Rise of nationalism in the Ottoman Empire

2015:, the region saw almost continuous conflict during the 18th century. As a result, the Ottomans never established a full feudal order in the Belgrade Pashaluk, and free peasants owning small plots of land constituted the majority of the population. This primarily worked through a direct relationship between the higher and the lower classes where the lower classes were more inclined to offer service in exchange for protection. As the Ottoman never did inaugurate the full establishment of this system in the Belgrade Pashaluk, those people who were in lower classes, primarily consisting of peasants, were able to hold access and ownership to small shares of land, and these peasants made the majority of the population. Later on, Miloš Obrenović attempted to take over more control by abusing his power and authority as more peasants lived and worked under Turkish lords rather than under Serbian ones. Furthermore, most of the leaders of future armed rebellions earned valuable military knowledge serving in Austrian irregular troops, 137: 1648:'s army. Inscriptions in the Synagogue date back to 834 CE. The heavy migration of Spanish and Italian Jews into Syria resulted in tension between Jewish groups already in the country. This tension was caused by differences in practices and languages. Many of the new residents spoke different languages, especially the Spanish. However, as generations passed, the descendants of Spanish and Italian settlers began to use these languages less and less. Jews continued to rise in status and power in Syria during Ottoman rule. Many Christians held angst against the rapidly increasing Jewish class causing poor relations between the two groups. 1117:, a former Albanian mercenary, was ruling Egypt quite successfully. One of his biggest projects was creating a modern army of conscripted peasants. The Sultan commanded him to lead his army to Greece and put a stop to these uprisings. At the time, nationalism had become an established concept in Europe and certain Greek intellectuals began to embrace the idea of a purely Greek state. Most of Europe greatly supported this notion, partly because ideas of 1270:, as a reply to the projected creation of an Armenian state under the suzerainty of Russia, collapsed after Obaidullah's raid into Persia, when various circumstances led the central government to reassert its supreme authority. Until the Russo-Turkish War of 1828–1829 there had been little hostile feeling between the Kurds and the Armenians, and as late as 1877–1878 the mountaineers of both races had co-existed fairly well together. 1251:

and money in the hopes that this would lead to a new class of ruling elites. The rise of intellectualism and activism amongst the population of Kurds brought critique to this new elitist class. Some of the most well-known opponents of Sultan Abdulhamid II were descendants of the Mir of Bohtan, claiming that these policies were stagnating Kurdish progress and well-being. They called for modern educational reforms. The Naqshbandi

1400: 1801: 1827: 36: 1677: 904: 1491:, and even Jews. This gave Jews significant legislative and governing powers in the Ottoman Empire. Jews weren't on the same social hierarchy as Muslims in the Ottoman Empire, however, they still enjoyed many protections as they were considered people of the book. This relative autonomy allowed for the formation of many Jewish ideas and practices, increasing the common identity. 1526: 1967: 1668:

enjoyed a strategic and important location as a port in the Trans-Mediterranean trade network. 19th and 20th century Thessaloniki is commonly referred to as the "Golden Age", especially for its Jewish inhabitants. The success and prosperity enjoyed by Thessaloniki began to be used as an example of a Jewish state and proof that the concept would succeed.

629: 1911:. As the latter was incapable of maintaining discipline in his rebel army (the "Pandurs") and also was willing to compromise with the Ottomans, the Eteria had him arrested after the Ottoman army retook Bucharest without resistance. His army was disbanded and the rebellion suppressed after the Ottomans destroyed the Eterists in the 4228: 2117: 1564:, an early member of the Zionist movement, immigrated to Ottoman controlled Palestine in 1881. Ben-Yehuda believed that the modern development of Hebrew wasn't feasible unless it was linked to Zionism. Hebrew quickly was picked up among the Jewish community in Palestine and became a part of the Jewish identity. 1494:

As the goal of the Zionist movement grew, many Jews already living in the Ottoman Empire wanted to leverage their relative autonomy into settlement of Palestine. Eventually, the form of Zionism with Palestine as the intended homeland prevailed among the competing theories. Palestine was chosen due to

847:

The Ottoman Sultans attempted to implement various economic reforms in the early 19th century in order to address the grave issues mostly caused by the border wars. The reforms, however, were usually met with resistance by the military captaincies of Bosnia. The most famous of these insurrections was

2324:

Nevertheless, it is also fair to mention that women in the Ottoman Empire had acquired their own rights and freedoms, such as the capability to dance and stage protests, they were essential for the national economy as they were able to run businesses and own property. Women in the Ottoman Empire had

1743:

between three neighboring Christian states, followed by tensions between them over its possession. In order to legitimize their claims, each of these countries tried to 'persuade' the population into allegiance. The Macedonist ideas grew in significance after the First World War, both in the Kingdom

1613:

from the Persians. Baghdad had not seen a strong Jewish population since before the Mongol raid. Many Jewish communities existed in small, isolated areas around Mesopotamia at the time. However, a resurgence in the Jewish population was seen in Baghdad after the Ottoman capture. Jews from Kurdistan,

1516:

Herzl founded the Jewish-Ottoman Land Company. Its objective was to acquire land in Palestine, for the settlement of Jews, through political channels with the Ottoman Empire. Herzl repeatedly visited Istanbul and engaged in negotiations and meetings with Ottoman officials. In 1901, Herzl was able to

953:

which broke out in April 1876 in several Bulgarian districts in Moesia, Thrace and Macedonia. The harsh suppression of the uprising and the atrocities committed against the civilian population increased the Bulgarian desire for independence. They also caused a tremendous indignation in Europe, where

1541:

The increased Jewish population and Jewish land in Israel furthered the formation of a Jewish national identity. As the population and property owned by Jews increased in Palestine, support and backing continued to grow. However, so did tensions with other groups, especially Muslim Arabs. Arabs saw

1521:

and insinuated that he had access to Jewish credit and that he could help the Ottoman Empire pay off debt. The company was initially successful, however, it eventually faced opposition from Arabs and the government. These negotiations are incredibly noteworthy considering Herzl was not a government

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The Greek revolt was precipitated on March 25, 1821, when Bishop Germanos of Patras raised the flag of revolution over the Monastery of Agia Lavra in the Peloponnese. The cry "Freedom or Death" became the motto of the revolution. The Greeks experienced early successes on the battlefield, including

1584:

was one of the first cities with a Jewish population conquered by the Ottomans when it was conquered in 1324. The Jewish inhabitants helped the Ottoman army, and they were allowed to return to the city. The Ottomans then granted the Jewish people a certain level of autonomy. This early interaction

1291:

A major development for Kurdish nationalism in the late Ottoman Empire was the foundation of the "Kurdistan" newspaper in 1898, based in Cairo. With the aim of spreading Kurdish cultural and nationalist ideas, seeking to unify Kurds and foster a national consciousness. Additionally, as a result of

1250:

The Sultan attempted to assert his influence in the Kurdish areas by installing the Hamidiye regiments. The commanders were selected on the basis of loyalty to the Sultan, and were awarded with several privileges, mainly the right to form militias, and gifted these tribal leaders with titles, arms

656:

is a related concept, which calls for the creation of a single Arab state, but not all Arab nationalists are also Pan-Arabists. In the 19th century in response to Western influences, a radical change took shape. Conflict erupted between Muslims and Christians in different parts of the empire in a

609:

could not represent themselves, because they were still under Ottoman rule. Another reason why Great Britain was in the best position to represent the Albanians, because Great Britain did not want to replace the Turkish Empire. This memorandum had to define the land belonging to the Albanians and

1667:

Jews came to Thessaloniki after their expulsion from the Iberian Peninsula in 1492. The vast Sephardic immigration allowed Thessaloniki to be a hub for diverse Jewish ideas. This large presence and advancement of Jews served as a strong national symbol of Jewish prosperity. Jews in Thessaloniki

1127:

had his own motives for agreeing to invade Greece. The Sultan promised Ali that he would make him Governor of Crete, which would increase Ali's status. Ali's army had considerable success in putting down the Christian revolts at first, however before too long the European Powers intervened. They

817:

Under the millet system of the Ottoman Empire, each sect of the Assyrian nation was represented by their respective patriarch. Under the Church of the East sect, the patriarch was the temporal leader of the millet which then had a number of "maliks" beneath the patriarch who would govern each of

1684:

An important aspect of forming a national Jewish identity, especially based on religion, was the construction of Synagogues. The Jewish houses of worship allowed Jews to congregate in worship and share their ideas and beliefs. Many synagogues were constructed or rebuilt during Ottoman rule. The

1631:

Jewish roots in Syria can date back to Biblical times, and strong Jewish communities have been present in the region since Roman rule. An influx of Jewish settlers came to Syria after the Alhambra Decree in 1492. Aleppo and Damascus were two main centers. Qamishli, a Kurdish town, also became a

1618:

refers to this as the "new Babylonian Diaspora." Jewish population and strength continued to grow in Iraq in the following centuries. In 1900, around 50,000 Jews lived in Baghdad, making up nearly a quarter of its population. Jews played very important roles in Iraqi life and culture. The first

852:

in 1831. Gradaščević felt that giving autonomy to the eastern lands of Serbia, Greece and Albania would weaken the position of the Bosnian state, and the Bosniak peoples. The situation worsened when the Ottomans took 2 Bosnian provinces and gave them to Serbia, as a friendly gift to the Serbs.

2903:

The Greek uprising and the church. Bishop Germanos of old Patras blesses the Greek banner at the outset of the national revolt against the Turks on 25 March 1821. The solemnity of the scene was enhanced two decades later in this painting by T. Vryzakis….The fact that one of the Greek bishops,

1537:

functioned similarly. It was a fund directed for land purchasing in Palestine. By 1921, around 25,000 acres had been purchased by the Fund in Palestine. Immigration of Jewish people into Palestine in 4 periods or Aliyahs. The first took place between 1881 and 1903, resulting in around 25,000

1069:

improved in the 17th and 18th centuries. As the empire became more settled, and began to feel its increasing backwardness in relation to the European powers, it increasingly recruited Greeks who had the kind of academic, administrative, technical and financial skills which the larger Ottoman

1572:

Areas in the Ottoman Empire, besides Palestine, contained significant Jewish presence. Iraq, Tunisia, Turkey, Greece, and Egypt all had large and formidable Jewish populations. Most of these populations could trace their lineage in these areas back thousands of years to biblical times.

1131:

The instance of Greek Nationalism was a major factor in introducing the concept to the Ottomans. Because of their failure in Greece, the Ottomans were forced to acknowledge the changes taking place in the West, in favor of Nationalism. The result would be the beginning of a defensive

1235:

and thus the local power structure, the area became more chaotic. Local tribes sought to exploit the situation and advance their own interests. Unable to directly confront Istanbul, the emergence of the Russian Empire’s advances on the Anatolian plateau posed an opportunity.

772:. The Armenian millet had a great deal of power - they set their own laws and collected and distributed their own taxes. During the Tanzimat period, a series of constitutional reforms provided a limited modernization of the Ottoman Empire also to the Armenians. In 1856, the " 1407:

While the Ottoman Empire became a safe space for Jews, parts of Europe saw increased violence and anti-semitism against Jews. Violent uprisings against Jews took place all over Eastern Europe in the Late 19th century, and the civil rights of Jews were extremely limited.

873:. Bosnia and Herzegovina would remain part of the Ottoman Empire until 1878. Before it was formally occupied by Austria-Hungary, the region was de facto independent for several months. The aim of the movement of Husein Gradaščević was to keep status quo in Bosnia. 1231:, the Sultan had hoped that the region would now be more manageable and under Ottoman control. However, the opposite was true. The Empire did not gain any authority because of a lack of local institutions and not actively creating them. Instead, by removing the 1974:

The Serbian national movement represents one of the first examples of successful national resistance against the Ottoman rule. It culminated in two mass uprisings at the beginning of the 19th century, leading to national liberation and establishment of the

970:, which granted Bulgaria autonomy from the Sultan. The Treaty of Berlin, signed in 1878, essentially nullified the Treaty of San Stefano. Instead, Bulgaria was divided into two provinces. The northern province was granted political autonomy, and was called 1588:

Istanbul quickly became a cultural center for Jews in the Near East. Jews were able to prosper in many high-skill fields, such as the medical field. This elevated social status resulted in even more freedom and the ability to solidify Jewish identities.

1019:

culture, literature and language became more apparent. From the 13th century onwards, with the territorial reduction of the Empire to strictly Greek-speaking areas, the old multiethnic tradition, already weakened, gave way to a self-consciously national

2021:. The proximity of the Austrian border provided the opportunity of getting the needed military material. The Serbian leaders could also count on the financial and logistical support of fellow Serbs living in relative prosperity in the Austrian Empire. 958:, also known as the Shipyard Conference, European statesmen proposed a series of reforms. Russia threatened the Sultan with Cyprus if he did not agree to the conditions. However, the sultan refused to implement them, as the terms were very harsh, and 576:

signed on March 3, 1878, assigned Albanian-populated lands to Serbia, Montenegro, and Bulgaria. The Albanian movements had mainly been against taxes and central policies. However, with the Treaty of San Stefano the movements became nationalistic.

2904:

Germanos of Old Patras, had enthusiastically blessed the Greek uprising at the onset (25 March 1821) and had thereby helped to unleash a holy war, was not to gain the church a satisfactory, let alone a dominant, role in the new order of things.

1990:

which remained autonomous in one form or another throughout the period of Ottoman occupation. Adherence to Orthodox Christianity is still considered an important factor in ethnic self-determination. The Serbian Church preserved links with the

1222:

The Ottoman Empire, faced with challenges from their European counterparts, started a centralisation campaign, intending to have more direct authority over resources and population. After beating Kurdish autonomy, namely the principality of

869:, the rebels were eventually defeated in a battle near Sarajevo in 1832 after Herzegovinian nobility which supported the Sultan, broke stalemate. Husein-kapetan was banned from ever entering the country again, and was eventually poisoned in 2118: 2304:

and this would support the modernization efforts. Therefore, there was a demand for the improvement of women's education. The new role that women opened the way for women to assert their rights. However, due to the many different

2120: 1623:, was even Jewish. Baghdad and other Iraqi cities were able to function as a Jewish cultural and religious hub throughout Ottoman rule. This freedom and autonomy helped for the development of a strong national Jewish ideology. 1998:

The other group of factors stem from regional political events during the period of Ottoman rule, the 17th and 18th centuries in particular. The Austrian wars against the Ottoman Empire resulted in periods of Austrian rule in

1054:, and the Greek-speaking communities in the areas of Greek colonization and emigration, that continued to cultivate this identity, through schooling as well as the ideology of a Byzantine imperial heritage rooted both in the 1176:, the leader of the Etairists, crossed the Prut River into Turkish-held Moldavia with a small force of troops. With the initial advantage of surprise, the Greeks succeeded in liberating the Peloponnese and some other areas. 525:

argues that the rise of nationalism in the Ottoman Empire was the result of a backlash against Ottoman attempts to institute more direct and central forms of rule over populations which had previously had greater autonomy.

333: 1495:

the religious and historical significance of the region. Also, the declining power and financial struggles of the Ottoman Empire were seen as an opportunity. Wealthy and powerful Jews began to put their ideas into action.

1300:(SAK). These groups fostered the growth of an educated elite for Kurdish nationalism. However, the majority of the Kurds did not support these aspirations, as many tribal leaders saw it as a threat to their own authority. 1354:. This resulted in many Jewish refugees, and due to the high level of freedom enjoyed by Ottoman Jews, many looked to immigrate to Ottoman territory. In 1492 alone, roughly 60,000 Jews arrived in the Ottoman Empire. 2135:

founded in 1839 by Tatars. However, Turkish nationalism was developed much later in 1908 with the Turkish Society, which later expanded into the Turkish Hearth and eventually expanded to include ideologies such as

2121: 1560:. Hebrew had been spoken traditionally by the Israelites but was estimated to die out at as a spoken language around 200 CE. However, Jewish people continued to use the language for writing and prayer purposes. 657:

challenge to that hierarchy. This marked the beginning of the tensions which have to a large extent inspired the nationalist and religious rhetoric in the empire's successor states throughout the 20th century.

1662:

Salonika, or Thessaloniki, was a major Jewish center known as the "Jerusalem of the Balkans," "Mother of Israel" and a "Sephardic Metropolis," a site of Jewish refuge for Sephardim and Ashkenazim alike. Many

1199:. But the Kurds, owing to the remoteness of their country from the capital and the decline of Ottoman Empire, had greatly increased in influence and power, and had spread westwards over the country as far as 1210:

control , and in 1834, after the Bedirkhan clan uprising, it became necessary to reduce them to subjection. This was done by Reshid Pasha. The principal towns were strongly garrisoned, and many of the Kurd

1171:

the Orthodox Metropolitan Germanos of Patras proclaimed the national uprising. Simultaneous risings were planned across Greece, including in Macedonia, Crete and Cyprus. The revolt began in March 1821 when

1121:'s mythology were being greatly romanticized in the Western world. Though the Greece at the time of the revolution looked very little like the European view, most supported it blindly based on this notion. 1070:

population lacked. Greeks made up the majority of the Empire's translators, financiers, doctors and scholars. From the late 1600s, Greeks began to fill some of the highest offices of the Ottoman state. The

5126:

Karpat, K.H., 1973. An inquiry into the social foundations of nationalism in the Ottoman state: From social estates to classes, from millets to nations (No. 39). Center of International Studies, Princeton

799:, which was promulgated on 23 November 1876. It established freedom of belief and equality of all citizens before law. The Armenian National Assembly formed a "governance in governance" to eliminate the 5236:

Kanner, Efi (2016). "Transcultural Encounters: Discourses on Women's Rights and Feminist Interventions in the Ottoman Empire, Greece, and Turkey from the Mid-Nineteenth Century to the Interwar Period".

1468:

The objective of Zionism grew into the desire to form a Jewish homeland in Palestine. Early in the movement, there were many competing theories regarding the best avenue to achieve Jewish autonomy. The

5250:

Roudometof, V., 1998. From Rum Millet to Greek Nation: Enlightenment, Secularization, and National Identity in Ottoman Balkan Society, 1453–1821. Journal of Modern Greek Studies, 16(1), pp. 11–48.

787:

was the Ottoman-approved form of the "Code of Regulations" composed of 150 articles drafted by the "Armenian intelligentsia", which defined the powers of the Armenian Patriarch and the newly formed "

1365:

in 1516, though during this time, there was no entity called "Palestine." There was a continuous Jewish population in the area due to the religious significance and significant holy sites to all

326: 1770:

and married. With the first Montenegrin constitution being proclaimed in 1855, known as "Danilo's Code". After centuries of theocratic rule, this turned Montenegro into a secular principality.

1239:

By this time, the Kurdish revolts in the Ottoman Empire were still not seen as a part of nationalism, but rather as attempts of local leaders to increase influence. This mostly changed during

5310:

Zachs, Fruma; Ben-Bassat, Yuval (2015). "Womens Visibility in Petitions From Greater Syria During the Late Ottoman Period". International journal of Middle East Studies, 47, pp. 765–781.

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ideology that arose in the 20th century It is based on the premise that nations from Morocco to the Arabian peninsula are united by their common linguistic, cultural and historical heritage.

1848: 1292:

the successes of the Young Turk movement in 1908, many minorities in the Empire were, initially, allowed to create their own political organizations. Some notable Kurdish organizations were

53: 5871: 2148:, the Turkish populations of the empire which were mostly expelled from the newly established states in the Balkans and the Caucasus formed a new national identity under the leadership of 2046:

of 1815, which eventually succeeded. Serbia became a center of resistance to Ottomans, actively or secretly supporting liberation movements in neighboring Serb-inhabited lands, especially

2011:), thus, the turn of the 19th century saw the relatively recent experience of European rule. Although the territory of northern Serbia had first reverted to Ottoman rule according to the 319: 1426:

Although its origins are earlier, the movement became better organized and more closely linked with the imperial powers of the day following the involvement of the late 19th century

2265:

increasingly restricted women including women with a higher status. Women were not allowed to move around and wear what they desired. Therefore, the goals of the reforms stated in

4880:"Transcultural Encounters: Discourses on Women's Rights and Feminist Interventions in the Ottoman Empire, Greece, and Turkey from the Mid-Nineteenth Century to the Interwar Period" 853:

Outraged, Gradaščević raised a full-scale rebellion in the province, joined by thousands of native Bosnian soldiers who believed in the captain's prudence and courage, calling him

2309:

communities within the Ottoman Empire there were many differences between communities of women. The women tried to come in contact with each other to spread their ideas from one

1415:; although started outside the Ottoman Empire, Zionism regards the Jews as a national entity and seeks to preserve that entity. This has primarily focused on the creation of a 1109:

Ideas of nationalism began to develop in Europe long before they reached the Ottoman Empire. Some of the first effects nationalism had on the Ottomans had much to do with the

6804: 1644:

for nearly 600 years of Ottoman Rule. The synagogue was believed by some to have initially been constructed around 1000 BCE by Joab ben Zeruiah, the nephew and General of

1136:

period of Ottoman history in which they attempted to modernize to avoid the Empire falling to foreign powers. The idea of nationalism that develops out of this is called

3163: 6340: 6196: 382: 365: 6809: 5881: 5448: 962:. During the war Bulgarian volunteer forces (in Bulgarian опълченци) fought alongside the Russian army. They earned particular distinction in the battle for the 722:

of 1908 in Turkey, these demands were taken up by some Syrian and Lebanese Muslim Arabs and various public or secret societies (the Beirut Reform Society led by

2772:

English translation: Leopold Ranke, A History of Serbia and the Serbian Revolution. Translated from the German by Mrs Alexander Kerr (London: John Murray, 1847)

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and other places, 1894–1896, in which the Kurds took an active part. Some of the Kurds, like the nationalist Armenians, aimed to establish a Kurdish country.

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Ethnic Politics in Eastern Europe: A Guide to Nationality Policies, Organizations and Parties: A Guide to Nationality Policies, Organizations and Parties

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by Russia and Europe. Mobilization by men and women would strengthen the empire politically and economically. Women were responsible for raising the new

2042:, their quick success fueled the desire for national liberation and led to a full-fledged war. Though unsuccessful, this rebellion paved the way for the 5253:Ülker, E., 2005. Contextualising ‘Turkification’: nation‐building in the late Ottoman Empire, 1908–18. Nations and Nationalism, 11(4), pp. 613–636. 100: 2063: 5876: 5829: 2920: 1315: 942: 233: 72: 2675: 5763: 2868:

Encyclopædia Britannica, Greece during the Byzantine period (c. AD 300–c. 1453) > Population and languages > Emerging Greek identity, 2008 ed.

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system. The concept of nationhood, which was different from the preceding religious community concept of the millet system, was a key factor in the

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on February 28, 1870. A large-scale armed struggle movement started to develop as late as the beginning of the 1870s with the establishment of the

2603: 5247:

Haddad, W.W., 1977. Nationalism in the Ottoman Empire. Nationalism in a Non-national State: the Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire, pp. 3–25.

2008: 79: 2328:

In 1917, the Ottoman Law of Family Rights was part of the Ottoman reform. Some women viewed this reform as a critical moment in time to improve

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To deal with the Armenian national awakening, the Ottomans gradually gave more rights to its Armenian and other Christian citizens. In 1863 the

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area of Istanbul, a formerly vibrant Jewish area. These synagogues were able to function as the cultural center within their own communities.

1074:, a class of wealthy Greeks who lived in the Phanar district of Constantinople, became increasingly powerful. Their travels to other parts of 6545: 5472: 5372: 5294: 5224: 5203: 5182: 5130:

Karpat, K.H., 1972. The transformation of the Ottoman State, 1789–1908. International Journal of Middle East Studies, 3(3), pp. 243–281.

4422: 4261: 3257: 3037: 2982: 2711: 2524: 2473: 2059: 5886: 1711:

The national awakening of the Macedonians can be said to have begun in the late 19th century; this is the time of the first expressions of

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to officially demarcate the borders between Montenegro and Ottoman Turkey, de facto recognizing Montenegro's centuries-long independence.

1144:

In 1821 the Greek revolution, striving to create an independent Greece, broke out on Romanian ground, briefly supported by the princes of

2438: 6189: 5794: 4936: 1657: 1443: 938: 6626: 5758: 5655: 5452: 4829: 1273:

In 1891 the activity of the Armenian Committees induced the Porte to strengthen the position of the Kurds by raising a body of Kurdish

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Kayali, H., 1997. Arabs and Young Turks: Ottomanism, Arabism, and Islamism in the Ottoman Empire, 1908–1918. Univ of California Press.

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to independence for the Ottoman Arab provinces. Members of some of these groups came together at the request of al-Fatat to form the

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that the modern Greek nationalist movement matured. However, the dominant form of Greek nationalism (that later developed into the

515:("Unity of the Ethnic Elements") that had been a fundamental principle of the reform generation, and take up instead the mantle of 3841:"Exodus and Homeland: The Representation of Israel in Saul Bellow's "To Jerusalem and Back" and Philip Roth's "Operation Shylock"" 136: 6137: 3215: 1346:

II ordered governors of Ottoman provinces to accept Jewish immigration and to do so cordially. This order was in response to the

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was another popular theory. This was a principle that allowed for groups to self govern themselves without their own state. The

601:

from Great Britain not even a week after the opening of the Congress of Berlin. The reason why this memorandum was addressed to

5773: 2344:. The women strived for a legal reform in their favor, but the Ottoman Law of Family Rights would not change much in expanding 2284:. Gender relations started to be re-examined when women started to have a new role in society. The focus on nationalism in the 1470: 228: 6519: 6514: 5838: 2859:

Lord Kinross, The Ottoman Centuries: The Rise and Fall of the Turkish Empire, Morrow Quill Paperbacks (New York) 1977, p. 525.

959: 541: 6182: 6145: 4950: 2374: 1852: 1551: 1416: 886: 812: 784: 475: 57: 5697: 5665: 2557: 2292:

was the development of the military to prevent the rise of nationalism and to prevent the conquest of land belonging to the

776:" promised equality for all Ottoman citizens irrespective of their ethnicity and confession, widening the scope of the 1839 4285: 6529: 5732: 1941: 173: 145: 1986:

A number of factors contributed to its rise. Above all the nucleus of national identity was preserved in the form of the

1473:

represented a popular proposal. The organization supported finding a location, besides Palestine, for Jewish settlement.

6819: 6590: 6435: 6309: 5824: 2835: 2270: 2067: 1937: 1816: 1690: 792: 773: 585:

and thereby upset the European balance of power. A peace conference to settle the dispute was held later in the year in

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movement in Arabia was a religious-tribal movement, and the term "Arab" was used mainly to describe the inhabitants of

93: 6465: 6396: 4183:"Political Relations Between the Safavids of Persia and the Mamluks of Egypt and Syria in the Early Sixteenth Century" 2206: 2111: 2039: 1888: 1812: 1641: 751: 497:

in the early 20th century had grown disillusioned with what they perceived to be the failures of 19th-century Ottoman

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The Ottoman reforms were enforced to fight the rise of nationalism from within the state and European expansion. The

1837: 1773: 849: 6814: 6794: 6470: 5768: 5727: 5589: 5081: 5012: 4583: 4533: 4467: 4110: 3994: 3918: 3868: 3582: 1435: 1412: 890: 788: 471: 455: 454:. The first revolt in the Ottoman Empire fought under a nationalist ideology was the Serbian Revolution. Later the 4440:"From the "Jerusalem of the Balkans" to the Goldene Medina: Jewish Immigration from Salonika to the United States" 4052: 3818: 3760: 3636: 3524: 3462: 3412: 3315: 3085:

Betty Anderson, A History of the Modern Middle East: Rulers, Rebels, and Rogues (Stanford University Press, 2016).

1856: 1841: 46: 6335: 6117: 6107: 6058: 5999: 5969: 5594: 5365: 5338:“Beyond the Harem: Ways to Be a Woman during the Ottoman Empire.” 2016. University of Cambridge. August 12, 2016. 4915: 4160: 3702: 2218: 2167: 1992: 1610: 1244: 1110: 991: 955: 769: 443: 17: 6696: 6362: 4760: 6297: 6016: 5962: 5438: 1476: 971: 933:

but on peaceful struggle for cultural and religious autonomy, the result of which was the establishment of the

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and the Albanian-populated lands. The Albanians' fear that the lands they inhabited would be partitioned among

467: 4612:†Лоза#, месечно списание, издава Младата македонска книжевна дружина, Свобода, VI/774, Софија, 18. 02 1892, 3. 2701: 2149: 1780:, led a strong army of 7,500 and won a crucial battle against the Turks (army of between 7,000 and 13,000) at 4490:"Fashioning the "Mother of Israel": The Ottoman Jewish Historical Narrative and the Image of Jewish Salonica" 1215:

were replaced by Turkish governors. A rising under Bedr Khan Bey in 1843 was firmly repressed, and after the

6759: 6749: 6691: 6631: 6477: 6304: 6287: 5979: 5917: 5702: 5670: 5619: 5534: 5492: 2679: 2416: 2314: 2159: 2043: 1987: 1912: 1757: 1609:. Baghdad was left depopulated and many surviving residents left and moved elsewhere. In 1534, the Ottomans 1598: 866: 637: 451: 407: 376: 360: 201: 4951:"The Imperial Harem: Women and Sovereignty in the Ottoman Empire | Department of Near Eastern Studies" 2916: 6550: 6487: 6270: 6095: 5922: 5742: 5722: 5712: 5549: 5279:

Sugar, P.F., 1997. Nationality and society in Habsburg and Ottoman Europe (Vol. 566). Variorum Publishing.

2222: 2025: 1976: 1706: 1439: 898: 803:

dominance of the Armenian nobility by the development of the political strata among the Armenian society.

483: 447: 6492: 5629: 5323:

Khalidi, Rashid, Lisa Anderson, Muhammad Muslih, and Reeva Simon. n.d. “The Origins of Arab Nationalism.”

6636: 6314: 6224: 6011: 5984: 5737: 5579: 5559: 5524: 5462: 5405: 4366:"The "Mother of Israel" or the "Sephardi Metropolis"? Sephardim, Ashkenazim, and Romaniotes in Salonica" 2325:

active roles in the economy, as well as religious spheres, and were essential for social communication.

2210: 2175: 2107: 1128:

endorsed Greek nationalism and pushed both Ali's army and the rest of the Ottoman forces out of Greece.

1124: 1114: 1051: 967: 735: 719: 573: 306: 6053: 5177:. British Academic Press in association with the International Institute of Social History, Amsterdam. 2401:"Part II. The Emergence of Nationalism: Politics and Power – Nationalism in the Middle East, 1876–1945" 1744:

of Yugoslavia and among the left-leaning diaspora in the Kingdom of Bulgaria, and were endorsed by the

1538:

immigrating. The second took place between 1904 and 1914, resulting in around 35,000 Jews immigrating.

581:

and the United Kingdom blocked the arrangement because it awarded Russia a predominant position in the

5344:

Department of near Eastern Studies. “The Imperial Harem: Women and Sovereignty in the Ottoman Empire."

511: 6641: 6560: 6555: 6275: 6163: 5994: 5707: 5358: 2369: 2318: 2310: 2306: 2214: 1904: 1686: 1534: 1190: 1087: 1079: 1012: 929:, the nationalist movement in Bulgaria did not concentrate initially on armed resistance against the 569: 535: 4335: 572:. The Albanians wanted to affirm their Albanian nationality. The first postwar treaty, the abortive 6621: 6430: 6384: 6355: 6132: 5912: 5717: 5660: 5529: 5457: 5433: 3095: 2266: 2234: 2191: 2179: 2103: 1980: 1961: 1732: 1458: 1186: 1173: 1029: 987: 934: 894: 874: 777: 516: 479: 3338:"Late Ottoman Rule over Palestine: Its Evaluation in Arab, Turkish and Israeli Histories, 1970-90" 2735: 6754: 6721: 6686: 6565: 6482: 6460: 6440: 6406: 6100: 6090: 6085: 6068: 5989: 5974: 5614: 5599: 5584: 5544: 5539: 5422: 5303:

Tucker, Judith E. (1996). "Revisiting Reform: Women and the Ottoman Law of Family Rights, 1917".

5073: 5065: 5004: 4907: 4575: 4525: 4517: 4459: 4393: 4210: 4152: 4102: 4044: 3986: 3978: 3910: 3860: 3810: 3752: 3694: 3686: 3628: 3574: 3516: 3454: 3404: 3396: 3307: 3157: 3130: 3043: 2273:

were actually only focused on the equality of male subjects of the Sultan in the Ottoman Empire.

2238: 2230: 2055: 2012: 1953: 1908: 1712: 1585:

helped set the standard for Ottoman-Jewish interaction throughout the remainder of Ottoman rule.

1561: 1462: 1366: 1358: 1284:. Minor disturbances constantly occurred, and were soon followed by the massacre of Armenians at 1274: 1168: 1102:) was a messianic ideology of imperial Byzantine restoration, that specifically looked down upon 590: 549: 463: 439: 243: 833:

who pushed for a united Assyrian nation comprising the Jacobite, Nestorian and Chaldean sects.

6741: 6726: 6602: 6570: 6524: 6112: 6078: 6063: 5957: 5682: 5604: 5564: 5487: 5477: 5290: 5268: 5220: 5199: 5178: 5146: 5113: 5057: 4996: 4899: 4811: 4726: 4720: 4699: 4667: 4659: 4638: 4567: 4509: 4451: 4418: 4385: 4257: 4202: 4144: 4094: 4036: 3970: 3902: 3852: 3802: 3744: 3678: 3620: 3566: 3508: 3446: 3388: 3349: 3299: 3253: 3122: 3033: 2978: 2892: 2707: 2595: 2585: 2547: 2520: 2469: 2463: 2428: 2424: 2400: 2345: 2329: 2301: 2153: 1606: 1484: 1351: 1255:

even travelled to Istanbul to address the need for education in Kurdish areas to the Sultan.

1240: 1016: 922: 915: 907: 691: 598: 5284: 4693: 2514: 1766:, formerly known as Vladika Danilo II, decided to renounce to his ecclesiastical position as 6736: 6616: 6411: 6345: 6292: 6234: 6127: 6026: 6004: 5853: 5848: 5778: 5634: 5624: 5574: 5509: 5049: 4891: 4833: 4803: 4632: 4501: 4397: 4377: 4365: 4249: 4194: 4086: 4028: 3960: 3952: 3794: 3736: 3670: 3612: 3558: 3380: 3291: 3245: 3025: 2420: 2226: 2132: 2091: 2079: 1957: 1924: 1633: 1394: 1133: 1025: 842: 667: 623: 545: 221: 3891:"Roots of Conflict: The First World War and the Political Fragmentation of the Middle East" 3177: 1262:

was followed by the attempt of Sheikh Obaidullah in 1880–1881 to found an independent Kurd

1195:

The system of administration introduced by Idris remained unchanged until the close of the

505:

or the spread of nationalist movements in the Balkans. These sentiments were shared by the

6716: 6711: 6379: 6239: 6219: 5952: 5942: 5843: 5428: 5400: 5233:

Zeine, Z.N., 1958. Arab-Turkish Relations and the Emergence of Arab Nationalism. Khayat's.

3941:"Revisiting the language factor in Zionism: The Hebrew Language Council from 1904 to 1914" 2700:

Khalidi, Rashid; Anderson, Lisa; Muslih, Muhammad; Simon, Reeva S., eds. (December 1991).

2125: 2047: 1983:("Belgrade Pashaluk"), which became the core of the reestablished Serbian national state. 1557: 1427: 1347: 1281: 1164: 1055: 975: 761: 723: 715: 578: 522: 422:

were still under Ottoman rule. The Christian peoples of the Ottoman Empire, starting with

211: 3062: 3002: 2949: 2782: 1399: 682:

among Arabs. However, this phenomenon had no political manifestations (the 18th-century

6660: 6507: 6389: 6374: 6282: 6244: 6122: 6033: 5891: 5609: 5467: 5415: 4634:

Capital Cities in the Aftermath of Empires: Planning in Central and Southeastern Europe

3482: 3237: 2333: 2297: 2293: 2289: 2285: 2281: 2277: 2262: 2246: 2183: 2083: 2000: 1915:. While unsuccessful in obtaining liberty, it ended the Phanariote era; Ottoman Sultan 1785: 1740: 1728: 1664: 1620: 1518: 1423:, and (having achieved this goal) continues as support for the modern state of Israel. 1382: 1321: 1267: 1207: 1118: 1075: 1066: 950: 930: 796: 711: 699: 459: 388: 355: 238: 6174: 4746: 3725:"The Jewish-Ottoman Land Company: Herzl's Blueprint for the Colonization of Palestine" 3249: 3207: 2726:

Richard G. (EDT) Hovannisian "The Armenian People from Ancient to Modern Times" p. 198

2543:

The Young Turk Legacy and Nation Building: From the Ottoman Empire to Atatürk's Turkey

1800: 1113:. The war began as an uprising against the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire. At the time, 726:, 1912; the Ottoman Administrative Decentralization Party, 1912; al-Qahtaniyya, 1909; 6783: 6653: 6648: 6319: 6229: 6149: 5947: 5497: 5139: 5077: 4911: 4529: 4306: 3990: 3698: 3408: 2412: 1896: 1767: 1511: 1480: 1431: 1420: 1362: 1252: 1156: 679: 675: 602: 347: 168: 3067:

Regional Routes, Regional Roots? Cross-Border. Patterns of Human Mobility in Eurasia

2954:

Regional Routes, Regional Roots? Cross-Border. Patterns of Human Mobility in Eurasia

1542:

the massive Jewish immigration and financial interest in the region as threatening.

1266:

under the protection of the Ottoman Empire. The attempt, at first encouraged by the

5932: 5927: 5443: 5134: 5038:"Women's Visibility in Petitions from Greater Syria During the Late Ottoman Period" 4621:К.П.Мисирков, „За Македонцките работи“, јубилејно издание, Табернакул, Скопје, 2003 2806:

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2137: 1920: 1789: 1777: 1763: 1724: 1694: 1507: 1447: 1434:, who is often credited as the father of the Zionist movement. Herzl He formed the 1374: 1336: 1263: 1059: 946: 822: 800: 502: 431: 291: 216: 4792:"The Serbian Patriarchate of Peć in the Ottoman Empire: The First Phase (1557–94)" 1078:, as merchants or diplomats, brought them into contact with advanced ideas of the 996: 5214: 5193: 5172: 5161: 5107: 4412: 4381: 3063:"The Ends of Empire. Imperial Collapse and the Trajectory of Kurdish Nationalism" 2950:"The Ends of Empire. Imperial Collapse and the Trajectory of Kurdish Nationalism" 2541: 2288:

changed the whole structure of the Ottoman society. One of the priorities of the

1693:

is an extremely notable one built in Istanbul in the 1430s. It is located in the

6768: 6731: 6701: 6665: 6596: 6581: 6425: 6073: 6043: 5937: 5833: 5410: 5381: 4277: 4075:"The Rise, Decline and Attempted Regeneration of the Jews of the Ottoman Empire" 3547:"Introduction: Rethinking the Forms of Autonomy at the Dawn of the 21st Century" 2341: 2187: 2141: 2051: 1826: 1736: 1454: 1232: 1216: 1099: 1095: 1091: 1071: 963: 877:

in the modern sense would emerge under the rule of the Austro-Hungarian Empire.

830: 653: 649: 641: 494: 415: 351: 35: 1676: 1140:, and would result in many political, legal, and social changes in the Empire. 903: 710:

by a discussion of Arab cultural identity and demands for greater autonomy for

6401: 6367: 6048: 5482: 5053: 4505: 3956: 3674: 2202: 2163: 2071: 1892: 1615: 1343: 1137: 1083: 594: 553: 435: 268: 206: 5272: 5109:

Studies on Ottoman Social and Political History: Selected Articles and Essays

5061: 5000: 4903: 4815: 4571: 4513: 4455: 4389: 4206: 4148: 4098: 4040: 3974: 3906: 3856: 3806: 3748: 3682: 3624: 3570: 3562: 3512: 3497:"Israel Zangwill's Jewish Territorial Organization and the East African Zion" 3450: 3392: 3384: 3353: 3303: 3126: 2839: 2599: 1895:

revolt, which grew into an insurrection through the involvement of the Greek

6416: 3945:

Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London

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courts as an attempt to change their roles and increase women's rights. The

2029: 2017: 1929: 1916: 1805: 1745: 1488: 1335:

established the Hakham Bashi, as the Rabbi of a particular region, with the

1332: 826: 606: 178: 4895: 4791: 4243: 4090: 3047: 3019: 2751:"A Brief Study in the Palak Nationalism", by Dr. David Barsoum Perley LL.B. 954:

they became known as the Bulgarian Horrors. Consequently, at the 1876–1877

671: 438:, began to demand autonomy in a series of armed revolts beginning with the 5195:

Nationalism in a non-national state: the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire

4830:"Turkish Society (Turkish organization) -- Britannica Online Encyclopedia" 4807: 4796:

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Empires and Nations from the Eighteenth to the Twentieth Century: Volume 1

2058:, as well other Christian-inhabited lands, such as Greece. It resulted to 1525: 395:

was the official religion, with members holding all rights, as opposed to

6038: 3178:"EHRI - Archives of the Chief Rabbinate (Sephardi community) in Istanbul" 2739: 2250: 2195: 1900: 1781: 1716: 1637: 1451: 1149: 1145: 1045: 1034: 911: 870: 821:

The rise of modern Assyrian nationalism began with intellectuals such as

765: 757: 731: 727: 662: 561: 506: 498: 263: 5069: 5037: 5008: 4984: 4579: 4555: 4521: 4489: 4463: 4439: 4214: 4182: 4106: 4074: 3982: 3940: 3914: 3890: 3864: 3840: 3659:"The Ottoman Empire, Zionism, and the Question of Palestine (1880-1908)" 3578: 3546: 3029: 2975:

Agha, Shaikh and state: the social and political structures of Kurdistan

1966: 1247:'s involvements in the late eighteenth-century Russo-Turkish conflicts. 4048: 4016: 3965: 3814: 3782: 3756: 3724: 3632: 3604: 3520: 3496: 3458: 3434: 3400: 3368: 3337: 3311: 3279: 3134: 3110: 2665:

Christians and Jews in the Ottoman Arab World, Bruce Masters, Cambridge

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Benbrahim, Hamza. 2023. “Feudal Hierarchy.” Medium. December 16, 2023.

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was placed under direct political and military control of the Sultan.

730:, 1911; and al-Ahd, 1912) were formed to advance demands ranging from 666:), underlined by claims of Arab tribal descent and the continuance of 4985:"Revisiting Reform: Women and the Ottoman Law of Family Rights, 1917" 4198: 2579: 2408: 2357: 2353: 2242: 2075: 2034: 1370: 1224: 1200: 1155:

A secret Greek nationalist organization called the Friendly Society (

1040: 1021: 1004: 1000: 926: 862: 858: 714:. This movement, however, was confined almost exclusively to certain 687: 586: 565: 557: 427: 401: 296: 286: 4774: 4032: 3798: 3740: 3616: 3295: 2877:Ροτζώκος Νίκος, Επανάσταση και εμφύλιος στο εικοσιένα, pages 131-137 2194:

in 1920, which was signed by the Ottoman government and partitioned

2090:

under Ottoman rule. The Serbian–Ottoman conflict culminated in the

865:). Despite winning several notable victories, notably at the famous 5317:. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, pp. 3–88. 2639:. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. pp. 3–88. 1024:

consciousness, and a greater interest in Hellenic culture evolved.

628: 3021:

The Margins of Empire: Kurdish Militias in the Ottoman Tribal Zone

2337: 2115: 1970:

Orašac assembly - beginning of the First Serbian Uprising in 1804.

1720: 1675: 1645: 1581: 1524: 1398: 1285: 1228: 1163:

during 1814. On March 25 (now Greek Independence Day) 1821 of the

1160: 995: 902: 739: 703: 695: 627: 423: 396: 301: 5286:

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Gunzburger Makas, Emily; Damljanovic Conley, Tanja, eds. (2009).

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emerged in Europe in the 19th century at a time when most of the

4937:"Beyond the harem: Ways to be a woman during the Ottoman Empire" 4137:

Bulletin of the School of Oriental Studies, University of London

6178: 5354: 2340:

and did not want to change their own traditions in a period of

5350: 5329:

Amedoski, Dragana, and Selim Aslantaş. n.d. Belgrade 1521-1867

2313:

to another through formal and informal ways of communication.

1820: 1212: 949:

in both organisations. The struggle reached its peak with the

29: 4414:

Jewish Salonica: Between the Ottoman Empire and Modern Greece

2816:

Babuna, Aydın (1999). "Nationalism and the Bosnian Muslims".

2317:

were spaces were information about the developments in other

2280:, women became more included in debates on the future of the 690:

and nomads) until the late 19th century, when the revival of

3242:

The International Law Foundations of Palestinian Nationality

2028:(1804–13) was the mismanagement of the province by renegade 1280:, which was well-armed and called Hamidieh after the Sultan 405:) ethno-religious legal groups were identified as different 4603:Д. Т. Левов. Лоза, Свобода, ВИ/786, Софиja, 13. 04 1892, 3. 3485:, 1983. Nations and Nationalism (First edition), p 107-108. 3069:, Hokkaido Slavic-Eurasian Reserarch Center, pp. 31–48 2956:, Hokkaido Slavic-Eurasian Reserarch Center, pp. 31–48 2038:) who had seized power. While the Serbian population first 1373:, or Jewish immigration to Palestine, accelerated with the 1106:

culture, and enjoyed the patronage of the Orthodox Church.

5216:

The Establishment of the Balkan National States, 1804-1920

5174:

Socialism and nationalism in the Ottoman Empire, 1876-1923

2933:

the capture of Athens in June 1822, but infighting ensued.

1919:

consented in 1822 to the nomination of two native boyars,

1206:

After the war the Kurds attempted to free themselves from

1065:

The position of educated and privileged Greeks within the

5265:

History of the state and the rights of the people of SFRY

4307:"Central Synagogue, Aleppo, Syria | Archive | Diarna.org" 27:

Overview of the rise of nationalism in the Ottoman Empire

5213:

Charles Jelavich; Barbara Jelavich (20 September 2012).

3004:

The Kurdish nationalist movement and external influences

1050:

With the political extinction of the Empire, it was the

966:. Upon the end of the war Russia and Turkey signed the 4133:"A Qaṣīda on the Destruction of Baghdād by the Mongols" 3605:"Some Reflections on the Decline of the Ottoman Empire" 1483:

in the Ottoman Empire allowed for this and was used by

921:

The rise of national conscience in Bulgaria led to the

910:'s band (in 1903), which would be part of the march to 3238:"II Nationality In Palestine Under The Ottoman Empire" 1614:

Syria, and Persia began to migrate back into Baghdad.

1403:

Theodor Herzl, an early leader of the Zionist movement

5145:. Modern Library Chronicles. New York: Random House. 2360:

gave women the opportunity to increase their agency.

1522:

official of any kind; he was just a private citizen.

1446:

Israel in 1948, as the world's first and only modern

2336:, because they did not want to question the role of 548:, leaving the empire with only a precarious hold on 6674: 6538: 6451: 6328: 6263: 6212: 5905: 5864: 5812: 5787: 5751: 5690: 5648: 5517: 5388: 2332:. However, this was difficult for feminists in the 2300:generations. Mothers were creating and maintaining 2178:and the Ottoman government in the aftermath of the 1979:. One of the main centers of this movement was the 1689:Synagogue was constructed in Istanbul in 1878. The 1442:in 1897. The movement was eventually successful in 60:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 5138: 3551:International Journal on Minority and Group Rights 3007:. Monterey, California. Naval Postgraduate School. 2738:, Tanzimattan Cumhuriyete Yerel Yönetim Gelenegi, 2462:Antonello Biagini; Giovanna Motta (19 June 2014). 2457: 2455: 1762:The Principality was formed on 13 March 1852 when 1556:Part of this movement included the revival of the 1350:, that ordered for the expulsion of Jews from the 1219:the Turks strengthened their hold on the country. 2405:The Oxford Handbook of the History of Nationalism 1995:, keeping the idea of national liberation alive. 18:Emergence of nationalist movements in the Balkans 4187:Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt 2468:. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. pp. 143–. 2201:Turkish revolutionaries under the leadership of 1739:in 1912–1913 and the subsequent division of the 1294:the Kurdish Society for Cooperation and Progress 1007:literary magazine of the 18th and 19th centuries 2394: 2392: 2390: 383:Decline and modernization of the Ottoman Empire 358:eventually caused the breakdown of the Ottoman 5192:William W. Haddad; William Ochsenwald (1977). 4698:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 91–92. 4079:European Judaism: A Journal for the New Europe 3369:"Anti-Semitism in Europe before the Holocaust" 2889:The Oxford illustrated history of Christianity 2783:"The Serbian Revolution and the Serbian State" 1636:, a manuscript of the Hebrew Bible written in 1227:, also known as Cizira Bohtan, in present-day 597:in the name of all Albanians was addressed to 544:dealt a decisive blow to Ottoman power in the 509:. These groups decided to abandon the idea of 6190: 5366: 2891:. Oxford University Press. pp. 521–524. 2652:Charles Smith, The Arab-Israeli Conflict, in 1804:Fighting between the Ottoman and Eterists in 501:, who had not managed to stop the advance of 327: 8: 5042:International Journal of Middle East Studies 4017:"The Revival of Hebrew as a Spoken Language" 3663:International Journal of Middle East Studies 3367:Brustein, William I.; King, Ryan D. 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Stanford University Press. 2637:The Albanian National Awakening 1878-1912 2024:The immediate cause for the start of the 1875:Learn how and when to remove this message 1316:History of the Jews in the Ottoman Empire 1028:began to refer to themselves not just as 943:Bulgarian Revolutionary Central Committee 120:Learn how and when to remove this message 5764:Provisional Government of Western Thrace 5036:Zachs, Fruma; Ben-Bassat, Yuval (2015). 2488: 1965: 1799: 1735:" became especially prominent after the 791:". The reformist period peaked with the 742:, where desired reforms were discussed. 458:was established through the Montenegrin 5341:Oxford Bibliographies. “Ottoman Women.” 4873: 4871: 3435:"Theodor Herzl's Conversion to Zionism" 2760: 2425:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199209194.013.0011 2386: 2233:. Turkish revolutionaries rejected the 1529:Jewish settlers during the First Aliyah 945:, as well as the active involvement of 660:A sentiment of Arab tribal solidarity ( 277: 252: 187: 159: 152: 5171:Mete Tunçay; Erik Jan Zürcher (1994). 4869: 4867: 4865: 4863: 4861: 4859: 4857: 4855: 4853: 4851: 3373:International Political Science Review 3155: 2977:. London: Zed Books. pp. 176–82. 2276:However, in the late centuries of the 2271:Imperial Script Hatt-I Hümayun of 1856 1715:by limited groups of intellectuals in 6810:Rebellions against the Ottoman Empire 5031: 5029: 4978: 4976: 4974: 4556:"Travel: Turkey's Sephardic Heritage" 3545:Légaré, André; Suksi, Markku (2008). 3152:. Oxford University Press. p. 6. 2996: 2994: 2943: 2941: 2836:"National revolution (from Bulgaria)" 7: 5289:. Potomac Books, Inc. pp. 70–. 4725:. Istorijski institut. p. 297. 4021:The Journal of Educational Sociology 2630: 2628: 2626: 2624: 2622: 2620: 1853:adding citations to reliable sources 718:, and had little support. After the 58:adding citations to reliable sources 6206:International relations (1814–1919) 5892:Initial phase of the Greek genocide 5795:1913 Romanian Army cholera outbreak 5283:Cagaptay, Soner (1 February 2014). 5260:Istorija države i prava naroda SFRJ 3244:, Brill | Nijhoff, pp. 25–44, 3208:"The History of the Jews of Turkey" 3001:Disney, Donald Bruce (1980-12-01). 2198:among Allies and their supporters. 1658:History of the Jews in Thessaloniki 939:Internal Revolutionary Organisation 399:, who were restricted. Non-Muslim ( 6800:19th century in the Ottoman Empire 5219:. University of Washington Press. 4554:Harrington, Spencer P. M. (1992). 2513:M. Şükrü Hanioğlu (8 March 2010). 2245:and its absolute sovereignty over 2172:partitioning of the Ottoman Empire 25: 6790:Nationalism in the Ottoman Empire 5396:Nationalism in the Ottoman Empire 3250:10.1163/ej.9789004169845.i-254.14 2146:dissolution of the Ottoman Empire 1298:Society for the Rise of Kurdistan 974:, while the southern province of 446:(1821–29), which established the 5160:Stojanović, Mihailo D. (1968) . 4790:Sotirović, Vladislav B. (2011). 4695:History of the Balkans: Volume 1 1825: 764:was under the supervision of an 135: 34: 5198:. Ohio State University Press. 5084:from the original on 2022-12-20 5015:from the original on 2022-04-15 4918:from the original on 2018-06-02 4719:Amedoski, Dragana, ed. (2018). 4586:from the original on 2023-05-02 4536:from the original on 2023-05-01 4470:from the original on 2023-04-08 4346:from the original on 2023-03-28 4317:from the original on 2023-05-02 4288:from the original on 2023-05-02 4163:from the original on 2023-05-01 4113:from the original on 2023-05-02 4055:from the original on 2023-03-16 3997:from the original on 2023-04-10 3921:from the original on 2021-03-08 3871:from the original on 2023-04-10 3821:from the original on 2023-03-09 3763:from the original on 2023-04-10 3705:from the original on 2022-11-02 3639:from the original on 2023-04-10 3585:from the original on 2023-04-10 3527:from the original on 2023-04-10 3465:from the original on 2018-08-08 3415:from the original on 2023-04-10 3318:from the original on 2023-04-08 3218:from the original on 2022-12-08 3188:from the original on 2023-04-08 2973:Bruinessen, Martin van (1992). 2923:from the original on 2015-05-03 2789:from the original on 2017-10-10 2703:The Origins of Arab Nationalism 2606:from the original on 2021-06-22 2560:from the original on 2023-04-22 2441:from the original on 2023-01-15 2082:), which was on territories of 2070:was founded in aim to liberate 1471:Jewish Territorial Organization 45:needs additional citations for 5882:Bulgarians deportation program 5453:Ilinden–Preobrazhenie Uprising 5326:“Kurbash - Encyclopedia.” n.d. 4776:Belgrade 1521-1867 (Full Text) 4336:"Damascus Jewish History Tour" 3148:Eagleton, William, Jr (1963). 2375:Prince-Bishopric of Montenegro 2352:records, women were active in 1907:, while Wallachia was held by 1417:homeland for the Jewish People 1377:in 1882, largely triggered by 887:National awakening of Bulgaria 813:Assyrian independence movement 785:Armenian National Constitution 760:reforms were established, the 476:National awakening of Bulgaria 366:decline of the Ottoman Empire. 1: 6576:Kronstadt–Toulon naval visits 6530:1917 Franco-Russian agreement 6520:Japan–Korea Annexation Treaty 5733:Romanian landings in Bulgaria 5166:. Cambridge University Press. 4417:. Stanford University Press. 3061:Reynolds, Michael A. (2017), 2948:Reynolds, Michael A. (2017), 2706:. Columbia University Press. 2321:communities would be shared. 2131:Pan-Turkism emerged with the 1619:Minister of Finance in Iraq, 1357:The Ottomans took control of 488:Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878) 146:History of the Ottoman Empire 6436:Second Industrial Revolution 6310:League of the Three Emperors 5825:Greco-Turkish crisis of 1914 5267:]. Sarajevo: Svjetlost. 5141:The Balkans: A Short History 4398:10.2979/jewisocistud.22.1.03 4382:10.2979/jewisocistud.22.1.03 4340:www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org 3787:Journal of Palestine Studies 3729:Journal of Palestine Studies 3495:Weisbord, Robert G. (1968). 3280:"Jewish Rights in Palestine" 3150:The Kurdish republic of 1946 2838:. 2006-05-21. Archived from 2068:Serbian Chetnik Organization 1817:Romanian War of Independence 1774:Grand Voivode Mirko Petrović 1499:Jewish Settling of Palestine 1411:Zionism is an international 1260:Russo-Turkish War of 1877–78 1253:Şêx Bediüzzaman Said-i Kurdi 1197:Russo-Turkish War of 1828–29 925:movement. Unlike Greece and 795:, written by members of the 793:Ottoman constitution of 1876 493:The radical elements of the 6466:Treaty of Versailles (1871) 5820:Autonomy of Northern Epirus 4245:The New Babylonian Diaspora 4131:de Somogyi, Joseph (1933). 3336:Reinkowski, Maurus (1999). 3284:The Jewish Quarterly Review 3236:Qafisheh, M. (2009-01-01), 2546:. I.B. Tauris. p. 60. 2403:. In Breuilly, John (ed.). 2221:), Greeks (Greece) and the 2207:Turkish War of Independence 2112:Turkish War of Independence 1936:1848 saw rebellion in both 1933:of Moldavia and Wallachia. 1889:Wallachian uprising of 1821 1813:Wallachian uprising of 1821 1642:Central Synagogue of Aleppo 752:Armenian national awakening 6836: 6515:Japan–Korea Treaty of 1905 5839:Ottoman–Bulgarian alliance 5332:“The Feudal System.” 2023. 5239:Journal of Women's History 4983:Tucker, Judith E. (1996). 4884:Journal of Women's History 4692:Jelavich, Barbara (1983). 4411:Naar, Devin (2016-09-07). 4242:Yehuda, Zvi (2017-08-28). 3783:"The Jewish National Fund" 2656:by Louise Fawcett, p. 220. 2101: 2040:rose up against the Dahije 1951: 1810: 1755: 1704: 1655: 1549: 1436:World Zionist Organization 1392: 1319: 1313: 1307: 1184: 1015:, the pre-eminent role of 985: 891:Bulgarian National Revival 884: 840: 810: 789:Armenian National Assembly 749: 621: 533: 472:Bulgarian National Revival 456:Principality of Montenegro 380: 374: 188:Ethnoreligious communities 6336:European balance of power 6159: 6000:Konstantinos Sapountzakis 5803: 5679: 5506: 5439:Greco-Turkish War of 1897 5241:. 28 (3): pp. 66–92. 5106:Karpat, Kemal H. (2002). 5054:10.1017/S0020743815000975 4658:Bugajski, Janusz (2016). 4506:10.1007/s10835-014-9216-z 4181:Rabie, Hassanein (1978). 3957:10.1017/S0041977X09990346 3845:Religion & Literature 3675:10.1017/S0020743800051965 3278:Zeitlin, Solomon (1947). 2578:Hechter, Michael (2001). 2540:Zürcher, Erik J. (2010). 2219:First Republic of Armenia 2170:who rebelled against the 2168:Turkish national movement 1111:Greek War of Independence 992:Greek War of Independence 956:Constantinople Conference 770:Armenian Apostolic Church 768:('national' leader), the 444:Greek War of Independence 430:, but later spreading to 411:, which means "nations". 6627:Venezuela Naval Blockade 6298:Anglo-Russian Convention 5774:Treaty of Constantinople 5666:1913 Ottoman coup d'état 5305:The Arab Studies Journal 4989:The Arab Studies Journal 4761:"MWNF - Sharing History" 4637:. Routledge. p. 7. 3895:Naval War College Review 3839:Lehmann, Sophia (1998). 3563:10.1163/157181108X332578 3385:10.1177/0192512104038166 3096:"Kurbash - Encyclopedia" 2917:"Greek Independence Day" 2887:McManners, John (2001). 2399:Roshwald, Aviel (2013). 2315:Educational institutions 1764:Danilo I Petrović-Njegoš 1477:Non-territorial autonomy 1011:With the decline of the 972:Principality of Bulgaria 468:Principality of Bulgaria 6632:Alaska boundary dispute 6305:Anglo-Japanese Alliance 6288:Franco-Russian Alliance 5844:Balkans campaign of WWI 5493:Albanian revolt of 1912 5313:Skendi, Stavro (1967). 5307:. 4 (2), pp. 4–17. 4488:Naar, Devin E. (2014). 4444:American Jewish History 4438:Naar, Devin E. (2007). 4364:Naar, Devin E. (2016). 4229:"World Jewish Congress" 4073:Gubbay, Lucien (2000). 3723:Khalidi, Walid (1993). 3657:Oke, Mim Kemal (1982). 3603:Lewis, Bernard (1958). 3433:Cohn, Henry J. (1970). 3109:Edmonds, C. J. (1957). 2818:East European Quarterly 2635:Skendi, Stavro (1967). 2417:Oxford University Press 2160:Turkish revolutionaries 2044:Second Serbian Uprising 1988:Serbian Orthodox Church 1913:Danubian Principalities 1758:Montenegrin nationalism 1094:, and it was among the 478:, establishment of the 377:Millet (Ottoman Empire) 6551:Unification of Germany 6498:Taft–Katsura agreement 6118:Crown Prince Alexander 6096:Crown Prince Ferdinand 6059:Kölemen Abdullah Pasha 5887:Massacres of Civilians 5877:Massacres of Albanians 5830:Sarajevo Assassination 5759:Greek–Serbian Alliance 5752:Diplomacy and politics 5649:Diplomacy and politics 5473:Bulgarian Independence 5257:Sućeska, Avdo (1985). 4896:10.1353/jowh.2016.0025 4091:10.3167/ej.2000.330110 3939:Aytürk, İlker (2010). 3342:Middle Eastern Studies 3182:portal.ehri-project.eu 2919:. www.britannica.com. 2581:Containing nationalism 2223:French Armenian Legion 2128: 2066:(1876–1878). In 1903, 2026:First Serbian Uprising 1977:Principality of Serbia 1971: 1808: 1707:Macedonian nationalism 1681: 1530: 1465:of the Jewish people. 1440:First Zionist Congress 1404: 1296:(KTTC), Hewa, and the 1008: 918: 899:April Uprising of 1876 674:, preserved, from the 648:Arab nationalism is a 645: 610:create an independent 484:April Uprising of 1876 448:Principality of Serbia 6637:First Moroccan Crisis 6351:Spread of nationalism 6315:Eight-Nation Alliance 6144:Other Balkan states: 5985:Eleftherios Venizelos 5661:Albanian Independence 5463:Young Turk Revolution 4808:10.1353/ser.2011.0038 4370:Jewish Social Studies 4254:10.1163/9789004354012 4015:Rabin, Chaim (1963). 3781:Lehn, Walter (1974). 3501:Jewish Social Studies 3439:Jewish Social Studies 3018:Klein, Janet (2011). 2311:ethno-religious group 2225:, accompanied by the 2124: 2108:Young Turk Revolution 1993:medieval Serbian past 1969: 1803: 1679: 1632:popular destination. 1528: 1402: 1174:Alexandros Ypsilantis 1167:/6 April 1821 of the 1052:Greek Orthodox Church 999: 968:Treaty of San Stefano 906: 736:Arab Congress of 1913 720:Young Turk Revolution 631: 574:Treaty of San Stefano 503:European expansionism 474:, and the subsequent 381:Further information: 160:Court and aristocracy 6642:Algeciras Conference 6622:Annexation of Hawaii 6561:Great Eastern Crisis 6556:Unification of Italy 6546:Formation of Romania 6363:French–German enmity 5995:Pavlos Kountouriotis 4878:Kanner, Efi (2016). 3206:hersh (2022-12-04). 2419:. pp. 220–241. 2370:Powder keg of Europe 2186:'s participation in 2064:Serbian-Turkish wars 2060:Herzegovina uprising 1849:improve this section 1680:The Ahrida Synagogue 1568:Outside of Palestine 1535:Jewish National Fund 1517:have a meeting with 1327:Early Ottoman Empire 1191:History of the Kurds 1013:Eastern Roman Empire 694:was followed in the 570:Albanian nationalism 536:Albanian nationalism 54:improve this article 6820:Rises to prominence 6707:Philippine–American 6692:First Sino-Japanese 6525:Racconigi agreement 6471:Treaty of Frankfurt 6431:Great Rapprochement 6385:Scramble for Africa 6022:Crown Prince Danilo 5872:Carnegie Commission 5769:Treaty of Bucharest 5458:Macedonian Struggle 5434:Serbo-Bulgarian War 4747:"The Feudal System" 4282:rpl.hds.harvard.edu 3115:Middle East Journal 3111:"The Kurds of Iraq" 3030:10.2307/j.ctvqsf1v3 2237:and negotiated the 2180:Armistice of Mudros 2104:Turkish nationalism 2088:Macedonian vilayets 1981:Sanjak of Smederevo 1962:Serbian nationalism 1784:on 1 May 1858. The 1776:, elder brother of 1733:Macedonian Question 1485:Orthodox Christians 1459:liberation movement 1438:and called for the 1367:Abrahamic religions 1187:Kurdish nationalism 988:Greek Enlightenment 960:Russia declared war 935:Bulgarian Exarchate 895:Bulgarian Exarchate 875:Bosniak nationalism 848:the one by captain 678:, a vague sense of 670:exemplified in the 568:fueled the rise of 517:Turkish nationalism 495:Young Turk movement 480:Bulgarian Exarchate 254:Rise of nationalism 6566:Congress of Berlin 6483:Reinsurance Treaty 6461:Congress of Vienna 6441:Industrial warfare 6407:Scramble for China 6101:Alexandru Averescu 6069:Hasan Tahsin Pasha 5990:Panagiotis Danglis 5897:Places burned down 5423:Congress of Berlin 4722:Belgrade 1521-1867 4311:archive.diarna.org 4278:"Judaism in Syria" 3889:Seal, Tom (1992). 2676:"Arab Nationalism" 2243:Republic of Turkey 2239:Treaty of Lausanne 2231:Franco-Turkish War 2205:fought during the 2190:; and against the 2182:, which ended the 2129: 2013:Treaty of Belgrade 1972: 1954:Serbian Revolution 1909:Tudor Vladimirescu 1809: 1713:ethnic nationalism 1682: 1640:, was kept at the 1562:Eliezer Ben-Yehuda 1531: 1519:Sultan Abdul Hamid 1463:self-determination 1450:. Described as a " 1430:Jewish journalist 1413:political movement 1405: 1169:Gregorian Calendar 1009: 919: 850:Husein Gradaščević 818:their own tribes. 646: 591:Congress of Berlin 464:Battle of Grahovac 442:(1804–17) and the 440:Serbian Revolution 244:Great Fire of 1660 6815:National revivals 6795:Greek nationalism 6777: 6776: 6746:Albanian Revolts 6603:German Naval Laws 6587:Naval arms races 6571:Berlin Conference 6503:Hague Conventions 6172: 6171: 6079:Ahmed Izzet Pasha 5958:Stiliyan Kovachev 5683:Second Balkan War 5656:London Conference 5488:Italo-Turkish War 5478:31 March Incident 5296:978-1-61234-650-2 5226:978-0-295-80360-9 5205:978-0-8142-0191-6 5184:978-1-85043-787-1 4939:. 12 August 2016. 4424:978-1-5036-0008-9 4263:978-90-04-35401-2 3259:978-90-04-18084-0 3039:978-0-8047-7570-0 2984:978-1-85649-019-1 2713:978-0-231-07435-3 2526:978-1-4008-2968-2 2475:978-1-4438-6193-9 2302:cultural identity 2154:Kemalist ideology 2122: 2032:troops (known as 1891:began as an anti- 1885: 1884: 1877: 1741:Ottoman Macedonia 1552:Revival of Hebrew 1546:Revival of Hebrew 1461:whose aim is the 1352:Iberian Peninsula 923:Bulgarian revival 916:31 March Incident 908:Hristo Chernopeev 698:provinces of the 692:Arabic literature 599:Lord Beaconsfield 542:Russo-Turkish War 452:Hellenic Republic 344: 343: 130: 129: 122: 104: 16:(Redirected from 6827: 6697:Spanish–American 6617:Fashoda Incident 6493:Treaty of Björkö 6478:Treaty of Berlin 6412:Open Door Policy 6346:Eastern question 6293:Entente Cordiale 6199: 6192: 6185: 6176: 6138:Božidar Janković 6133:Stepa Stepanović 6005:Viktor Dousmanis 5854:Macedonian front 5849:Serbian campaign 5779:Treaty of Athens 5728:Southern Dobruja 5671:Treaty of London 5510:First Balkan War 5375: 5368: 5361: 5352: 5300: 5276: 5230: 5209: 5188: 5167: 5156: 5144: 5123: 5093: 5092: 5090: 5089: 5033: 5024: 5023: 5021: 5020: 4980: 4969: 4968: 4961: 4955: 4954: 4947: 4941: 4940: 4933: 4927: 4926: 4924: 4923: 4875: 4846: 4844: 4842: 4841: 4832:. Archived from 4826: 4820: 4819: 4787: 4781: 4780: 4771: 4765: 4764: 4757: 4751: 4750: 4743: 4737: 4736: 4716: 4710: 4709: 4689: 4678: 4677: 4655: 4649: 4648: 4628: 4622: 4619: 4613: 4610: 4604: 4601: 4595: 4594: 4592: 4591: 4551: 4545: 4544: 4542: 4541: 4500:(3/4): 337–372. 4485: 4479: 4478: 4476: 4475: 4435: 4429: 4428: 4408: 4402: 4401: 4361: 4355: 4354: 4352: 4351: 4332: 4326: 4325: 4323: 4322: 4303: 4297: 4296: 4294: 4293: 4274: 4268: 4267: 4239: 4233: 4232: 4225: 4219: 4218: 4199:10.2307/40000132 4178: 4172: 4171: 4169: 4168: 4128: 4122: 4121: 4119: 4118: 4070: 4064: 4063: 4061: 4060: 4012: 4006: 4005: 4003: 4002: 3968: 3936: 3930: 3929: 3927: 3926: 3886: 3880: 3879: 3877: 3876: 3836: 3830: 3829: 3827: 3826: 3778: 3772: 3771: 3769: 3768: 3720: 3714: 3713: 3711: 3710: 3654: 3648: 3647: 3645: 3644: 3600: 3594: 3593: 3591: 3590: 3557:(2/3): 143–155. 3542: 3536: 3535: 3533: 3532: 3492: 3486: 3480: 3474: 3473: 3471: 3470: 3430: 3424: 3423: 3421: 3420: 3364: 3358: 3357: 3333: 3327: 3326: 3324: 3323: 3275: 3269: 3268: 3267: 3266: 3233: 3227: 3226: 3224: 3223: 3203: 3197: 3196: 3194: 3193: 3174: 3168: 3167: 3161: 3153: 3145: 3139: 3138: 3106: 3100: 3099: 3092: 3086: 3083: 3077: 3076: 3075: 3074: 3058: 3052: 3051: 3015: 3009: 3008: 2998: 2989: 2988: 2970: 2964: 2963: 2962: 2961: 2945: 2936: 2935: 2929: 2928: 2913: 2907: 2906: 2884: 2878: 2875: 2869: 2866: 2860: 2857: 2851: 2850: 2848: 2847: 2832: 2826: 2825: 2813: 2807: 2804: 2798: 2797: 2795: 2794: 2779: 2773: 2770: 2764: 2758: 2752: 2749: 2743: 2733: 2727: 2724: 2718: 2717: 2697: 2691: 2690: 2688: 2687: 2678:. Archived from 2672: 2666: 2663: 2657: 2650: 2641: 2640: 2632: 2615: 2614: 2612: 2611: 2575: 2569: 2568: 2566: 2565: 2537: 2531: 2530: 2510: 2504: 2498: 2492: 2486: 2480: 2479: 2459: 2450: 2449: 2447: 2446: 2396: 2235:Treaty of Sèvres 2227:Armenian militia 2192:Treaty of Sèvres 2133:Turanian Society 2123: 2092:First Balkan War 1958:Serbian Question 1925:Grigore IV Ghica 1903:was occupied by 1880: 1873: 1869: 1866: 1860: 1829: 1821: 1691:Ahrida Synagogue 1634:The Aleppo Codex 1611:captured Baghdad 1599:Siege of Baghdad 1428:Austro-Hungarian 1395:Zionist Movement 1389:Zionist Movement 1333:Sultan Mehmet II 1241:Şêx Ubeydullah's 1159:) was formed in 1134:developmentalism 1058:past and in the 867:Battle of Kosovo 843:Bosnian uprising 778:Edict of Gülhane 668:classical Arabic 632:Soldiers of the 624:Arab nationalism 546:Balkan Peninsula 512:Ittihad-i anasır 346:The rise of the 336: 329: 322: 154:Social structure 148: 139: 132: 125: 118: 114: 111: 105: 103: 62: 38: 30: 21: 6835: 6834: 6830: 6829: 6828: 6826: 6825: 6824: 6780: 6779: 6778: 6773: 6712:Boxer Rebellion 6670: 6534: 6488:Treaty of Paris 6453: 6447: 6380:New Imperialism 6341:Ottoman decline 6324: 6271:Triple Alliance 6259: 6220:Austria-Hungary 6208: 6203: 6173: 6168: 6155: 5953:Radko Dimitriev 5943:Vasil Kutinchev 5901: 5860: 5808: 5799: 5783: 5747: 5698:Kilkis–Lachanas 5686: 5675: 5644: 5513: 5502: 5429:Eastern Rumelia 5384: 5379: 5348: 5297: 5282: 5256: 5227: 5212: 5206: 5191: 5185: 5170: 5159: 5153: 5133: 5120: 5105: 5102: 5097: 5096: 5087: 5085: 5035: 5034: 5027: 5018: 5016: 4982: 4981: 4972: 4965:"Ottoman Women" 4963: 4962: 4958: 4949: 4948: 4944: 4935: 4934: 4930: 4921: 4919: 4877: 4876: 4849: 4839: 4837: 4828: 4827: 4823: 4789: 4788: 4784: 4773: 4772: 4768: 4759: 4758: 4754: 4745: 4744: 4740: 4733: 4718: 4717: 4713: 4706: 4691: 4690: 4681: 4674: 4657: 4656: 4652: 4645: 4630: 4629: 4625: 4620: 4616: 4611: 4607: 4602: 4598: 4589: 4587: 4553: 4552: 4548: 4539: 4537: 4487: 4486: 4482: 4473: 4471: 4437: 4436: 4432: 4425: 4410: 4409: 4405: 4363: 4362: 4358: 4349: 4347: 4334: 4333: 4329: 4320: 4318: 4305: 4304: 4300: 4291: 4289: 4276: 4275: 4271: 4264: 4241: 4240: 4236: 4227: 4226: 4222: 4180: 4179: 4175: 4166: 4164: 4130: 4129: 4125: 4116: 4114: 4072: 4071: 4067: 4058: 4056: 4033:10.2307/2264510 4014: 4013: 4009: 4000: 3998: 3938: 3937: 3933: 3924: 3922: 3888: 3887: 3883: 3874: 3872: 3838: 3837: 3833: 3824: 3822: 3799:10.2307/2535450 3780: 3779: 3775: 3766: 3764: 3741:10.2307/2537267 3722: 3721: 3717: 3708: 3706: 3656: 3655: 3651: 3642: 3640: 3617:10.2307/1594978 3609:Studia Islamica 3602: 3601: 3597: 3588: 3586: 3544: 3543: 3539: 3530: 3528: 3494: 3493: 3489: 3481: 3477: 3468: 3466: 3432: 3431: 3427: 3418: 3416: 3366: 3365: 3361: 3335: 3334: 3330: 3321: 3319: 3296:10.2307/1453037 3277: 3276: 3272: 3264: 3262: 3260: 3235: 3234: 3230: 3221: 3219: 3205: 3204: 3200: 3191: 3189: 3176: 3175: 3171: 3154: 3147: 3146: 3142: 3108: 3107: 3103: 3094: 3093: 3089: 3084: 3080: 3072: 3070: 3060: 3059: 3055: 3040: 3017: 3016: 3012: 3000: 2999: 2992: 2985: 2972: 2971: 2967: 2959: 2957: 2947: 2946: 2939: 2926: 2924: 2915: 2914: 2910: 2899: 2886: 2885: 2881: 2876: 2872: 2867: 2863: 2858: 2854: 2845: 2843: 2834: 2833: 2829: 2815: 2814: 2810: 2805: 2801: 2792: 2790: 2781: 2780: 2776: 2771: 2767: 2759: 2755: 2750: 2746: 2734: 2730: 2725: 2721: 2714: 2699: 2698: 2694: 2685: 2683: 2674: 2673: 2669: 2664: 2660: 2651: 2644: 2634: 2633: 2618: 2609: 2607: 2592: 2577: 2576: 2572: 2563: 2561: 2554: 2539: 2538: 2534: 2527: 2512: 2511: 2507: 2501:Stojanović 1968 2499: 2495: 2487: 2483: 2476: 2461: 2460: 2453: 2444: 2442: 2435: 2398: 2397: 2388: 2383: 2366: 2348:. According to 2319:ethno-religious 2307:ethno-religious 2259: 2126:Kuvva-i Milliye 2116: 2114: 2102:Main articles: 2100: 1964: 1952:Main articles: 1950: 1881: 1870: 1864: 1861: 1846: 1830: 1819: 1811:Main articles: 1798: 1760: 1754: 1709: 1703: 1674: 1660: 1654: 1629: 1607:Abbasid Dynasty 1605:and end of the 1595: 1579: 1570: 1558:Hebrew Language 1554: 1548: 1501: 1397: 1391: 1348:Alhambra Decree 1344:Sultan Bayezeid 1329: 1324: 1318: 1312: 1306: 1282:Abd-ul-Hamid II 1193: 1185:Main articles: 1183: 1165:Julian Calendar 1056:classical Greek 994: 986:Main articles: 984: 976:Eastern Rumelia 901: 885:Main articles: 883: 845: 839: 815: 809: 762:Armenian millet 754: 748: 724:Salim Ali Salam 716:Christian Arabs 634:Sharif of Mecca 626: 620: 589:, known as the 579:Austria-Hungary 538: 532: 523:Michael Hechter 385: 379: 373: 340: 311: 273: 248: 183: 144: 126: 115: 109: 106: 63: 61: 51: 39: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 6833: 6831: 6823: 6822: 6817: 6812: 6807: 6802: 6797: 6792: 6782: 6781: 6775: 6774: 6772: 6771: 6766: 6765: 6764: 6763: 6762: 6757: 6752: 6744: 6739: 6729: 6724: 6722:Russo-Japanese 6719: 6714: 6709: 6704: 6699: 6694: 6689: 6687:Anglo-Egyptian 6684: 6678: 6676: 6672: 6671: 6669: 6668: 6663: 6661:Bosnian Crisis 6658: 6657: 6656: 6646: 6645: 6644: 6634: 6629: 6624: 6619: 6614: 6613: 6612: 6610:Austro-Italian 6607: 6606: 6605: 6600: 6585: 6578: 6573: 6568: 6563: 6558: 6553: 6548: 6542: 6540: 6536: 6535: 6533: 6532: 6527: 6522: 6517: 6512: 6511: 6510: 6508:Martens Clause 6500: 6495: 6490: 6485: 6480: 6475: 6474: 6473: 6463: 6457: 6455: 6449: 6448: 6446: 6445: 6444: 6443: 6433: 6428: 6423: 6422: 6421: 6420: 6419: 6414: 6409: 6404: 6394: 6393: 6392: 6390:Egyptian Lever 6377: 6375:Pax Britannica 6372: 6371: 6370: 6360: 6359: 6358: 6356:Sovereign debt 6353: 6348: 6338: 6332: 6330: 6326: 6325: 6323: 6322: 6317: 6312: 6307: 6302: 6301: 6300: 6295: 6290: 6283:Triple Entente 6280: 6279: 6278: 6267: 6265: 6261: 6260: 6258: 6257: 6252: 6250:United Kingdom 6247: 6242: 6237: 6232: 6227: 6222: 6216: 6214: 6210: 6209: 6204: 6202: 6201: 6194: 6187: 6179: 6170: 6169: 6167: 6166: 6160: 6157: 6156: 6154: 6153: 6142: 6141: 6140: 6135: 6130: 6125: 6123:Radomir Putnik 6120: 6115: 6105: 6104: 6103: 6098: 6093: 6083: 6082: 6081: 6076: 6071: 6066: 6064:Ali Rıza Pasha 6061: 6056: 6051: 6046: 6041: 6034:Ottoman Empire 6031: 6030: 6029: 6024: 6019: 6009: 6008: 6007: 6002: 5997: 5992: 5987: 5982: 5977: 5967: 5966: 5965: 5963:Georgi Todorov 5960: 5955: 5950: 5945: 5940: 5935: 5930: 5925: 5920: 5909: 5907: 5903: 5902: 5900: 5899: 5894: 5889: 5884: 5879: 5874: 5868: 5866: 5862: 5861: 5859: 5858: 5857: 5856: 5851: 5841: 5836: 5827: 5822: 5816: 5814: 5810: 5809: 5804: 5801: 5800: 5798: 5797: 5791: 5789: 5785: 5784: 5782: 5781: 5776: 5771: 5766: 5761: 5755: 5753: 5749: 5748: 5746: 5745: 5740: 5735: 5730: 5725: 5720: 5715: 5710: 5705: 5700: 5694: 5692: 5688: 5687: 5680: 5677: 5676: 5674: 5673: 5668: 5663: 5658: 5652: 5650: 5646: 5645: 5643: 5642: 5640:Second Çatalca 5637: 5632: 5627: 5622: 5617: 5612: 5607: 5602: 5597: 5592: 5587: 5582: 5577: 5572: 5567: 5562: 5557: 5552: 5547: 5542: 5537: 5532: 5527: 5521: 5519: 5515: 5514: 5507: 5504: 5503: 5501: 5500: 5495: 5490: 5485: 5480: 5475: 5470: 5468:Bosnian Crisis 5465: 5460: 5455: 5446: 5441: 5436: 5431: 5427:Annexation of 5425: 5420: 5419: 5418: 5413: 5408: 5403: 5392: 5390: 5386: 5385: 5380: 5378: 5377: 5370: 5363: 5355: 5346: 5345: 5342: 5339: 5336: 5333: 5330: 5327: 5324: 5321: 5318: 5311: 5308: 5301: 5295: 5280: 5277: 5254: 5251: 5248: 5245: 5242: 5234: 5231: 5225: 5210: 5204: 5189: 5183: 5168: 5157: 5151: 5131: 5128: 5124: 5118: 5101: 5098: 5095: 5094: 5048:(4): 765–781. 5025: 4970: 4956: 4942: 4928: 4847: 4821: 4802:(2): 143–169. 4782: 4766: 4752: 4738: 4731: 4711: 4704: 4679: 4672: 4650: 4643: 4623: 4614: 4605: 4596: 4546: 4494:Jewish History 4480: 4450:(4): 435–473. 4430: 4423: 4403: 4356: 4327: 4298: 4269: 4262: 4234: 4220: 4173: 4123: 4065: 4027:(8): 388–392. 4007: 3931: 3881: 3831: 3773: 3715: 3669:(3): 329–341. 3649: 3611:(9): 111–127. 3595: 3537: 3487: 3483:Ernest Gellner 3475: 3445:(2): 101–110. 3425: 3359: 3328: 3290:(2): 119–134. 3270: 3258: 3228: 3198: 3169: 3140: 3101: 3087: 3078: 3053: 3038: 3010: 2990: 2983: 2965: 2937: 2908: 2897: 2879: 2870: 2861: 2852: 2827: 2808: 2799: 2774: 2765: 2753: 2744: 2728: 2719: 2712: 2692: 2667: 2658: 2642: 2616: 2590: 2570: 2552: 2532: 2525: 2505: 2493: 2481: 2474: 2451: 2433: 2385: 2384: 2382: 2379: 2378: 2377: 2372: 2365: 2362: 2346:women's rights 2334:Ottoman Empire 2330:women's rights 2294:Ottoman Empire 2290:Ottoman Empire 2286:Ottoman Empire 2282:Ottoman Empire 2278:Ottoman Empire 2258: 2255: 2247:Eastern Thrace 2184:Ottoman Empire 2099: 2096: 2084:Kosovo Vilayet 2001:central Serbia 1949: 1946: 1883: 1882: 1833: 1831: 1824: 1797: 1794: 1756:Main article: 1753: 1750: 1729:St. Petersburg 1705:Main article: 1702: 1699: 1673: 1670: 1656:Main article: 1653: 1650: 1628: 1625: 1621:Sassoon Eskell 1594: 1591: 1578: 1575: 1569: 1566: 1547: 1544: 1500: 1497: 1393:Main article: 1390: 1387: 1383:Tsarist Russia 1328: 1325: 1322:Jewish history 1314:Main article: 1308:Main article: 1305: 1302: 1182: 1179: 1178: 1177: 1153: 1119:Ancient Greece 1076:Western Europe 1067:Ottoman Empire 983: 980: 951:April Uprising 931:Ottoman Empire 912:Constantinople 882: 879: 841:Main article: 838: 835: 811:Main article: 808: 805: 797:Young Ottomans 750:Main article: 747: 744: 700:Ottoman Empire 622:Main article: 619: 616: 534:Main article: 531: 528: 460:secularization 389:Ottoman Empire 375:Main article: 372: 369: 356:Ottoman Empire 342: 341: 339: 338: 331: 324: 316: 313: 312: 310: 309: 304: 299: 294: 289: 283: 280: 279: 275: 274: 272: 271: 266: 260: 257: 256: 250: 249: 247: 246: 241: 236: 231: 226: 225: 224: 219: 214: 209: 207:Greek Orthodox 199: 193: 190: 189: 185: 184: 182: 181: 176: 171: 165: 162: 161: 157: 156: 150: 149: 141: 140: 128: 127: 42: 40: 33: 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6832: 6821: 6818: 6816: 6813: 6811: 6808: 6806: 6803: 6801: 6798: 6796: 6793: 6791: 6788: 6787: 6785: 6770: 6767: 6761: 6758: 6756: 6753: 6751: 6748: 6747: 6745: 6743: 6740: 6738: 6735: 6734: 6733: 6730: 6728: 6727:Italo-Turkish 6725: 6723: 6720: 6718: 6715: 6713: 6710: 6708: 6705: 6703: 6700: 6698: 6695: 6693: 6690: 6688: 6685: 6683: 6682:Russo-Turkish 6680: 6679: 6677: 6673: 6667: 6664: 6662: 6659: 6655: 6654:Treaty of Fes 6652: 6651: 6650: 6649:Agadir Crisis 6647: 6643: 6640: 6639: 6638: 6635: 6633: 6630: 6628: 6625: 6623: 6620: 6618: 6615: 6611: 6608: 6604: 6601: 6599: 6598: 6594: 6593: 6592: 6589: 6588: 6586: 6584: 6583: 6579: 6577: 6574: 6572: 6569: 6567: 6564: 6562: 6559: 6557: 6554: 6552: 6549: 6547: 6544: 6543: 6541: 6537: 6531: 6528: 6526: 6523: 6521: 6518: 6516: 6513: 6509: 6506: 6505: 6504: 6501: 6499: 6496: 6494: 6491: 6489: 6486: 6484: 6481: 6479: 6476: 6472: 6469: 6468: 6467: 6464: 6462: 6459: 6458: 6456: 6450: 6442: 6439: 6438: 6437: 6434: 6432: 6429: 6427: 6424: 6418: 6415: 6413: 6410: 6408: 6405: 6403: 6400: 6399: 6398: 6395: 6391: 6388: 6387: 6386: 6383: 6382: 6381: 6378: 6376: 6373: 6369: 6366: 6365: 6364: 6361: 6357: 6354: 6352: 6349: 6347: 6344: 6343: 6342: 6339: 6337: 6334: 6333: 6331: 6327: 6321: 6320:Balkan League 6318: 6316: 6313: 6311: 6308: 6306: 6303: 6299: 6296: 6294: 6291: 6289: 6286: 6285: 6284: 6281: 6277: 6276:Dual Alliance 6274: 6273: 6272: 6269: 6268: 6266: 6262: 6256: 6255:United States 6253: 6251: 6248: 6246: 6243: 6241: 6238: 6236: 6233: 6231: 6228: 6226: 6223: 6221: 6218: 6217: 6215: 6211: 6207: 6200: 6195: 6193: 6188: 6186: 6181: 6180: 6177: 6165: 6162: 6161: 6158: 6151: 6147: 6143: 6139: 6136: 6134: 6131: 6129: 6128:Petar Bojović 6126: 6124: 6121: 6119: 6116: 6114: 6111: 6110: 6109: 6106: 6102: 6099: 6097: 6094: 6092: 6089: 6088: 6087: 6084: 6080: 6077: 6075: 6072: 6070: 6067: 6065: 6062: 6060: 6057: 6055: 6052: 6050: 6047: 6045: 6042: 6040: 6037: 6036: 6035: 6032: 6028: 6027:Janko Vukotić 6025: 6023: 6020: 6018: 6015: 6014: 6013: 6010: 6006: 6003: 6001: 5998: 5996: 5993: 5991: 5988: 5986: 5983: 5981: 5980:Constantine I 5978: 5976: 5973: 5972: 5971: 5968: 5964: 5961: 5959: 5956: 5954: 5951: 5949: 5948:Nikola Ivanov 5946: 5944: 5941: 5939: 5936: 5934: 5931: 5929: 5926: 5924: 5921: 5919: 5916: 5915: 5914: 5911: 5910: 5908: 5904: 5898: 5895: 5893: 5890: 5888: 5885: 5883: 5880: 5878: 5875: 5873: 5870: 5869: 5867: 5863: 5855: 5852: 5850: 5847: 5846: 5845: 5842: 5840: 5837: 5835: 5831: 5828: 5826: 5823: 5821: 5818: 5817: 5815: 5811: 5807: 5802: 5796: 5793: 5792: 5790: 5786: 5780: 5777: 5775: 5772: 5770: 5767: 5765: 5762: 5760: 5757: 5756: 5754: 5750: 5744: 5741: 5739: 5736: 5734: 5731: 5729: 5726: 5724: 5721: 5719: 5716: 5714: 5711: 5709: 5706: 5704: 5701: 5699: 5696: 5695: 5693: 5689: 5685: 5684: 5678: 5672: 5669: 5667: 5664: 5662: 5659: 5657: 5654: 5653: 5651: 5647: 5641: 5638: 5636: 5633: 5631: 5628: 5626: 5623: 5621: 5618: 5616: 5613: 5611: 5608: 5606: 5603: 5601: 5598: 5596: 5593: 5591: 5590:First Çatalca 5588: 5586: 5583: 5581: 5578: 5576: 5573: 5571: 5568: 5566: 5563: 5561: 5558: 5556: 5553: 5551: 5548: 5546: 5543: 5541: 5538: 5536: 5535:Pente Pigadia 5533: 5531: 5528: 5526: 5523: 5522: 5520: 5516: 5512: 5511: 5505: 5499: 5498:Balkan League 5496: 5494: 5491: 5489: 5486: 5484: 5481: 5479: 5476: 5474: 5471: 5469: 5466: 5464: 5461: 5459: 5456: 5454: 5450: 5447: 5445: 5442: 5440: 5437: 5435: 5432: 5430: 5426: 5424: 5421: 5417: 5414: 5412: 5409: 5407: 5404: 5402: 5399: 5398: 5397: 5394: 5393: 5391: 5387: 5383: 5376: 5371: 5369: 5364: 5362: 5357: 5356: 5353: 5349: 5343: 5340: 5337: 5334: 5331: 5328: 5325: 5322: 5319: 5316: 5312: 5309: 5306: 5302: 5298: 5292: 5288: 5287: 5281: 5278: 5274: 5270: 5266: 5262: 5261: 5255: 5252: 5249: 5246: 5243: 5240: 5235: 5232: 5228: 5222: 5218: 5217: 5211: 5207: 5201: 5197: 5196: 5190: 5186: 5180: 5176: 5175: 5169: 5165: 5164: 5158: 5154: 5152:0-679-64087-8 5148: 5143: 5142: 5136: 5135:Mazower, Mark 5132: 5129: 5125: 5121: 5119:90-04-12101-3 5115: 5111: 5110: 5104: 5103: 5099: 5083: 5079: 5075: 5071: 5067: 5063: 5059: 5055: 5051: 5047: 5043: 5039: 5032: 5030: 5026: 5014: 5010: 5006: 5002: 4998: 4994: 4990: 4986: 4979: 4977: 4975: 4971: 4966: 4960: 4957: 4952: 4946: 4943: 4938: 4932: 4929: 4917: 4913: 4909: 4905: 4901: 4897: 4893: 4889: 4885: 4881: 4874: 4872: 4870: 4868: 4866: 4864: 4862: 4860: 4858: 4856: 4854: 4852: 4848: 4836:on 2008-01-23 4835: 4831: 4825: 4822: 4817: 4813: 4809: 4805: 4801: 4797: 4793: 4786: 4783: 4778: 4777: 4770: 4767: 4762: 4756: 4753: 4748: 4742: 4739: 4734: 4732:9788677431327 4728: 4724: 4723: 4715: 4712: 4707: 4705:9780521252492 4701: 4697: 4696: 4688: 4686: 4684: 4680: 4675: 4673:9781315287430 4669: 4666:. Routledge. 4665: 4661: 4654: 4651: 4646: 4644:9781135167257 4640: 4636: 4635: 4627: 4624: 4618: 4615: 4609: 4606: 4600: 4597: 4585: 4581: 4577: 4573: 4569: 4565: 4561: 4557: 4550: 4547: 4535: 4531: 4527: 4523: 4519: 4515: 4511: 4507: 4503: 4499: 4495: 4491: 4484: 4481: 4469: 4465: 4461: 4457: 4453: 4449: 4445: 4441: 4434: 4431: 4426: 4420: 4416: 4415: 4407: 4404: 4399: 4395: 4391: 4387: 4383: 4379: 4376:(1): 81–129. 4375: 4371: 4367: 4360: 4357: 4345: 4341: 4337: 4331: 4328: 4316: 4312: 4308: 4302: 4299: 4287: 4283: 4279: 4273: 4270: 4265: 4259: 4255: 4251: 4247: 4246: 4238: 4235: 4230: 4224: 4221: 4216: 4212: 4208: 4204: 4200: 4196: 4192: 4188: 4184: 4177: 4174: 4162: 4158: 4154: 4150: 4146: 4142: 4138: 4134: 4127: 4124: 4112: 4108: 4104: 4100: 4096: 4092: 4088: 4084: 4080: 4076: 4069: 4066: 4054: 4050: 4046: 4042: 4038: 4034: 4030: 4026: 4022: 4018: 4011: 4008: 3996: 3992: 3988: 3984: 3980: 3976: 3972: 3967: 3962: 3958: 3954: 3950: 3946: 3942: 3935: 3932: 3920: 3916: 3912: 3908: 3904: 3900: 3896: 3892: 3885: 3882: 3870: 3866: 3862: 3858: 3854: 3850: 3846: 3842: 3835: 3832: 3820: 3816: 3812: 3808: 3804: 3800: 3796: 3792: 3788: 3784: 3777: 3774: 3762: 3758: 3754: 3750: 3746: 3742: 3738: 3734: 3730: 3726: 3719: 3716: 3704: 3700: 3696: 3692: 3688: 3684: 3680: 3676: 3672: 3668: 3664: 3660: 3653: 3650: 3638: 3634: 3630: 3626: 3622: 3618: 3614: 3610: 3606: 3599: 3596: 3584: 3580: 3576: 3572: 3568: 3564: 3560: 3556: 3552: 3548: 3541: 3538: 3526: 3522: 3518: 3514: 3510: 3507:(2): 89–108. 3506: 3502: 3498: 3491: 3488: 3484: 3479: 3476: 3464: 3460: 3456: 3452: 3448: 3444: 3440: 3436: 3429: 3426: 3414: 3410: 3406: 3402: 3398: 3394: 3390: 3386: 3382: 3378: 3374: 3370: 3363: 3360: 3355: 3351: 3347: 3343: 3339: 3332: 3329: 3317: 3313: 3309: 3305: 3301: 3297: 3293: 3289: 3285: 3281: 3274: 3271: 3261: 3255: 3251: 3247: 3243: 3239: 3232: 3229: 3217: 3213: 3209: 3202: 3199: 3187: 3183: 3179: 3173: 3170: 3165: 3159: 3151: 3144: 3141: 3136: 3132: 3128: 3124: 3120: 3116: 3112: 3105: 3102: 3097: 3091: 3088: 3082: 3079: 3068: 3064: 3057: 3054: 3049: 3045: 3041: 3035: 3031: 3027: 3023: 3022: 3014: 3011: 3006: 3005: 2997: 2995: 2991: 2986: 2980: 2976: 2969: 2966: 2955: 2951: 2944: 2942: 2938: 2934: 2922: 2918: 2912: 2909: 2905: 2900: 2898:0-19-285439-9 2894: 2890: 2883: 2880: 2874: 2871: 2865: 2862: 2856: 2853: 2842:on 2006-05-21 2841: 2837: 2831: 2828: 2823: 2819: 2812: 2809: 2803: 2800: 2788: 2784: 2778: 2775: 2769: 2766: 2763:, p. 81. 2762: 2757: 2754: 2748: 2745: 2741: 2737: 2736:Ilber Ortayli 2732: 2729: 2723: 2720: 2715: 2709: 2705: 2704: 2696: 2693: 2682:on 2009-11-01 2681: 2677: 2671: 2668: 2662: 2659: 2655: 2649: 2647: 2643: 2638: 2631: 2629: 2627: 2625: 2623: 2621: 2617: 2605: 2601: 2597: 2593: 2591:0-19-924751-X 2587: 2583: 2582: 2574: 2571: 2559: 2555: 2553:9781848852723 2549: 2545: 2544: 2536: 2533: 2528: 2522: 2518: 2517: 2509: 2506: 2502: 2497: 2494: 2491:, p. 70. 2490: 2489:Cagaptay 2014 2485: 2482: 2477: 2471: 2467: 2466: 2458: 2456: 2452: 2440: 2436: 2434:9780191750304 2430: 2426: 2422: 2418: 2414: 2410: 2406: 2402: 2395: 2393: 2391: 2387: 2380: 2376: 2373: 2371: 2368: 2367: 2363: 2361: 2359: 2358:Sharia courts 2355: 2351: 2347: 2343: 2339: 2335: 2331: 2326: 2322: 2320: 2316: 2312: 2308: 2303: 2299: 2295: 2291: 2287: 2283: 2279: 2274: 2272: 2268: 2264: 2263:Ottoman state 2257:Role of women 2256: 2254: 2252: 2248: 2244: 2240: 2236: 2232: 2228: 2224: 2220: 2216: 2213:supported by 2212: 2208: 2204: 2199: 2197: 2193: 2189: 2185: 2181: 2177: 2173: 2169: 2165: 2161: 2157: 2155: 2151: 2150:Mustafa Kemal 2147: 2143: 2139: 2134: 2127: 2113: 2109: 2105: 2097: 2095: 2093: 2089: 2085: 2081: 2077: 2073: 2069: 2065: 2062:in 1875, and 2061: 2057: 2053: 2049: 2045: 2041: 2037: 2036: 2031: 2027: 2022: 2020: 2019: 2014: 2010: 2006: 2002: 1996: 1994: 1989: 1984: 1982: 1978: 1968: 1963: 1959: 1955: 1947: 1945: 1943: 1939: 1934: 1932: 1931: 1926: 1922: 1918: 1914: 1910: 1906: 1902: 1898: 1897:Filiki Eteria 1894: 1890: 1879: 1876: 1868: 1858: 1854: 1850: 1844: 1843: 1839: 1834:This section 1832: 1828: 1823: 1822: 1818: 1814: 1807: 1802: 1795: 1793: 1791: 1787: 1783: 1779: 1775: 1771: 1769: 1768:prince-bishop 1765: 1759: 1751: 1749: 1747: 1742: 1738: 1734: 1730: 1726: 1722: 1718: 1714: 1708: 1700: 1698: 1696: 1692: 1688: 1678: 1671: 1669: 1666: 1659: 1651: 1649: 1647: 1643: 1639: 1635: 1626: 1624: 1622: 1617: 1612: 1608: 1604: 1600: 1592: 1590: 1586: 1583: 1576: 1574: 1567: 1565: 1563: 1559: 1553: 1545: 1543: 1539: 1536: 1527: 1523: 1520: 1514: 1513: 1512:Second Aliyah 1509: 1505: 1498: 1496: 1492: 1490: 1486: 1482: 1481:Millet system 1478: 1474: 1472: 1466: 1464: 1460: 1456: 1453: 1449: 1445: 1441: 1437: 1433: 1432:Theodor Herzl 1429: 1424: 1422: 1421:Promised Land 1418: 1414: 1409: 1401: 1396: 1388: 1386: 1384: 1380: 1376: 1372: 1368: 1364: 1363:Mamluk Empire 1360: 1355: 1353: 1349: 1345: 1340: 1338: 1334: 1326: 1323: 1317: 1311: 1303: 1301: 1299: 1295: 1289: 1287: 1283: 1279: 1276: 1271: 1269: 1265: 1261: 1256: 1254: 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