910:. Although it is the most expensive, these gases are a much more effective insulator than air. GIS require only 10 to 20 percent of the land area as AIS, which can save on land acquisition cost in urban areas, and allow the substation to be built at the exact location where its power is being used in an industrial or urban area—which can be a significant cost savings. On the generation side, GIS can be installed closer to the generator which allows cost savings in cabling, bus duct connections, and civil construction and can increase reliability. GIS can replace AIS if power requirements increase without requiring additional land area. Additionally, GIS is commonly installed in an enclosed building that keeps the equipment protected from pollution and salt. Unless the substation is often used for switching, maintenance cost can be very low or even zero for many years. Because SF
633:
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181:
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481:, which is the connecting and disconnecting of transmission lines or other components to and from the system. Switching events may be planned or unplanned. A transmission line or other component may need to be de-energized for maintenance or for new construction, for example, adding or removing a transmission line or a transformer. To maintain reliability of supply, companies aim at keeping the system up and running while performing maintenance. All work to be performed, from routine testing to adding entirely new substations, should be done while keeping the whole system running.
307:
38:
201:. Most commonly, the utility does the engineering and procurement while hiring a contractor for actual construction. Major design constraints for construction of substations include land availability and cost, limitations on the construction period, transportation restrictions, and the need to get the substation running quickly. Prefabrication is a common way to reduce the construction cost. For connecting the new substation, a partial outage at another substation may be required, but the utility often tries to minimize downtime.
710:. In some cases, the lines will not have both, with either a switch or a circuit breaker being all that is considered necessary. A disconnect switch is used to provide isolation, since it cannot interrupt load current. A circuit breaker is used as a protection device to interrupt fault currents automatically, and may be used to switch loads on and off, or to cut off a line when power is flowing in the 'wrong' direction. When a large fault current flows through the circuit breaker, this is detected through the use of
210:
692:
714:. The magnitude of the current transformer outputs may be used to trip the circuit breaker resulting in a disconnection of the load supplied by the circuit break from the feeding point. This seeks to isolate the fault point from the rest of the system, and allow the rest of the system to continue operating with minimal impact. Both switches and circuit breakers may be operated locally (within the substation) or remotely from a supervisory control center.
645:
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98:
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118:
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703:, which shows in simplified form the switching and protection arrangement required, as well as the incoming supply lines and outgoing feeders or transmission lines. It is a usual practice by many electrical utilities to prepare one-line diagrams with principal elements (lines, switches, circuit breakers, transformers) arranged on the page similarly to the way the apparatus would be laid out in the actual station.
764:
781:. To this is added the necessary space for employees to work safely and vehicles to pass. Sometimes it is necessary to work on parts of the substation while energized, but employees must maintain a safe distance of at least 3 metres (9.8 ft). The aim to reduce substation footprints comes into conflict with ease of maintenance enhanced by including gaps where employees can safely work.
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when there is any unusual activity, to help reconstruct what happened after the fact. These control rooms typically are heated and air conditioned to ensure the reliable operation of this equipment. Additional equipment is necessary to handle power surges associated with intermittent renewable energy such as dispersed generation from wind or solar.
924:(called OCB for oil circuit breaker) provides a high resistance between the opened contacts, effectively stopping the flow of current. Although oil circuit breakers are suitable for a wide range of voltages, the oil becomes contaminated during the suppression of arcs and must be filtered or replaced periodically.
1012:
finds hot spots in the substation where electrical energy is being converted to heat, which indicates a problem and can cause additional damage from the high heat. Dissolved gas analysis can tell when an oil-insulated transformer needs to have the oil filtered or replace, and also detect other issues.
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Early electrical substations required manual switching or adjustment of equipment, and manual collection of data for load, energy consumption, and abnormal events. As the complexity of distribution networks grew, it became economically necessary to automate supervision and control of substations from
1011:
Maintenance of substations involves inspections, data collection and analysis, and routine scheduled work. Using methods such as infrared scanning and dissolved gas analysis, it can be predicted when the substation will need maintenance and predict dangers before they materialize. Infrared technology
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Larger substations have control rooms for the equipment used to monitor, control, and protect the rest of the substation equipment. It often contains protective relays, meters, breaker controls, communications, batteries, and recorders that save detailed data about substation operations, particularly
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Substations may be on the surface in fenced enclosures, underground, or special-purpose buildings. High-rise buildings may have several indoor substations. Indoor substations are usually found in urban areas to reduce the noise from transformers, improve appearance, or protect switchgear from extreme
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Most transformers lose between 5 and 1.5 percent of their input as heat and noise. Iron losses are no-load and constant whenever the transformer is energized, while copper and auxiliary losses are proportionate to the square of the current. Auxiliary losses are due to running fans and pumps which is
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Air at atmospheric pressure (air-insulated switchgear (AIS)), which is the most common worldwide. Air is the cheapest insulator and is easy to modify, but AIS takes up more space, and leaves equipment exposed to the outside environment. One drawback of AIS is the visual impact of a larger substation
792:
in some countries, is used to ground circuits that are being worked on to prevent accidental re-energization while workers are in contact with a de-energized circuit. Often, earth rods are driven deeper into the ground from the grounding grid for lower resistance grounding, and may be surrounded by
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Based on the jurisdiction or company, there are safety standards with minimum required clearance between different live equipment or conductors or between live metal and the ground, which often varies with higher clearance being required for higher voltages because of the greater ability to generate
462:
A switching station is a substation without transformers and operating only at a single voltage level. Switching stations are sometimes used as collector and distribution stations. Sometimes they are used for switching the current to back-up lines or for parallelizing circuits in case of failure. An
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The input for a distribution substation is typically at least two transmission or sub-transmission lines. Input voltage may be, for example, 115 kV, or whatever is common in the area. The output is a number of feeders. Distribution voltages are typically medium voltage, between 2.4 kV and
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Outdoor, above-ground substation structures include wood pole, lattice metal tower, and tubular metal structures, although other variants are available. Where space is plentiful and appearance of the station is not a factor, steel lattice towers provide low-cost supports for transmission lines and
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Because of the risk of electrical shock, substations are inherently dangerous to electrical workers. To mitigate this hazard, substations are designed with various safety features. Live conductors and bare equipment are kept separate, either with protected equipment, or using screens or distance.
759:
The arrangement of switches, circuit breakers, and buses used affects the cost and reliability of the substation. For important substations a ring bus, double bus, or so-called "breaker and a half" setup can be used, so that the failure of any one circuit breaker does not interrupt power to other
663:
Selection of the location of a substation must consider many factors. Sufficient land area is required for installation of equipment with necessary clearances for electrical safety, and for access to maintain large apparatus such as transformers. The site must have room for expansion due to load
881:
are commonly used to interrupt the flow of current in substation equipment. At the time of interruption, current could be normal, too high due to excessive load, unusual due to a fault, or tripped by protective relays prior to anticipated trouble. The most common technologies to extinguish the
801:
to further reduce resistance and ensure effective grounding for the lifetime of the substation. Above ground, the grounding conductors may be steel, aluminum, or copper. They must be thick enough to carry the expected current of a fault for 1-3 seconds and remain undamaged. Substation fences,
370:
transfers power from the transmission system to the distribution system of an area. It is uneconomical to directly connect electricity consumers to the main transmission network, unless they use large amounts of power, so the distribution station reduces voltage to a level suitable for local
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are similar to breakers, and can be cheaper because they do not require separate protective relays. Often used in distribution, they often are programmed to trip when the amps exceed a certain amount over a period of time. Reclosers will attempt to re-energize the circuit after a delay. If
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up into the transmission grid. Usually for economy of construction the collector system operates around 35 kV, although some collector systems are 12 kV, and the collector substation steps up voltage to a transmission voltage for the grid. The collector substation can also provide
385:
The downtown areas of large cities feature complicated distribution substations, with high-voltage switching, and switching and backup systems on the low-voltage side. More typical distribution substations have a switch, one transformer, and minimal facilities on the low-voltage side.
282:
connects two or more transmission lines. The simplest case is where all transmission lines have the same voltage. In such cases, substation contains high-voltage switches that allow lines to be connected or isolated for fault clearance or maintenance. A transmission station may have
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The substation site must be reasonably central to the distribution area to be served. The site must be secure from intrusion by passers-by, both to protect people from injury by electric shock or arcs, and to protect the electrical system from misoperation due to vandalism.
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The function of the switching station is to isolate the faulty portion of the system in the shortest possible time. De-energizing faulty equipment protects it from further damage, and isolating a fault helps keep the rest of the electrical grid operating with stability.
1002:
Oil-based transformers are often built with bunded areas to prevent the escape of flaming or leaking oil. Fire separation areas or firewalls are built around the transformer to stop the spread of fire. Firefighting vehicles are allowed a path to access the area.
802:
typically at least 2 metres (6 ft 7 in) in height, both protect the public from electrical hazards and also protect the substation from vandalism. Internal fences can also be incorporated to protect employees from areas that are unsafe when energized.
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to change voltage levels between high transmission voltages and lower distribution voltages, or at the interconnection of two different transmission voltages. They are a common component of the infrastructure. There are 55,000 substations in the United States.
503:
173:. As central generation stations became larger, smaller generating plants were converted to distribution stations, receiving their energy supply from a larger plant instead of using their own generators. The first substations were connected to only one
861:(at high voltages, with gas insulated switchgear), or use metal-enclosed or metal-clad switchgear at lower voltages. Urban and suburban indoor substations may be finished on the outside so as to blend in with other buildings in the area.
375:
33 kV, depending on the size of the area served and the practices of the local utility. The feeders run along streets overhead (or underground, in some cases) and power the distribution transformers at or near the customer premises.
149:
from high to low, or the reverse, or perform any of several other important functions. Between the generating station and consumer, electric power may flow through several substations at different voltage levels. A substation may include
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a centrally attended point, to allow overall coordination in case of emergencies and to reduce operating costs. Early efforts to remote control substations used dedicated communication wires, often run alongside power circuits.
474:. In this case the generators from the power station supply their power into the yard onto the generator bus on one side of the yard, and the transmission lines take their power from a Feeder Bus on the other side of the yard.
362:, Canada, disguised as a house, complete with a driveway, front walk and a mown lawn and shrubs in the front yard. A warning notice can be clearly seen on the "front door". Disguises for substations are common in many cities.
580:(AC) at frequencies other than that of the public grid. Sometimes they are also transmission substations or collector substations if the railway network also operates its own grid and generators to supply the other stations.
760:
circuits, and so that parts of the substation may be de-energized for maintenance and repairs. Substations feeding only a single industrial load may have minimal switching provisions, especially for small installations.
1059:, to list a few, are used to allow multiple intelligent electronic devices to communicate with each other and supervisory control centers. Distributed automatic control at substations is one element of the so-called
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is generally an outdoor substation built in a metal enclosure, in which each item of the electrical equipment is located very near to each other to create a relatively smaller footprint size of the substation.
450:, or interconnected non-synchronous networks. These stations contain power electronic devices to change the frequency of current, or else convert from alternating to direct current or the reverse. Formerly
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Mixed, including both gas and air insulation. Although it’s the least common option it can be useful when an air-insulated substation needs to be expanded but there is very limited location for additional
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This single-line diagram illustrates the breaker-and-a-half configuration often used in switchyards of small utilities. In large utilities the double-bus-double-breaker configuration is often preferred.
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or enabling extra power to be sent through the conductors. Capacitors may be left on in response to constant inductive load or turned on when inductive load is increased, such as in the summer for
322:. The largest transmission substations can cover a large area (several acres/hectares) with multiple voltage levels, many circuit breakers, and a large amount of protection and control equipment (
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is a better insulator than air but less than gas or oil. Vacuum circuit breakers (VCB) are smaller than air circuit breakers and are commonly used in distribution and other switchgear under 35kv.
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In addition to transforming voltage, distribution substations also isolate faults in either the transmission or distribution systems. Distribution substations are typically the points of
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noisy when the transformer is operating at maximum capacity. To reduce noise, enclosures are often built around the transformer and can also be added after the substation is built.
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with overhead power lines entering and exiting, which may be unacceptable in scenic or urban areas. AIS requires additional bracing in a seismically active area, and emits more
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Substations may be owned and operated by an electrical utility, or may be owned by a large industrial or commercial customer. Generally substations are unattended, relying on
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Collector substations also exist where multiple thermal or hydroelectric power plants of comparable output power are in proximity. Examples for such substations are
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made for an exponential increase in the number of points that could be economically controlled and monitored. Today, standardized communication protocols such as
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are used to protect substation equipment accordingly. Insulation
Coordination studies are carried out extensively to ensure equipment failure (and associated
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Substation in a castle-like building from the 1910s serves as distribution point next to the Lésna dam. It is one of several hydroelectric stations at the
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Substation design is aimed at minimizing cost while ensuring power availability and reliability, and enabling changes to the substation in the future.
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Underneath a substation, a mat or grid of conductors laid around 0.5 or 0.6 metres (1 ft 8 in or 2 ft 0 in) underground provides
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Electrified railways also use substations, often distribution substations. In some cases a conversion of the current type takes place, commonly with
509:
Former high-voltage substation in
Stuttgart, Germany, now 110 kV switching station. The 220 kV level is eliminated for grid simplification.
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608:. Mobile substations are usually rated much lower than permanent installations, and may be built in several units to meet road travel limitations.
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turns to solid around −40 °C (−40 °F), in some climates these circuit breakers require heaters to function in extremely cold weather. SF
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if it is needed, metering, and control of the wind farm. In some special cases a collector substation can also contain an HVDC converter station.
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434:-fired power plants. If no transformers are required for increasing the voltage to transmission level, the substation is a switching station.
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382:, although on long distribution circuits (of several miles/kilometers), voltage regulation equipment may also be installed along the line.
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as conductors between electrical equipment. Busbars may be aluminum tubing 3–6 inches (76–152 mm) thick, or else wires (strain bus).
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A 115 kV to 41.6/12.47 kV 5 MVA 60 Hz substation with circuit switcher, regulators, reclosers and control building at
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apparatus. Low-profile substations may be specified in suburban areas where appearance is more critical. Indoor substations may be
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is Canada's oldest substation. It has a facade in clay brick with gray stone ornaments to blend in to its downtown environment.
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A switching station may also be known as a switchyard, and these are commonly located directly adjacent to or nearby a
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Substations generally have switching, protection and control equipment, and transformers. In a large substation,
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Transmission substations can range from simple to complex. A small "switching station" may be little more than a
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1081:"Joint Consultation Paper: Western Metropolitan Melbourne Transmission Connection and Subtransmission Capacity"
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growth or planned transmission additions. Environmental effects of the substation must be considered, such as
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600:. They are designed to be compact for travel on public roads, and are used for temporary backup in times of
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for protection of distribution circuits. Substations themselves do not usually have generators, although a
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973:) are added to the system. Capacitors can reduce the current in wires, helping stem system losses from
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is a substation on wheels, containing a transformer, breakers and buswork mounted on a self-contained
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unsuccessful for a few times, the recloser will have to be manually reset by an electrical worker.
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Substations may be built outdoors, indoors, or underground or in a combination of these locations.
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Transformer tower in
Germany. Medium voltage supply at the front, low voltage output on the side.
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Electricity
Substation Leases: Considerations for Utility Companies, Landowners and Developers
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125:. It shows elements of low-profile construction, with apparatus mounted on individual columns.
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If not owned and operated by a utility company, substations are typically occupied on a long
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or overload currents that may occur on the network. Smaller distribution stations may use
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Once past the switching components, the lines of a given voltage connect to one or more
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systems). Modern substations may be implemented using international standards such as
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cables as well as dedicated wired remote control circuits have all been applied to
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changed frequency to interconnect two systems; nowadays such substations are rare.
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Gas (gas circuit breaker (GCB) or gas-insulated switchgear (GIS)), most commonly
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1108:"Attacks on Pacific north-west power stations raise fears for US electric grid"
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109:, showing three of the five 220 kV/66 kV transformers, as well as
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2403:
1292:"Lights On but Nobody Home: Behind the Fake Buildings that Power Chicago"
981:. The switching may be remote and can be done manually or automatically.
957:(such as motors, transformers, and some industrial equipment) with their
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2057:
Finn, John (2019). "Introduction to
Substation Planning and Concepts".
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banks are used in substations to balance the lagging current draw from
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The first step in planning a substation layout is the preparation of a
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electrical power distribution is largely universal around the world.
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Substations typically serve at least one of the following purposes:
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or alternately all phases of its development may be handled by the
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In a common design, incoming lines have a disconnect switch and a
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1087:. Powercor Australia, Jemena, Australian Energy Market Operator
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such as a renewable 99-year lease, giving the utility company
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in a transmission line or any other component, for example:
430:
in the Czech
Republic, where power is collected from nearby
169:
comes from the days before the distribution system became a
1442:
Standard
Handbook for Electrical Engineers Eleventh Edition
695:
Tottenham
Substation, set in wild parkland in North London.
521:
High-voltage switching station in
Washington, United States
27:
Part of an electrical transmission, and distribution system
1755:
1753:
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788:. This grid, which is typically copper although it may be
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to control power flow between two adjacent power systems.
2042:. IEEE Press Series on Power and Energy Systems. Wiley.
254:
Reducing the voltage from transmission to lower-voltage
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from separating the conductors in the breaker include:
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220 kV/110 kV/20 kV station in Germany
2061:. Springer International Publishing. pp. 7–10.
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may have a substation nearby. Other devices such as
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497:, United States, 2006. This is a 500 kV switchyard.
477:An important function performed by a substation is
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733:failures into substation equipment. Line entrance
961:. Additional capacitor capacity may be needed if
1043:(SCADA) for substations. The development of the
258:lines that supply individual homes or businesses
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1398:
1379:
245:over long distances, using step-up transformers
66:Transformer for measurement of electric voltage
287:to convert between two transmission voltages,
2091:
442:Converter substations may be associated with
8:
1966:
1944:
1850:
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918:has been used in switchgear since the 1960s.
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534:a line is hit by lightning and develops an
526:Unplanned switching events are caused by a
193:Substations may be designed and built by a
2257:
2098:
2084:
2076:
1431:, 26 January 2018, accessed 22 August 2023
965:(such as small diesel generators, rooftop
463:example is the switching stations for the
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1271:. United States Department of Agriculture
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1041:Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition
895:and noise than alternative technologies.
648:15 kV/400 V distribution tower in Poland
620:In continuous operation since 1901, the
295:devices such as capacitors, reactors or
1072:
752:, usually in multiples of three, since
483:
1733:
1705:
111:high-voltage transformer fire barriers
101:A 50 Hz electrical substation in
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2009:
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842:may also be located at a substation.
7:
1997:
1985:
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1290:Steinberg, Neil (13 December 2013).
1262:"Design Guide for Rural Substations"
1227:
1208:
906:) or a mixture of gases including SF
162:for remote supervision and control.
1106:Anguiano, Dani (10 December 2022).
237:Increasing the voltage produced by
2776:Renewable energy commercialization
668:, noise and road traffic effects.
25:
2824:
2823:
2244:
1440:Donald G. Fink, H. Wayne Beatty
514:
502:
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324:voltage and current transformers
1349:. IEEE Power and Energy Society
859:gas insulated substations (GIS)
145:system. Substations transform
1:
2771:Renewable Energy Certificates
2731:Cost of electricity by source
2653:Arc-fault circuit interrupter
2529:High-voltage shore connection
358:A distribution substation in
310:Minimal HV station in Germany
2786:Spark/Dark/Quark/Bark spread
2584:Transmission system operator
2544:Mains electricity by country
2121:Automatic generation control
2811:List of electricity sectors
2806:Electric energy consumption
2524:High-voltage direct current
2499:Electric power transmission
2489:Electric power distribution
2166:Energy return on investment
1417:Chapman, A. and Broom, R.,
719:overhead transmission lines
545:is blown down by high wind.
301:phase shifting transformers
213:High-voltage substation in
133:is a part of an electrical
50:Secondary power lines' side
32:Substation (disambiguation)
2866:
2726:Carbon offsets and credits
2444:Three-phase electric power
1427:, originally published by
1338:Boyd, Dan; Rampaul, Glen.
1019:
814:are used to interrupt any
596:, meant to be pulled by a
557:
404:photovoltaic power station
29:
2819:
2781:Renewable Energy Payments
2270:Fossil fuel power station
2242:
1347:IEEE Winnipeg PES Chapter
967:photovoltaic solar panels
820:recloser circuit breakers
239:electric power generation
47:Primary power lines' side
2564:Single-wire earth return
2504:Electrical busbar system
2161:Energy demand management
1313:"Transformer Fire Video"
251:of different power grids
42:Elements of a substation
2695:Residual-current device
2685:Power system protection
2675:Generator interlock kit
1022:Power-system automation
417:power factor correction
368:distribution substation
342:Distribution substation
297:static VAR compensators
293:power factor correction
280:transmission substation
274:Transmission substation
2850:Electrical substations
2479:Distributed generation
2151:Electric power quality
1269:USDA Rural Development
893:electromagnetic fields
849:Substations often use
846:climate or pollution.
768:
696:
649:
641:
629:
396:distributed generation
363:
351:
311:
299:and equipment such as
230:
222:
185:
126:
114:
94:
2751:Fossil fuel phase-out
2519:Electricity retailing
2514:Electrical substation
2494:Electric power system
766:
721:, the propagation of
694:
647:
635:
619:
438:Converter substations
357:
349:
309:
228:
212:
183:
120:
100:
90:Secondary power lines
40:
2107:Electricity delivery
2038:Blume, S.W. (2016).
1399:Glaubitz et al. 2018
1380:Glaubitz et al. 2018
1340:"Mobile Substations"
963:dispersed generation
748:. These are sets of
712:current transformers
390:Collector substation
229:Substation in Russia
30:For other uses, see
2716:Availability factor
2668:Sulfur hexafluoride
2549:Overhead power line
2449:Virtual power plant
2424:Induction generator
2377:Sustainable biofuel
2186:Home energy storage
2176:Grid energy storage
2141:Droop speed control
1621:, pp. 314–315.
1602:, pp. 313–314.
1444:, McGraw Hill 1978
1424:Squire Patton Boggs
900:sulfur hexafluoride
578:alternating current
560:Traction substation
467:transmission line.
398:projects such as a
263:alternating current
75:Current transformer
57:Primary power lines
18:Electric substation
2590:Transmission tower
2201:Nameplate capacity
1494:, pp. 46, 53.
1260:Stockton, Blaine.
1029:Power-line carrier
866:compact substation
836:voltage regulators
769:
697:
681:security of tenure
659:Location selection
650:
642:
630:
446:converter plants,
380:voltage regulation
364:
352:
336:IEC Standard 61850
312:
231:
223:
199:electrical utility
186:
127:
115:
95:
78:Lightning arrester
2837:
2836:
2741:Environmental tax
2621:Cascading failure
2390:
2389:
2226:Utility frequency
2068:978-3-319-49574-3
2049:978-1-119-18019-7
1967:Nixon et al. 2018
1945:Nixon et al. 2018
1923:, pp. 87–88.
1851:Nixon et al. 2018
1619:Nixon et al. 2018
1600:Nixon et al. 2018
1569:Nixon et al. 2018
1554:, pp. 55–56.
1518:, pp. 48–49.
1506:, pp. 46–47.
1454:Substation Design
590:mobile substation
584:Mobile substation
576:for trains using
574:rotary converters
458:Switching station
452:rotary converters
123:Warren, Minnesota
69:Disconnect switch
16:(Redirected from
2857:
2827:
2826:
2736:Energy subsidies
2690:Protective relay
2631:Rolling blackout
2258:
2248:
2216:Power-flow study
2156:Electrical fault
2100:
2093:
2086:
2077:
2072:
2053:
2025:
2019:
2013:
2007:
2001:
1995:
1989:
1983:
1977:
1976:
1964:
1955:
1954:
1942:
1936:
1930:
1924:
1918:
1912:
1906:
1900:
1894:
1885:
1879:
1873:
1867:
1861:
1860:
1848:
1842:
1836:
1827:
1826:
1814:
1808:
1807:
1795:
1789:
1788:
1776:
1770:
1769:
1757:
1744:
1743:
1731:
1716:
1715:
1703:
1692:
1686:
1677:
1671:
1665:
1659:
1653:
1647:
1641:
1635:
1629:
1628:
1616:
1610:
1609:
1597:
1591:
1585:
1579:
1578:
1566:
1555:
1549:
1543:
1537:
1531:
1525:
1519:
1513:
1507:
1501:
1495:
1489:
1483:
1477:
1468:
1462:
1456:
1438:
1432:
1415:
1409:
1408:
1396:
1390:
1389:
1377:
1371:
1365:
1359:
1358:
1356:
1354:
1344:
1335:
1329:
1328:
1326:
1324:
1319:. User Eagle Eye
1309:
1303:
1302:
1300:
1298:
1287:
1281:
1280:
1278:
1276:
1266:
1257:
1246:
1240:
1231:
1225:
1212:
1206:
1200:
1199:
1187:
1181:
1180:
1168:
1162:
1161:
1149:
1143:
1142:
1130:
1124:
1123:
1121:
1119:
1103:
1097:
1096:
1094:
1092:
1077:
979:air conditioners
879:circuit breakers
812:circuit breakers
701:one-line diagram
602:natural disaster
572:(DC) trains, or
518:
506:
495:Grand Coulee Dam
490:
448:traction current
320:circuit breakers
261:Converting from
84:Control building
81:Main transformer
21:
2865:
2864:
2860:
2859:
2858:
2856:
2855:
2854:
2840:
2839:
2838:
2833:
2815:
2799:
2797:
2790:
2721:Capacity factor
2709:
2707:
2700:
2680:Numerical relay
2658:Circuit breaker
2646:
2644:
2637:
2599:
2539:Load management
2509:Electrical grid
2474:Demand response
2467:
2462:
2453:
2434:Microgeneration
2386:
2301:
2249:
2240:
2236:Vehicle-to-grid
2109:
2104:
2069:
2056:
2050:
2037:
2034:
2032:Further reading
2029:
2028:
2020:
2016:
2008:
2004:
1996:
1992:
1984:
1980:
1970:
1965:
1958:
1948:
1943:
1939:
1931:
1927:
1919:
1915:
1907:
1903:
1895:
1888:
1880:
1876:
1868:
1864:
1854:
1849:
1845:
1837:
1830:
1820:
1815:
1811:
1801:
1796:
1792:
1782:
1777:
1773:
1763:
1758:
1747:
1737:
1732:
1719:
1709:
1704:
1695:
1687:
1680:
1672:
1668:
1660:
1656:
1648:
1644:
1636:
1632:
1622:
1617:
1613:
1603:
1598:
1594:
1586:
1582:
1572:
1567:
1558:
1550:
1546:
1538:
1534:
1526:
1522:
1514:
1510:
1502:
1498:
1490:
1486:
1478:
1471:
1463:
1459:
1439:
1435:
1416:
1412:
1402:
1397:
1393:
1383:
1378:
1374:
1366:
1362:
1352:
1350:
1342:
1337:
1336:
1332:
1322:
1320:
1311:
1310:
1306:
1296:
1294:
1289:
1288:
1284:
1274:
1272:
1264:
1259:
1258:
1249:
1241:
1234:
1226:
1215:
1211:, pp. 7 8.
1207:
1203:
1193:
1188:
1184:
1174:
1169:
1165:
1155:
1150:
1146:
1136:
1131:
1127:
1117:
1115:
1105:
1104:
1100:
1090:
1088:
1079:
1078:
1074:
1069:
1033:microwave radio
1024:
1018:
1009:
996:
987:
955:inductive loads
948:
917:
913:
909:
905:
875:
808:
790:galvanized iron
774:
735:surge arrestors
708:circuit breaker
689:
687:Design diagrams
661:
622:Adélard-Godbout
614:
586:
562:
556:
522:
519:
510:
507:
498:
491:
465:HVDC Inga–Shaba
460:
440:
426:in Germany and
392:
344:
289:voltage control
276:
249:Interconnection
207:
191:
93:
72:Circuit breaker
53:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2863:
2861:
2853:
2852:
2842:
2841:
2835:
2834:
2832:
2831:
2820:
2817:
2816:
2814:
2813:
2808:
2802:
2800:
2796:Statistics and
2795:
2792:
2791:
2789:
2788:
2783:
2778:
2773:
2768:
2763:
2758:
2753:
2748:
2746:Feed-in tariff
2743:
2738:
2733:
2728:
2723:
2718:
2712:
2710:
2705:
2702:
2701:
2699:
2698:
2692:
2687:
2682:
2677:
2672:
2671:
2670:
2665:
2655:
2649:
2647:
2642:
2639:
2638:
2636:
2635:
2634:
2633:
2623:
2618:
2613:
2607:
2605:
2601:
2600:
2598:
2597:
2592:
2587:
2581:
2576:
2571:
2566:
2561:
2556:
2551:
2546:
2541:
2536:
2534:Interconnector
2531:
2526:
2521:
2516:
2511:
2506:
2501:
2496:
2491:
2486:
2484:Dynamic demand
2481:
2476:
2470:
2468:
2458:
2455:
2454:
2452:
2451:
2446:
2441:
2436:
2431:
2426:
2421:
2416:
2414:Combined cycle
2411:
2406:
2400:
2398:
2392:
2391:
2388:
2387:
2385:
2384:
2379:
2374:
2369:
2368:
2367:
2362:
2357:
2352:
2347:
2337:
2332:
2327:
2322:
2317:
2311:
2309:
2303:
2302:
2300:
2299:
2294:
2293:
2292:
2287:
2282:
2277:
2266:
2264:
2255:
2251:
2250:
2243:
2241:
2239:
2238:
2233:
2228:
2223:
2218:
2213:
2208:
2203:
2198:
2193:
2191:Load-following
2188:
2183:
2178:
2173:
2168:
2163:
2158:
2153:
2148:
2146:Electric power
2143:
2138:
2133:
2128:
2123:
2117:
2115:
2111:
2110:
2105:
2103:
2102:
2095:
2088:
2080:
2074:
2073:
2067:
2054:
2048:
2033:
2030:
2027:
2026:
2014:
2002:
1990:
1978:
1969:, p. 322.
1956:
1947:, p. 321.
1937:
1925:
1913:
1901:
1886:
1874:
1862:
1853:, p. 329.
1843:
1828:
1819:, p. 368.
1809:
1800:, p. 361.
1790:
1781:, p. 365.
1771:
1762:, p. 363.
1745:
1717:
1693:
1678:
1666:
1654:
1642:
1630:
1611:
1592:
1580:
1571:, p. 313.
1556:
1544:
1532:
1520:
1508:
1496:
1484:
1469:
1457:
1433:
1410:
1401:, p. 422.
1391:
1382:, p. 375.
1372:
1360:
1330:
1304:
1282:
1247:
1232:
1213:
1201:
1192:, p. 342.
1182:
1173:, p. 341.
1163:
1154:, p. 335.
1144:
1135:, p. 334.
1125:
1098:
1071:
1070:
1068:
1065:
1045:microprocessor
1020:Main article:
1017:
1014:
1008:
1005:
995:
992:
986:
983:
947:
944:
936:
935:
931:
925:
919:
915:
911:
907:
903:
896:
874:
871:
816:short circuits
807:
804:
773:
770:
741:) is minimal.
725:and switching
688:
685:
660:
657:
624:substation in
613:
610:
585:
582:
570:direct current
558:Main article:
555:
552:
547:
546:
539:
524:
523:
520:
513:
511:
508:
501:
499:
493:Switchyard at
492:
485:
459:
456:
439:
436:
391:
388:
371:distribution.
343:
340:
275:
272:
271:
270:
267:direct current
259:
252:
246:
241:for efficient
206:
203:
190:
187:
92:
91:
88:
87:Security fence
85:
82:
79:
76:
73:
70:
67:
64:
63:Overhead lines
61:
58:
54:
52:
51:
48:
44:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2862:
2851:
2848:
2847:
2845:
2830:
2822:
2821:
2818:
2812:
2809:
2807:
2804:
2803:
2801:
2793:
2787:
2784:
2782:
2779:
2777:
2774:
2772:
2769:
2767:
2766:Pigouvian tax
2764:
2762:
2759:
2757:
2754:
2752:
2749:
2747:
2744:
2742:
2739:
2737:
2734:
2732:
2729:
2727:
2724:
2722:
2719:
2717:
2714:
2713:
2711:
2703:
2696:
2693:
2691:
2688:
2686:
2683:
2681:
2678:
2676:
2673:
2669:
2666:
2664:
2663:Earth-leakage
2661:
2660:
2659:
2656:
2654:
2651:
2650:
2648:
2640:
2632:
2629:
2628:
2627:
2624:
2622:
2619:
2617:
2614:
2612:
2609:
2608:
2606:
2604:Failure modes
2602:
2596:
2593:
2591:
2588:
2585:
2582:
2580:
2577:
2575:
2572:
2570:
2567:
2565:
2562:
2560:
2557:
2555:
2554:Power station
2552:
2550:
2547:
2545:
2542:
2540:
2537:
2535:
2532:
2530:
2527:
2525:
2522:
2520:
2517:
2515:
2512:
2510:
2507:
2505:
2502:
2500:
2497:
2495:
2492:
2490:
2487:
2485:
2482:
2480:
2477:
2475:
2472:
2471:
2469:
2466:
2461:
2456:
2450:
2447:
2445:
2442:
2440:
2439:Rankine cycle
2437:
2435:
2432:
2430:
2427:
2425:
2422:
2420:
2419:Cooling tower
2417:
2415:
2412:
2410:
2407:
2405:
2402:
2401:
2399:
2397:
2393:
2383:
2380:
2378:
2375:
2373:
2370:
2366:
2363:
2361:
2358:
2356:
2353:
2351:
2348:
2346:
2343:
2342:
2341:
2338:
2336:
2333:
2331:
2328:
2326:
2323:
2321:
2318:
2316:
2313:
2312:
2310:
2308:
2304:
2298:
2295:
2291:
2288:
2286:
2283:
2281:
2278:
2276:
2273:
2272:
2271:
2268:
2267:
2265:
2263:
2262:Non-renewable
2259:
2256:
2252:
2247:
2237:
2234:
2232:
2229:
2227:
2224:
2222:
2219:
2217:
2214:
2212:
2209:
2207:
2204:
2202:
2199:
2197:
2194:
2192:
2189:
2187:
2184:
2182:
2181:Grid strength
2179:
2177:
2174:
2172:
2169:
2167:
2164:
2162:
2159:
2157:
2154:
2152:
2149:
2147:
2144:
2142:
2139:
2137:
2136:Demand factor
2134:
2132:
2129:
2127:
2124:
2122:
2119:
2118:
2116:
2112:
2108:
2101:
2096:
2094:
2089:
2087:
2082:
2081:
2078:
2070:
2064:
2060:
2055:
2051:
2045:
2041:
2036:
2035:
2031:
2024:, p. 89.
2023:
2018:
2015:
2012:, p. 88.
2011:
2006:
2003:
2000:, p. 63.
1999:
1994:
1991:
1988:, p. 62.
1987:
1982:
1979:
1974:
1968:
1963:
1961:
1957:
1952:
1946:
1941:
1938:
1935:, p. 77.
1934:
1929:
1926:
1922:
1917:
1914:
1911:, p. 76.
1910:
1905:
1902:
1899:, p. 83.
1898:
1893:
1891:
1887:
1884:, p. 74.
1883:
1878:
1875:
1872:, p. 71.
1871:
1866:
1863:
1858:
1852:
1847:
1844:
1841:, p. 72.
1840:
1835:
1833:
1829:
1824:
1818:
1817:Glaubitz 2018
1813:
1810:
1805:
1799:
1798:Glaubitz 2018
1794:
1791:
1786:
1780:
1779:Glaubitz 2018
1775:
1772:
1767:
1761:
1760:Glaubitz 2018
1756:
1754:
1752:
1750:
1746:
1741:
1736:, p. 13.
1735:
1730:
1728:
1726:
1724:
1722:
1718:
1713:
1708:, p. 12.
1707:
1702:
1700:
1698:
1694:
1691:, p. 70.
1690:
1685:
1683:
1679:
1676:, p. 69.
1675:
1670:
1667:
1664:, p. 81.
1663:
1658:
1655:
1652:, p. 65.
1651:
1646:
1643:
1640:, p. 64.
1639:
1634:
1631:
1626:
1620:
1615:
1612:
1607:
1601:
1596:
1593:
1590:, p. 56.
1589:
1584:
1581:
1576:
1570:
1565:
1563:
1561:
1557:
1553:
1548:
1545:
1542:, p. 54.
1541:
1536:
1533:
1530:, p. 51.
1529:
1524:
1521:
1517:
1512:
1509:
1505:
1500:
1497:
1493:
1488:
1485:
1482:, p. 42.
1481:
1476:
1474:
1470:
1467:, p. 41.
1466:
1461:
1458:
1455:
1451:
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2761:Net metering
2708:and policies
2626:Power outage
2595:Utility pole
2559:Pumped hydro
2465:distribution
2460:Transmission
2409:Cogeneration
2211:Power factor
2058:
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2017:
2005:
1993:
1981:
1940:
1928:
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1429:Utility Week
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1351:. Retrieved
1346:
1333:
1321:. Retrieved
1316:
1307:
1295:. Retrieved
1285:
1273:. Retrieved
1268:
1230:, p. 7.
1204:
1185:
1166:
1147:
1128:
1116:. Retrieved
1112:The Guardian
1111:
1101:
1089:. Retrieved
1084:
1075:
1025:
1010:
1001:
997:
994:Transformers
988:
975:voltage drop
949:
937:
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848:
844:
809:
783:
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654:
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626:Old Montreal
594:semi-trailer
589:
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285:transformers
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256:distribution
243:transmission
232:
192:
189:Construction
166:
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152:transformers
143:distribution
139:transmission
130:
128:
41:
2756:Load factor
2611:Black start
2579:Transformer
2280:Natural gas
2231:Variability
2206:Peak demand
2196:Merit order
2126:Backfeeding
2059:Substations
1734:Twomey 2018
1706:Twomey 2018
1452:Chapter 17
1297:14 December
1118:10 December
1037:fiber optic
1007:Maintenance
922:Mineral oil
828:power plant
754:three-phase
60:Ground wire
2798:production
2643:Protective
2574:Super grid
2569:Smart grid
2396:Generation
2330:Geothermal
2221:Repowering
2022:Blume 2016
2010:Blume 2016
1921:Blume 2016
1897:Blume 2016
1882:Blume 2016
1870:Blume 2016
1839:Blume 2016
1689:Blume 2016
1674:Blume 2016
1662:Blume 2016
1353:11 October
1323:4 February
1275:4 February
1243:Blume 2016
1190:Okada 2018
1171:Okada 2018
1152:Okada 2018
1133:Okada 2018
1091:4 February
1067:References
1061:smart grid
1016:Automation
946:Capacitors
873:Switchgear
832:capacitors
806:Components
731:insulation
729:can cause
566:rectifiers
424:Brauweiler
318:plus some
195:contractor
167:substation
135:generation
131:substation
2706:Economics
2429:Micro CHP
2307:Renewable
2290:Petroleum
2285:Oil shale
2171:Grid code
2131:Base load
1998:Finn 2019
1986:Finn 2019
1933:Finn 2019
1909:Finn 2019
1650:Finn 2019
1638:Finn 2019
1588:Finn 2019
1552:Finn 2019
1540:Finn 2019
1528:Finn 2019
1516:Finn 2019
1504:Finn 2019
1492:Finn 2019
1480:Finn 2019
1465:Finn 2019
1368:Finn 2019
1228:Finn 2019
1209:Finn 2019
1053:IEC 61850
951:Capacitor
939:Reclosers
884:power arc
799:marconite
795:bentonite
786:grounding
779:flashover
723:lightning
479:switching
412:inverters
400:wind farm
221:, Finland
165:The word
107:Australia
103:Melbourne
2844:Category
2829:Category
2616:Brownout
2404:AC power
2114:Concepts
1317:metacafe
840:reactors
666:drainage
554:Railways
265:(AC) to
2645:devices
2355:Thermal
2350:Osmotic
2345:Current
2325:Biomass
2315:Biofuel
2297:Nuclear
2254:Sources
851:busbars
750:busbars
739:outages
432:lignite
360:Toronto
147:voltage
2340:Marine
2320:Biogas
2065:
2046:
1448:
1085:Jemena
1057:Modbus
928:Vacuum
838:, and
772:Safety
727:surges
640:river.
612:Design
428:Hradec
328:relays
215:Kaanaa
141:, and
2697:(GFI)
2586:(TSO)
2372:Solar
2360:Tidal
2335:Hydro
1343:(PDF)
1265:(PDF)
969:, or
824:fuses
746:buses
717:With
677:lease
598:truck
543:tower
528:fault
332:SCADA
205:Types
160:SCADA
2463:and
2382:Wind
2365:Wave
2275:Coal
2063:ISBN
2044:ISBN
1973:help
1951:help
1857:help
1823:help
1804:help
1785:help
1766:help
1740:help
1712:help
1625:help
1606:help
1575:help
1446:ISBN
1405:help
1386:help
1355:2017
1325:2016
1299:2013
1277:2016
1196:help
1177:help
1158:help
1139:help
1120:2022
1093:2016
1055:and
1049:DNP3
638:Bóbr
568:for
444:HVDC
330:and
269:(DC)
219:Pori
171:grid
902:(SF
822:or
797:or
606:war
604:or
536:arc
410:or
402:or
394:In
316:bus
2846::
1959:^
1889:^
1831:^
1748:^
1720:^
1696:^
1681:^
1559:^
1472:^
1421:,
1345:.
1315:.
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291:/
34:.
20:)
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