustive list. The choice of
1008:
datasets of larger depths than TEM tomography (micrometers or millimeters in the z axis), a series of images taken through the sample depth can be used. For example, ribbons of serial sections can be imaged in a TEM as described above, and when thicker sections are used, serial TEM tomography can be
584:
emission, all of which provide signals carrying information about the properties of the specimen surface, such as its topography and composition. The image displayed by SEM represents the varying intensity of any of these signals into the image in a position corresponding to the position of the beam
636:
are primarily in the size of the crystals. In X-ray crystallography, crystals are commonly visible by the naked eye and are generally in the hundreds of micrometers in length. In comparison, crystals for electron diffraction must be less than a few hundred nanometers in thickness, and have no lower
456:
lenses, and transmitted through the specimen. When it emerges from the specimen, the electron beam carries information about the structure of the specimen that is magnified by lenses of the microscope. The spatial variation in this information (the "image") may be viewed by projecting the magnified
1077:
frustules and small mineral crystals (asbestos fibres, for example) require no special treatment before being examined in the electron microscope. Samples of hydrated materials, including almost all biological specimens, have to be prepared in various ways to stabilize them, reduce their thickness
954:
to scatter imaging electrons and thus give contrast between different structures, since many (especially biological) materials are nearly "transparent" to electrons (weak phase objects). In biology, specimens can be stained "en bloc" before embedding and also later after sectioning. Typically thin
847:
The fresh tissue or cell suspension is frozen rapidly (cryofixation), then fractured by breaking (or by using a microtome) while maintained at liquid nitrogen temperature. The cold fractured surface (sometimes "etched" by increasing the temperature to about −100 °C for several minutes to let
588:
SEMs are different from TEMs in that they use electrons with much lower energy, generally below 20 keV, while TEMs generally use electrons with energies in the range of 80-300 keV. Thus, the electron sources and optics of the two microscopes have different designs, and they are normally separate
322:
successfully generated magnified images of mesh grids placed over an anode aperture. The device, a replicate of which is shown in the figure, used two magnetic lenses to achieve higher magnifications, the first electron microscope. (Max Knoll died in 1969, so did not receive a share of the 1986
979:
For example, images from light and electron microscopy of the same region of a sample can be overlaid to correlate the data from the two modalities. This is commonly used to provide higher resolution contextual EM information about a fluorescently labelled structure. This correlative light and
1065:
Scanning electron microscopes operating in conventional high-vacuum mode usually image conductive specimens; therefore non-conductive materials require conductive coating (gold/palladium alloy, carbon, osmium, etc.). The low-voltage mode of modern microscopes makes possible the observation of
518:
The STEM rasters a focused incident probe across a specimen. The high resolution of the TEM is thus possible in STEM. The focusing action (and aberrations) occur before the electrons hit the specimen in the STEM, but afterward in the TEM. The STEMs use of SEM-like beam rastering simplifies
393:
became common for electron microscopes, improving the image quality due to the additional coherence and lower chromatic aberrations. The 2000s were marked by advancements in aberration-corrected electron microscopy, allowing for significant improvements in resolution and clarity of images.
984:) is one of a range of correlative workflows now available. Another example is high resolution mass spectrometry (ion microscopy), which has been used to provide correlative information about subcellular antibiotic localisation, data that would be difficult to obtain by other means.
532:
972:. However, often these images are then colourized through the use of feature-detection software, or simply by hand-editing using a graphics editor. This may be done to clarify structure or for aesthetic effect and generally does not add new information about the specimen.
406:
374:, and Albert Prebus. Siemens produced a transmission electron microscope (TEM) in 1939. Although current transmission electron microscopes are capable of two million times magnification, as scientific instruments they remain similar but with improved optics.
410:
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405:
404:
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992:’ workflows was simply to stack TEM images of serial sections cut through a sample. The next development was virtual reconstruction of a thick section (200-500 nm) volume by backprojection of a set of images taken at different tilt angles -
408:
1013:
milling instead of an ultramicrotome to remove sections. In these serial imaging methods, the output is essentially a sequence of images through a specimen block that can be digitally aligned in sequence and thus reconstructed into a
1018:
dataset. The increased volume available in these methods has expanded the capability of electron microscopy to address new questions, such as mapping neural connectivity in the brain, and membrane contact sites between organelles.
1038:
Electron microscopes are expensive to build and maintain. Microscopes designed to achieve high resolutions must be housed in stable buildings (sometimes underground) with special services such as magnetic field canceling systems.
389:, enabling scanning microscopes at high resolution. By the early 1980s improvements in mechanical stability as well as the use of higher accelerating voltages enabled imaging of materials at the atomic scale. In the 1980s, the
987:
The initial role of electron microscopes in imaging two-dimensional slices (TEM) or a specimen surface (SEM with secondary electrons) has also increasingly expanded into the depth of samples. An early example of these
341:
In the following year, 1933, Ruska and Knoll built the first electron microscope that exceeded the resolution of an optical (light) microscope. Four years later, in 1937, Siemens financed the work of Ernst Ruska and
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in 1883 who made a cathode-ray tube with electrostatic and magnetic deflection, demonstrating manipulation of the direction of an electron beam. Others were focusing of the electrons by an axial magnetic field by
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783:– after dehydration, tissue for observation in the transmission electron microscope is embedded so it can be sectioned ready for viewing. To do this the tissue is passed through a 'transition solvent' such as
540:
683:
Materials to be viewed in a transmission electron microscope may require processing to produce a suitable sample. The technique required varies depending on the specimen and the analysis required:
3102:
Rash JE, Johnson TJ, Hudson CS, Giddings FD, Graham WF, Eldefrawi ME (November 1982). "Labelled-replica techniques: post-shadow labelling of intramembrane particles in freeze-fracture replicas".
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Meryman H.T. and Kafig E. (1955). The study of frozen specimens, ice crystals and ices crystal growth by electron microscopy. Naval Med. Res. Ints. Rept NM 000 018.01.09 Vol. 13 pp 529–544
504:), enabling magnifications above 50 million times. The ability of HRTEM to determine the positions of atoms within materials is useful for nano-technologies research and development.
637:
boundary of size. Additionally, electron diffraction is done on a TEM, which can also be used to obtain many other types of information, rather than requiring a separate instrument.
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workflow will be highly dependent on the application and the requirements of the corresponding scientific questions, such as resolution, volume, nature of the target molecule, etc.
407:
4304:
1177:
2794:"Chapter 7 - Natural Surfactants-Based Micro/Nanoemulsion Systems for NSAIDs—Practical Formulation Approach, Physicochemical and Biopharmaceutical Characteristics/Performances"
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Gai PL, Boyes ED (March 2009). "Advances in atomic resolution in situ environmental transmission electron microscopy and 1A aberration corrected in situ electron microscopy".
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Crowther RA, Amos LA, Finch JT, De Rosier DJ, Klug A (May 1970). "Three dimensional reconstructions of spherical viruses by fourier synthesis from electron micrographs".
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ions are used to produce an electron transparent membrane or 'lamella' in a specific region of the sample, for example through a device within a microprocessor or a
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458:
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Kasas S, Dumas G, Dietler G, Catsicas S, Adrian M (July 2003). "Vitrification of cryoelectron microscopy specimens revealed by high-speed photographic imaging".
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1084:, but these can usually be identified by comparing the results obtained by using radically different specimen preparation methods. Since the 1980s, analysis of
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non-conductive specimens without coating. Non-conductive materials can be imaged also by a variable pressure (or environmental) scanning electron microscope.
900:
or fine biological material (such as viruses and bacteria) are briefly mixed with a dilute solution of an electron-opaque solution such as ammonium molybdate,
572:). When the electron beam interacts with the specimen, it loses energy by a variety of mechanisms. These interactions lead to, among other events, emission of
177:
that are analogous to the glass lenses of an optical light microscope to control the electron beam, for instance focusing them to produce magnified images or
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SEM. Ion beam milling may also be used for cross-section polishing prior to analysis of materials that are difficult to prepare using mechanical polishing.
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detergent. The still-floating replica is thoroughly washed free from residual chemicals, carefully fished up on fine grids, dried then viewed in the TEM.
358:. Siemens produced the first commercial electron microscope in 1938. The first North American electron microscopes were constructed in the 1930s, at the
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In their most common configurations, electron microscopes produce images with a single brightness value per pixel, with the results usually rendered in
310:
to lead a team of researchers to advance research on electron beams and cathode-ray oscilloscopes. The team consisted of several PhD students including
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Williamson MJ, Tromp RM, Vereecken PM, Hull R, Ross FM (August 2003). "Dynamic microscopy of nanoscale cluster growth at the solid-liquid interface".
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Additional details can be found in the above links. This article contains some general information mainly about transmission electron microscopes.
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patterns. As the wavelength of an electron can be up to 100,000 times smaller than that of visible light, electron microscopes have a much higher
3869:
Sabanay I, Arad T, Weiner S, Geiger B (September 1991). "Study of vitrified, unstained frozen tissue sections by cryoimmunoelectron microscopy".
731:. This preserves the specimen in a snapshot of its native state. Methods to achieve this vitrification include plunge freezing rapidly in liquid
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have no scintillator and are directly exposed to the electron beam, which addresses some of the limitations of scintillator-coupled cameras.
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External face of bakers yeast membrane showing the small holes where proteins are fractured out, sometimes as small ring patterns.
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are also used because they can be made in the lab and are much cheaper. Sections can also be created in situ by milling in a
693:– for biological specimens this aims to stabilize the specimen's mobile macromolecular structure by chemical crosslinking of
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86:
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milling of lamellae, it is now possible to observe samples from virtually any biological specimen close to its native state.
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mode where a map of the angles of the electrons leaving the sample is produced. The advantages of electron diffraction over
4676:
830:– a preparation method particularly useful for examining lipid membranes and their incorporated proteins in "face on" view.
824:– after embedding in resin, the specimen is usually ground and polished to a mirror-like finish using ultra-fine abrasives.
377:
In the 1940s, high-resolution electron microscopes were developed, enabling greater magnification and resolution. By 1965,
108:
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4386:
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1088:, vitrified specimens has also become increasingly used by scientists, further confirming the validity of this technique.
31:
523:, and other analytical techniques, but also means that image data is acquired in serial rather than in parallel fashion.
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The SEM produces images by probing the specimen with a focused electron beam that is scanned across the specimen (
75:
461:. For example, the image may be viewed directly by an operator using a fluorescent viewing screen coated with a
97:
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4636:
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To this day the issue of who invented the transmission electron microscope is controversial. In 1928, at the
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492:, but a new generation of hardware correctors can reduce spherical aberration to increase the resolution in
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876:) at the surface from an angle and sputtering material from the surface. A subclass of this is
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Freeze-fracturing helps to peel open membranes to allow visualization of what is inside
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452:, with the electrons typically having energies in the range 20 to 400 keV, focused by
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using either a closed liquid cell or an environmental chamber, for example, in the
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to illuminate the specimen and create an image. An electron beam is produced by an
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sections are stained for several minutes with an aqueous or alcoholic solution of
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2338:
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1046:, as the molecules that make up air would scatter the electrons. An exception is
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3329:
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1054:, which allows hydrated samples to be viewed in a low-pressure (up to 20
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knife to produce ultra-thin sections about 60–90 nm thick. Disposable
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497:
462:
279:
in 1899, improved oxide-coated cathodes which produced more electrons by
170:
4621:
4565:
4247:
3788:
2760:
2088:
Smith DJ, Camps RA, Freeman LA, Hill R, Nixon WC, Smith KC (May 1983).
1764:
1657:
1428:
Leo Szilard the Inventor: A Slideshow (1998, Budapest, conference talk)
947:
923:
881:
788:
762:
758:
694:
4002:
3475:
3458:
2548:. North Holland personal library (3rd ed.). Amsterdam: Elsevier.
2023:
1427:
1247:
429:
4585:
3839:
3382:
2957:"A simple freeze-fracture replication method for electron microscopy"
2575:
Biological Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscopy, First Edition
1074:
1043:
770:
732:
3735:
2701:
Luft, J.H. (1961). "Improvements in epoxy resin embedding methods".
1928:. Authors.library.caltech.edu (2002-12-10). Retrieved on 2017-04-29.
3779:
1516:
Freundlich MM (October 1963). "Origin of the Electron Microscope".
1034:
transmission and scanning electron microscope made in the mid-1970s
283:
in 1905 and the development of the electromagnetic lens in 1926 by
47:
3004:
Gruijters WT, Kistler J, Bullivant S, Goodenough DA (March 1987).
2792:
Isailović TM, Todosijević MN, Đorđević SM, Savić SD (2017-01-01).
2569:
Humbel BM, Schwarz H, Tranfield EM, Fleck RA (February 15, 2019).
2361:"Sub-Ångstrom Electron Microscopy for Sub-Ångstrom Nano-Metrology"
1026:
873:
868:– thins samples until they are transparent to electrons by firing
839:
831:
795:
792:
754:
710:
644:
581:
553:
530:
401:
253:
46:
38:
3669:
International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health
1893:
Zeitschrift für Elektrochemie und Angewandte Physikalische Chemie
385:
introduced the scanning transmission electron microscope using a
4570:
1055:
1031:
943:
869:
4006:
3262:"Chemical approaches to unraveling the biology of mycobacteria"
1442:"Origins and historical development of the electron microscope"
58:
52:
1985:. London San Diego, CA Cambridge, MA Oxford: Academic Press.
27:
Type of microscope with electrons as a source of illumination
2647:
2645:
2404:
Transmission electron microscopy: physics of image formation
2379:
Transmission electron microscopy: physics of image formation
258:
Reproduction of an early electron microscope constructed by
206:(STEM) which is similar to TEM with a scanned electron probe
2289:"Atomic-resolution imaging with a sub-50-pm electron probe"
2287:
Erni R, Rossell MD, Kisielowski C, Dahmen U (March 2009).
2006:
Crewe AV, Eggenberger DN, Wall J, Welter LM (1968-04-01).
806:; tissues may also be embedded directly in water-miscible
739:
has branched from this technique. With the development of
270:
used in microscopes. One significant step was the work of
3260:
Finin P, Khan RM, Oh S, Boshoff HI, Barry CE (May 2023).
1058:
or 2.7 kPa) wet environment. Various techniques for
576:
and high-energy backscattered electrons, light emission (
415:
Operating principle of a transmission electron microscope
2238:
Cheng Y, Grigorieff N, Penczek PA, Walz T (April 2015).
3663:
Song YL, Lin HY, Manikandan S, Chang LM (March 2022).
2240:"A primer to single-particle cryo-electron microscopy"
212:(SEM) which is similar to STEM, but with thick samples
2515:"Electron Microscopy | Thermo Fisher Scientific - US"
1178:
Transmission Electron Aberration-Corrected Microscope
735:, and high pressure freezing. An entire field called
544:
Operating principle of a scanning electron microscope
1636:
Knoll M, Ruska E (1932). "Das Elektronenmikroskop".
200:(TEM) where swift electrons go through a thin sample
185:
of about 0.1 nm, which compares to about 200 nm for
4599:
4548:
4457:
4450:
4317:
4261:
4223:
4180:
4173:
4127:
4076:
4040:
3608:"The functional universe of membrane contact sites"
2749:
The Journal of Biophysical and Biochemical Cytology
2703:
The Journal of Biophysical and Biochemical Cytology
89:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
860:Freeze-fracture replica immunogold labeling (FRIL)
437:The original form of the electron microscope, the
330:Apparently independent of this effort was work at
3992:Cell Centered Database – Electron microscopy data
2917:
2915:
2913:
628:Transmission electron microscopes can be used in
1120:Energy filtered transmission electron microscopy
508:Scanning transmission electron microscope (STEM)
494:high-resolution transmission electron microscopy
218:similar to a SEM, but more for chemical analysis
2926:(Second ed.). Elsevier. pp. 221–245.
2577:. John Wiley & Sons Ltd. pp. 191–221.
2467:"Electron Diffraction of 3D Molecular Crystals"
2465:Saha A, Nia SS, Rodríguez JA (September 2022).
653:for viewing with a scanning electron microscope
585:on the specimen when the signal was generated.
488:The resolution of TEMs is limited primarily by
250:Transmission electron microscopy § History
4432:Serial block-face scanning electron microscopy
4135:Detectors for transmission electron microscopy
3307:
3305:
727:– freezing a specimen so that the water forms
4018:
3606:Prinz WA, Toulmay A, Balla T (January 2020).
3197:Under the Microscope: A Hidden World Revealed
2837:"Fine Structure in Frozen-Etched Yeast Cells"
2201:"Historical aspects of aberration correction"
1983:The Beginnings of Electron Microscopy. Part 1
1563:. Vol. 160. Elsevier. pp. 171–205.
934:SEM, where the section is known as a lamella.
266:Many developments laid the groundwork of the
224:, version of a SEM that can operate very fast
8:
2800:. Boston: Academic Press. pp. 179–217.
2460:
2458:
2008:"Electron Gun Using a Field Emission Source"
327:for the invention of electron microscopes.)
43:A transmission electron microscope from 2002
1939:"North America's first electron microscope"
1715:"Apparatus for producing images of objects"
1689:"Apparatus for producing images of objects"
4454:
4177:
4025:
4011:
4003:
1224:"Historical Background of Electron Optics"
1126:Environmental scanning electron microscope
1052:environmental scanning electron microscope
3778:
3690:
3680:
3631:
3574:
3533:
3523:
3474:
3337:
3285:
3170:
3078:
3053:Pinto da Silva P, Branton D (June 1970).
3029:
2980:
2860:
2768:
2710:
2677:
2490:
2263:
1926:History of electron microscopy, 1931–2000
1042:The samples largely have to be viewed in
514:Scanning transmission electron microscopy
362:by Anderson and Fitzsimmons and at the
204:Scanning transmission electron microscopy
149:Learn how and when to remove this message
2705:. Vol. 9, no. 2. p. 409.
2154:"Aberration correction past and present"
1817:
1815:
1561:Advances in Imaging and Electron Physics
1062:of gaseous samples have been developed.
743:of vitreous sections (CEMOVIS) and cryo-
2924:An Introduction to Biological Membranes
1189:
3612:Nature Reviews. Molecular Cell Biology
564:taken with a 1960s electron microscope
420:Transmission electron microscope (TEM)
222:Ultrafast scanning electron microscopy
173:as a source of illumination. They use
3988:: resources for teachers and students
3506:Denk W, Horstmann H (November 2004).
3222:"Introduction to Electron Microscopy"
1162:Scanning confocal electron microscopy
7:
4671:
2359:O'Keefe MA, Allard LF (2004-01-18).
87:adding citations to reliable sources
2835:Moor H, Mühlethaler K (June 1963).
2129:High-resolution electron microscopy
3116:10.1111/j.1365-2818.1982.tb00444.x
2932:10.1016/b978-0-444-63772-7.00011-7
2894:10.1016/b978-0-12-185255-9.50025-0
2806:10.1016/b978-0-12-804017-1.00007-8
2106:10.1111/j.1365-2818.1983.tb04211.x
1887:Von Ardenne M, Beischer D (1940).
1446:British Journal of Applied Physics
1099:List of materials analysis methods
527:Scanning electron microscope (SEM)
25:
4068:Timeline of microscope technology
3767:Microscopy Research and Technique
2955:Bullivant S, Ames A (June 1966).
2573:. In Fleck RA, Humbel BM (eds.).
1109:Electron energy loss spectroscopy
959:followed by aqueous lead citrate.
234:Photoemission electron microscopy
55:in a scanning electron microscope
4670:
4659:
4658:
3997:Science Aid: Electron Microscopy
3918:10.1046/j.1365-2818.2003.01193.x
2012:Review of Scientific Instruments
1795:"History of Electron Microscope"
1069:Small, stable specimens such as
1048:liquid-phase electron microscopy
439:transmission electron microscope
426:Transmission electron microscope
198:Transmission electron microscopy
63:
4427:Precession electron diffraction
3318:Nature Reviews. Methods Primers
2571:"Chapter 10: Chemical Fixation"
781:Embedding, biological specimens
769:or infiltration with embedding
477:light-guide to the sensor of a
74:needs additional citations for
3979:An Introduction to Microscopy
3278:10.1016/j.chembiol.2023.04.014
2313:10.1103/PhysRevLett.102.096101
2205:Journal of Electron Microscopy
1142:Low-energy electron microscopy
828:Freeze-fracture or freeze-etch
757:with organic solvents such as
729:vitreous (non-crystalline) ice
574:low-energy secondary electrons
230:(LEEM), used to image surfaces
228:Low-energy electron microscopy
1:
2616:Journal of Structural Biology
2127:Spence JC, Spence JC (2003).
1957:Inventor of the Week: Archive
1858:10.1016/S0140-6736(00)02250-9
1569:10.1016/s1076-5670(10)60005-5
1316:Annalen der Physik und Chemie
1273:. Routledge. pp. 87–88.
791:and then infiltrated with an
304:Technische Universität Berlin
32:Scanning tunneling microscope
3969:Resources in other libraries
3525:10.1371/journal.pbio.0020329
3412:White IJ, Burden JJ (2023).
3314:"Volume electron microscopy"
2517:. 2022-04-07. Archived from
2067:10.1126/science.154.3750.729
1959:. 2003-05-01. Archived from
1538:10.1126/science.142.3589.185
1167:Scanning electron microscope
1000:Serial imaging for volume EM
942:– uses heavy metals such as
598:Diffraction contrast imaging
550:Scanning electron microscope
356:scanning electron microscope
210:Scanning electron microscope
3200:. CUP Archive. p. 11.
3151:The Journal of Cell Biology
3059:The Journal of Cell Biology
3010:The Journal of Cell Biology
2961:The Journal of Cell Biology
2841:The Journal of Cell Biology
2483:10.1021/acs.chemrev.1c00879
1824:"Ernst Ruska Autobiography"
1493:10.2991/iccessh-18.2018.313
1147:Microscope image processing
1137:In situ electron microscopy
1060:in situ electron microscopy
360:Washington State University
4750:
4412:Immune electron microscopy
4330:Annular dark-field imaging
4145:Everhart–Thornley detector
3576:10.1016/j.cell.2020.08.010
3426:10.1016/bs.mcb.2022.12.023
3330:10.1038/s43586-022-00131-9
3145:Reynolds ES (April 1963).
2743:Steere RL (January 1957).
2583:10.1002/9781118663233.ch10
2256:10.1016/j.cell.2015.03.050
1719:Patent Public Search Basic
1693:Patent Public Search Basic
1458:10.1088/0508-3443/13/5/303
1228:Journal of Applied Physics
1132:Immune electron microscopy
1115:Electron microscope images
656:
641:Sample preparation for TEM
621:
547:
521:annular dark-field imaging
511:
423:
247:
29:
4654:
4566:Hitachi High-Technologies
3964:Resources in your library
3624:10.1038/s41580-019-0180-9
3227:. FEI Company. p. 15
2670:10.1038/s41596-020-0320-x
2628:10.1016/j.jsb.2004.03.010
2441:10.1017/s1551929510991190
2402:Reimer L, Kohl H (2008).
2377:Reimer L, Kohl H (2008).
1367:10.1080/14786440509463347
896:– suspensions containing
483:Direct electron detectors
370:and students Cecil Hall,
4591:Thermo Fisher Scientific
4417:Geometric phase analysis
4305:Aberration-Corrected TEM
3822:(Submitted manuscript).
3457:Kolotuev I (July 2024).
2886:Methods in Neurosciences
2152:Hawkes PW (2009-09-28).
1905:10.1002/bbpc.19400460406
1615:10.1002/andp.19324040506
1414:10.1002/andp.19263862507
1336:10.1002/andp.18993051203
1202:Encyclopaedia Britannica
741:cryo-electron microscopy
737:cryo-electron microscopy
30:Not to be confused with
4734:20th-century inventions
4340:Charge contrast imaging
4150:Field electron emission
3871:Journal of Cell Science
2293:Physical Review Letters
1799:LEO Electron Microscopy
1745:Die Naturwissenschaften
1279:10.4324/9780429198960-4
608:High resolution imaging
302:in Charlottenburg (now
4530:Thomas Eugene Everhart
3682:10.3390/ijerph19063664
2199:Rose HH (2009-06-01).
2170:10.1098/rsta.2009.0004
1638:Zeitschrift für Physik
1035:
845:
837:
659:TEM Sample preparation
654:
603:Phase contrast imaging
565:
545:
457:electron image onto a
434:
416:
263:
56:
44:
4535:Vernon Ellis Cosslett
4355:Dark-field microscopy
3906:Journal of Microscopy
3883:10.1242/jcs.100.1.227
3559:"The Mind of a Mouse"
3463:Journal of Microscopy
3266:Cell Chemical Biology
3104:Journal of Microscopy
3022:10.1083/jcb.104.3.565
2796:. In Čalija B (ed.).
2335:"The Scale of Things"
2217:10.1093/jmicro/dfp012
2094:Journal of Microscopy
1822:Ruska, Ernst (1986).
1741:"Elektronenmikroskop"
1426:Dannen, Gene (1998)
1198:"Electron microscope"
1030:
980:electron microscopy (
843:
835:
767:critical point drying
648:
634:X-ray crystallography
557:
543:
496:(HRTEM) to below 0.5
433:
414:
387:field emission source
383:University of Chicago
364:University of Toronto
300:Technische Hochschule
257:
98:"Electron microscope"
50:
42:
4714:Anatomical pathology
4540:Vladimir K. Zworykin
4190:Correlative light EM
4099:Electron diffraction
3163:10.1083/jcb.17.1.208
3071:10.1083/jcb.45.3.598
2973:10.1083/jcb.29.3.435
2853:10.1083/jcb.17.3.609
1739:Rodenberg R (1932).
1104:Electron diffraction
906:phosphotungstic acid
822:Embedding, materials
630:electron diffraction
624:Electron diffraction
618:Electron diffraction
593:Main operating modes
490:spherical aberration
179:electron diffraction
169:that uses a beam of
83:improve this article
18:Electron microscopes
4709:Accelerator physics
4699:Electron microscopy
4505:Manfred von Ardenne
4490:Gerasimos Danilatos
4397:Electron tomography
4392:Electron holography
4335:Cathodoluminescence
4114:Secondary electrons
4104:Electron scattering
4048:Electron microscopy
4034:Electron microscopy
3955:Electron microscopy
3832:1984Natur.308...32A
3728:2003NatMa...2..532W
3375:1970Natur.226..421C
2545:Diffraction physics
2477:(17): 13883–13914.
2305:2009PhRvL.102i6101E
2164:(1903): 3637–3664.
2059:1966Sci...154..729C
1852:(9216): 1713–1717.
1757:1932NW.....20..522R
1650:1932ZPhy...78..318K
1607:1932AnP...404..607K
1530:1963Sci...142..185F
1406:1926AnP...386..974B
1328:1899AnP...305..739W
1310:Wiechert E (1899).
1240:1944JAP....15..685C
1222:Calbick CJ (1944).
578:cathodoluminescence
368:Eli Franklin Burton
352:Manfred von Ardenne
216:Electron microprobe
191:Electron microscope
163:electron microscope
4627:Digital Micrograph
4233:Environmental SEM
4155:Field emission gun
4119:X-ray fluorescence
3984:2013-07-19 at the
3789:10.1002/jemt.20668
3194:Burgess J (1987).
2761:10.1083/jcb.3.1.45
1981:Hawkes PW (2021).
1826:. Nobel Foundation
1765:10.1007/BF01505383
1658:10.1007/BF01342199
1595:Annalen der Physik
1394:Annalen der Physik
1349:Wehnelt A (1905).
1036:
846:
838:
787:(epoxypropane) or
655:
566:
546:
435:
417:
391:field emission gun
336:Reinhold Rüdenberg
264:
57:
45:
4724:German inventions
4686:
4685:
4650:
4649:
4520:Nestor J. Zaluzec
4515:Maximilian Haider
4313:
4312:
3950:Library resources
3476:10.1111/jmi.13217
3369:(5244): 421–425.
3207:978-0-521-39940-1
3110:(Pt 2): 121–138.
2941:978-0-444-63772-7
2815:978-0-12-804017-1
2555:978-0-444-82218-5
2413:978-0-387-40093-8
2388:978-0-387-40093-8
2138:978-0-19-850915-8
2053:(3750): 729–738.
2024:10.1063/1.1683435
1992:978-0-323-91507-6
1524:(3589): 185–188.
1502:978-94-6252-528-3
1440:Mulvey T (1962).
1288:978-0-429-19896-0
1248:10.1063/1.1707371
904:(or formate), or
753:– replacement of
613:Chemical analysis
561:Bacillus subtilis
541:
469:material such as
412:
332:Siemens-Schuckert
187:light microscopes
159:
158:
151:
133:
16:(Redirected from
4741:
4674:
4673:
4662:
4661:
4470:Bodo von Borries
4455:
4215:Photoemission EM
4178:
4027:
4020:
4013:
4004:
3938:
3937:
3901:
3895:
3894:
3866:
3860:
3859:
3840:10.1038/308032a0
3815:
3809:
3808:
3782:
3762:
3756:
3755:
3716:Nature Materials
3711:
3705:
3704:
3694:
3684:
3660:
3654:
3653:
3635:
3603:
3597:
3596:
3578:
3569:(6): 1372–1376.
3554:
3548:
3547:
3537:
3527:
3503:
3497:
3496:
3478:
3454:
3448:
3447:
3409:
3403:
3402:
3383:10.1038/226421a0
3358:
3352:
3351:
3341:
3309:
3300:
3299:
3289:
3257:
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3250:
3243:
3237:
3236:
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3050:
3044:
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3033:
3001:
2995:
2994:
2984:
2952:
2946:
2945:
2919:
2908:
2907:
2881:
2875:
2874:
2864:
2832:
2826:
2825:
2823:
2822:
2789:
2783:
2782:
2772:
2740:
2734:
2731:
2725:
2724:
2714:
2698:
2692:
2691:
2681:
2664:(6): 2041–2070.
2658:Nature Protocols
2649:
2640:
2639:
2611:
2605:
2604:
2566:
2560:
2559:
2536:
2530:
2529:
2527:
2526:
2511:
2505:
2504:
2494:
2471:Chemical Reviews
2462:
2453:
2452:
2429:Microscopy Today
2424:
2418:
2417:
2399:
2393:
2392:
2374:
2368:
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2356:
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2117:
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2003:
1997:
1996:
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1968:
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1943:
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1710:
1704:
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1701:
1699:
1684:
1678:
1677:
1644:(5–6): 318–339.
1633:
1627:
1626:
1590:
1584:
1582:
1556:
1550:
1549:
1513:
1507:
1506:
1476:
1470:
1469:
1437:
1431:
1424:
1418:
1417:
1388:Busch H (1926).
1385:
1379:
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1307:
1301:
1300:
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1259:
1219:
1213:
1212:
1210:
1208:
1194:
1071:carbon nanotubes
1011:focused ion beam
932:focused ion beam
922:with a glass or
886:focused ion beam
878:focused ion beam
866:Ion beam milling
745:focused ion beam
715:osmium tetroxide
675:Chemical milling
542:
413:
344:Bodo von Borries
291:, the physicist
154:
147:
143:
140:
134:
132:
91:
67:
59:
21:
4749:
4748:
4744:
4743:
4742:
4740:
4739:
4738:
4729:Protein imaging
4689:
4688:
4687:
4682:
4646:
4595:
4544:
4525:Ondrej Krivanek
4446:
4309:
4257:
4219:
4205:Liquid-Phase EM
4169:
4128:Instrumentation
4123:
4081:
4072:
4036:
4031:
3986:Wayback Machine
3975:
3974:
3973:
3958:
3957:
3953:
3946:
3941:
3912:(Pt 1): 48–53.
3903:
3902:
3898:
3868:
3867:
3863:
3826:(5954): 32–36.
3817:
3816:
3812:
3764:
3763:
3759:
3736:10.1038/nmat944
3713:
3712:
3708:
3662:
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3003:
3002:
2998:
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2953:
2949:
2942:
2921:
2920:
2911:
2904:
2883:
2882:
2878:
2834:
2833:
2829:
2820:
2818:
2816:
2791:
2790:
2786:
2742:
2741:
2737:
2732:
2728:
2700:
2699:
2695:
2651:
2650:
2643:
2613:
2612:
2608:
2593:
2568:
2567:
2563:
2556:
2538:
2537:
2533:
2524:
2522:
2513:
2512:
2508:
2464:
2463:
2456:
2426:
2425:
2421:
2414:
2401:
2400:
2396:
2389:
2376:
2375:
2371:
2363:
2358:
2357:
2353:
2344:
2342:
2333:
2332:
2328:
2286:
2285:
2281:
2237:
2236:
2232:
2198:
2197:
2193:
2151:
2150:
2146:
2139:
2126:
2125:
2121:
2087:
2086:
2082:
2044:
2043:
2039:
2005:
2004:
2000:
1993:
1980:
1979:
1975:
1966:
1964:
1953:"James Hillier"
1951:
1950:
1946:
1937:
1936:
1932:
1924:
1920:
1886:
1885:
1881:
1843:
1842:
1838:
1829:
1827:
1821:
1820:
1813:
1803:
1801:
1793:
1792:
1788:
1738:
1737:
1733:
1723:
1721:
1712:
1711:
1707:
1697:
1695:
1686:
1685:
1681:
1635:
1634:
1630:
1592:
1591:
1587:
1579:
1558:
1557:
1553:
1515:
1514:
1510:
1503:
1478:
1477:
1473:
1439:
1438:
1434:
1425:
1421:
1400:(25): 974–993.
1387:
1386:
1382:
1348:
1347:
1343:
1322:(12): 739–766.
1309:
1308:
1304:
1289:
1268:
1267:
1263:
1234:(10): 685–690.
1221:
1220:
1216:
1206:
1204:
1196:
1195:
1191:
1187:
1182:
1094:
1025:
1002:
966:
880:milling, where
785:propylene oxide
681:
643:
626:
620:
615:
610:
605:
600:
595:
570:raster scanning
552:
531:
529:
516:
510:
454:electromagnetic
428:
422:
402:
400:
346:, and employed
287:. According to
268:electron optics
252:
246:
175:electron optics
155:
144:
138:
135:
92:
90:
80:
68:
51:An image of an
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
4747:
4745:
4737:
4736:
4731:
4726:
4721:
4716:
4711:
4706:
4701:
4691:
4690:
4684:
4683:
4681:
4680:
4668:
4655:
4652:
4651:
4648:
4647:
4645:
4644:
4639:
4634:
4632:Direct methods
4629:
4624:
4619:
4614:
4609:
4603:
4601:
4597:
4596:
4594:
4593:
4588:
4583:
4578:
4573:
4568:
4563:
4558:
4552:
4550:
4546:
4545:
4543:
4542:
4537:
4532:
4527:
4522:
4517:
4512:
4507:
4502:
4497:
4492:
4487:
4482:
4480:Ernst G. Bauer
4477:
4472:
4467:
4461:
4459:
4452:
4448:
4447:
4445:
4444:
4439:
4434:
4429:
4424:
4419:
4414:
4409:
4404:
4399:
4394:
4389:
4384:
4379:
4374:
4373:
4372:
4362:
4357:
4352:
4347:
4342:
4337:
4332:
4327:
4321:
4319:
4315:
4314:
4311:
4310:
4308:
4307:
4302:
4301:
4300:
4290:
4285:
4280:
4279:
4278:
4267:
4265:
4259:
4258:
4256:
4255:
4250:
4245:
4240:
4235:
4229:
4227:
4221:
4220:
4218:
4217:
4212:
4207:
4202:
4197:
4192:
4186:
4184:
4175:
4171:
4170:
4168:
4167:
4162:
4157:
4152:
4147:
4142:
4137:
4131:
4129:
4125:
4124:
4122:
4121:
4116:
4111:
4106:
4101:
4096:
4094:Bremsstrahlung
4091:
4085:
4083:
4074:
4073:
4071:
4070:
4065:
4060:
4055:
4050:
4044:
4042:
4038:
4037:
4032:
4030:
4029:
4022:
4015:
4007:
4001:
4000:
3999::By Kaden park
3994:
3989:
3972:
3971:
3966:
3960:
3959:
3948:
3947:
3945:
3944:External links
3942:
3940:
3939:
3896:
3877:(1): 227–236.
3861:
3810:
3773:(3): 153–164.
3757:
3722:(8): 532–536.
3706:
3655:
3598:
3549:
3498:
3449:
3434:
3404:
3353:
3301:
3272:(5): 420–435.
3252:
3238:
3213:
3206:
3186:
3157:(1): 208–212.
3137:
3094:
3065:(3): 598–605.
3045:
3016:(3): 565–572.
2996:
2967:(3): 435–447.
2947:
2940:
2909:
2902:
2876:
2847:(3): 609–628.
2827:
2814:
2784:
2735:
2726:
2693:
2641:
2622:(1): 131–135.
2606:
2591:
2561:
2554:
2531:
2506:
2454:
2419:
2412:
2394:
2387:
2369:
2351:
2326:
2279:
2250:(3): 438–449.
2230:
2191:
2144:
2137:
2119:
2100:(2): 127–136.
2080:
2037:
2018:(4): 576–583.
1998:
1991:
1973:
1944:
1930:
1918:
1899:(4): 270–277.
1879:
1836:
1811:
1786:
1731:
1705:
1679:
1628:
1601:(5): 607–640.
1585:
1577:
1551:
1508:
1501:
1479:Tao Y (2018).
1471:
1452:(5): 197–207.
1432:
1419:
1380:
1341:
1302:
1287:
1261:
1214:
1188:
1186:
1183:
1181:
1180:
1175:
1170:
1164:
1159:
1157:Nanotechnology
1154:
1149:
1144:
1139:
1134:
1129:
1123:
1117:
1112:
1106:
1101:
1095:
1093:
1090:
1024:
1021:
1001:
998:
994:TEM tomography
965:
962:
961:
960:
957:uranyl acetate
935:
920:ultramicrotome
916:ultramicrotomy
909:
902:uranyl acetate
893:Negative stain
889:
863:
857:
825:
819:
812:ultramicrotomy
778:
765:, followed by
748:
719:
718:
707:glutaraldehyde
663:Ultramicrotomy
651:coated in gold
642:
639:
622:Main article:
619:
616:
614:
611:
609:
606:
604:
601:
599:
596:
594:
591:
548:Main article:
528:
525:
512:Main article:
509:
506:
479:digital camera
441:(TEM), uses a
424:Main article:
421:
418:
399:
396:
354:pioneered the
281:Arthur Wehnelt
245:
242:
238:
237:
231:
225:
219:
213:
207:
201:
193:may refer to:
157:
156:
139:September 2023
71:
69:
62:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4746:
4735:
4732:
4730:
4727:
4725:
4722:
4720:
4717:
4715:
4712:
4710:
4707:
4705:
4702:
4700:
4697:
4696:
4694:
4679:
4678:
4669:
4667:
4666:
4657:
4656:
4653:
4643:
4640:
4638:
4635:
4633:
4630:
4628:
4625:
4623:
4620:
4618:
4615:
4613:
4610:
4608:
4605:
4604:
4602:
4598:
4592:
4589:
4587:
4584:
4582:
4579:
4577:
4574:
4572:
4569:
4567:
4564:
4562:
4559:
4557:
4556:Carl Zeiss AG
4554:
4553:
4551:
4549:Manufacturers
4547:
4541:
4538:
4536:
4533:
4531:
4528:
4526:
4523:
4521:
4518:
4516:
4513:
4511:
4508:
4506:
4503:
4501:
4500:James Hillier
4498:
4496:
4493:
4491:
4488:
4486:
4483:
4481:
4478:
4476:
4473:
4471:
4468:
4466:
4463:
4462:
4460:
4456:
4453:
4449:
4443:
4440:
4438:
4435:
4433:
4430:
4428:
4425:
4423:
4420:
4418:
4415:
4413:
4410:
4408:
4405:
4403:
4400:
4398:
4395:
4393:
4390:
4388:
4385:
4383:
4380:
4378:
4375:
4371:
4368:
4367:
4366:
4363:
4361:
4358:
4356:
4353:
4351:
4348:
4346:
4343:
4341:
4338:
4336:
4333:
4331:
4328:
4326:
4323:
4322:
4320:
4316:
4306:
4303:
4299:
4296:
4295:
4294:
4291:
4289:
4286:
4284:
4281:
4277:
4274:
4273:
4272:
4269:
4268:
4266:
4264:
4260:
4254:
4253:Ultrafast SEM
4251:
4249:
4246:
4244:
4241:
4239:
4236:
4234:
4231:
4230:
4228:
4226:
4222:
4216:
4213:
4211:
4210:Low-energy EM
4208:
4206:
4203:
4201:
4198:
4196:
4193:
4191:
4188:
4187:
4185:
4183:
4179:
4176:
4172:
4166:
4163:
4161:
4160:Magnetic lens
4158:
4156:
4153:
4151:
4148:
4146:
4143:
4141:
4138:
4136:
4133:
4132:
4130:
4126:
4120:
4117:
4115:
4112:
4110:
4109:Kikuchi lines
4107:
4105:
4102:
4100:
4097:
4095:
4092:
4090:
4087:
4086:
4084:
4079:
4075:
4069:
4066:
4064:
4061:
4059:
4056:
4054:
4051:
4049:
4046:
4045:
4043:
4039:
4035:
4028:
4023:
4021:
4016:
4014:
4009:
4008:
4005:
3998:
3995:
3993:
3990:
3987:
3983:
3980:
3977:
3976:
3970:
3967:
3965:
3962:
3961:
3956:
3951:
3943:
3935:
3931:
3927:
3923:
3919:
3915:
3911:
3907:
3900:
3897:
3892:
3888:
3884:
3880:
3876:
3872:
3865:
3862:
3857:
3853:
3849:
3845:
3841:
3837:
3833:
3829:
3825:
3821:
3814:
3811:
3806:
3802:
3798:
3794:
3790:
3786:
3781:
3776:
3772:
3768:
3761:
3758:
3753:
3749:
3745:
3741:
3737:
3733:
3729:
3725:
3721:
3717:
3710:
3707:
3702:
3698:
3693:
3688:
3683:
3678:
3674:
3670:
3666:
3659:
3656:
3651:
3647:
3643:
3639:
3634:
3629:
3625:
3621:
3617:
3613:
3609:
3602:
3599:
3594:
3590:
3586:
3582:
3577:
3572:
3568:
3564:
3560:
3553:
3550:
3545:
3541:
3536:
3531:
3526:
3521:
3517:
3513:
3509:
3502:
3499:
3494:
3490:
3486:
3482:
3477:
3472:
3468:
3464:
3460:
3453:
3450:
3445:
3441:
3437:
3435:9780323916073
3431:
3427:
3423:
3419:
3415:
3408:
3405:
3400:
3396:
3392:
3388:
3384:
3380:
3376:
3372:
3368:
3364:
3357:
3354:
3349:
3345:
3340:
3335:
3331:
3327:
3323:
3319:
3315:
3308:
3306:
3302:
3297:
3293:
3288:
3283:
3279:
3275:
3271:
3267:
3263:
3256:
3253:
3248:
3242:
3239:
3223:
3217:
3214:
3209:
3203:
3199:
3198:
3190:
3187:
3182:
3178:
3173:
3168:
3164:
3160:
3156:
3152:
3148:
3141:
3138:
3133:
3129:
3125:
3121:
3117:
3113:
3109:
3105:
3098:
3095:
3090:
3086:
3081:
3076:
3072:
3068:
3064:
3060:
3056:
3049:
3046:
3041:
3037:
3032:
3027:
3023:
3019:
3015:
3011:
3007:
3000:
2997:
2992:
2988:
2983:
2978:
2974:
2970:
2966:
2962:
2958:
2951:
2948:
2943:
2937:
2933:
2929:
2925:
2918:
2916:
2914:
2910:
2905:
2903:9780121852559
2899:
2895:
2891:
2887:
2880:
2877:
2872:
2868:
2863:
2858:
2854:
2850:
2846:
2842:
2838:
2831:
2828:
2817:
2811:
2807:
2803:
2799:
2795:
2788:
2785:
2780:
2776:
2771:
2766:
2762:
2758:
2754:
2750:
2746:
2739:
2736:
2730:
2727:
2722:
2718:
2713:
2708:
2704:
2697:
2694:
2689:
2685:
2680:
2675:
2671:
2667:
2663:
2659:
2655:
2648:
2646:
2642:
2637:
2633:
2629:
2625:
2621:
2617:
2610:
2607:
2602:
2598:
2594:
2592:9781118663233
2588:
2584:
2580:
2576:
2572:
2565:
2562:
2557:
2551:
2547:
2546:
2541:
2535:
2532:
2521:on 2022-04-07
2520:
2516:
2510:
2507:
2502:
2498:
2493:
2488:
2484:
2480:
2476:
2472:
2468:
2461:
2459:
2455:
2450:
2446:
2442:
2438:
2434:
2430:
2423:
2420:
2415:
2409:
2405:
2398:
2395:
2390:
2384:
2380:
2373:
2370:
2362:
2355:
2352:
2341:on 2010-02-01
2340:
2336:
2330:
2327:
2322:
2318:
2314:
2310:
2306:
2302:
2299:(9): 096101.
2298:
2294:
2290:
2283:
2280:
2275:
2271:
2266:
2261:
2257:
2253:
2249:
2245:
2241:
2234:
2231:
2226:
2222:
2218:
2214:
2210:
2206:
2202:
2195:
2192:
2187:
2183:
2179:
2175:
2171:
2167:
2163:
2159:
2155:
2148:
2145:
2140:
2134:
2130:
2123:
2120:
2115:
2111:
2107:
2103:
2099:
2095:
2091:
2084:
2081:
2076:
2072:
2068:
2064:
2060:
2056:
2052:
2048:
2041:
2038:
2033:
2029:
2025:
2021:
2017:
2013:
2009:
2002:
1999:
1994:
1988:
1984:
1977:
1974:
1963:on 2003-08-23
1962:
1958:
1954:
1948:
1945:
1940:
1934:
1931:
1927:
1922:
1919:
1914:
1910:
1906:
1902:
1898:
1895:(in German).
1894:
1890:
1883:
1880:
1875:
1871:
1867:
1863:
1859:
1855:
1851:
1847:
1840:
1837:
1825:
1818:
1816:
1812:
1800:
1796:
1790:
1787:
1782:
1778:
1774:
1770:
1766:
1762:
1758:
1754:
1750:
1747:(in German).
1746:
1742:
1735:
1732:
1720:
1716:
1713:Rüdenberg R.
1709:
1706:
1694:
1690:
1687:Rüdenberg R.
1683:
1680:
1675:
1671:
1667:
1663:
1659:
1655:
1651:
1647:
1643:
1640:(in German).
1639:
1632:
1629:
1624:
1620:
1616:
1612:
1608:
1604:
1600:
1596:
1589:
1586:
1580:
1578:9780123810175
1574:
1570:
1566:
1562:
1555:
1552:
1547:
1543:
1539:
1535:
1531:
1527:
1523:
1519:
1512:
1509:
1504:
1498:
1494:
1490:
1486:
1482:
1475:
1472:
1467:
1463:
1459:
1455:
1451:
1447:
1443:
1436:
1433:
1429:
1423:
1420:
1415:
1411:
1407:
1403:
1399:
1396:(in German).
1395:
1391:
1384:
1381:
1376:
1372:
1368:
1364:
1361:(55): 80–90.
1360:
1356:
1352:
1345:
1342:
1337:
1333:
1329:
1325:
1321:
1318:(in German).
1317:
1313:
1306:
1303:
1298:
1294:
1290:
1284:
1280:
1276:
1272:
1265:
1262:
1257:
1253:
1249:
1245:
1241:
1237:
1233:
1229:
1225:
1218:
1215:
1203:
1199:
1193:
1190:
1184:
1179:
1176:
1174:
1171:
1168:
1165:
1163:
1160:
1158:
1155:
1153:
1150:
1148:
1145:
1143:
1140:
1138:
1135:
1133:
1130:
1127:
1124:
1121:
1118:
1116:
1113:
1110:
1107:
1105:
1102:
1100:
1097:
1096:
1091:
1089:
1087:
1083:
1082:
1076:
1072:
1067:
1063:
1061:
1057:
1053:
1049:
1045:
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265:
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320:Ernst Ruska
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4458:Developers
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4058:Micrograph
3780:1705.05754
2821:2020-10-22
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1830:2010-01-31
1185:References
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679:Sputtering
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285:Hans Busch
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688:Chemical
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308:Max Knoll
171:electrons
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4600:Software
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