915:
905:
1550:
28:
1564:
895:
4183:
4171:
4207:
4195:
36:
172:: from 2009 to 2013 the C.I. of electricity in the European Union fell on average by 20%, So while comparing different values of Carbon Intensity it is important to correctly consider all the boundary conditions (or initial hypotheses) considered for the calculations. For example, Chinese oil fields emit between 1.5 and more than 40 g of CO
1359:(IPCC) as the emission estimation methods that must be used by the parties to the convention to ensure transparency, completeness, consistency, comparability and accuracy of the national greenhouse gas inventories. These IPCC Guidelines are the primary source for default emission factors. Recently IPCC has published the
1327:
According to data from the
European Commission, in order to achieve the EU goal of decreasing greenhouse gas emissions by at least 55% by 2030 compared to 1990, EU-based energy investment has to double from the previous decade to more than €400 billion annually this decade. This includes the roughly
2119:
Public-domain source: 'U.S. Government publications are in the public domain and are not subject to copyright protection. You may use and/or distribute any of our data, files, databases, reports, graphs, charts, and other information products that are on our website or that you receive through our
1370:
emissions, there is often a high degree of uncertainty associated with these emission factors when applied to individual countries. In general, the use of country-specific emission factors would provide more accurate estimates of emissions than the use of the default emission factors. According to
2440:
Masnadi, Mohammad S.; El-Houjeiri, Hassan M.; Schunack, Dominik; Li, Yunpo; Englander, Jacob G.; Badahdah, Alhassan; Monfort, Jean-Christophe; Anderson, James E.; Wallington, Timothy J.; Bergerson, Joule A.; Gordon, Deborah; Koomey, Jonathan; Przesmitzki, Steven; Azevedo, Inês L.; Bi, Xiaotao T.;
1312:
emissions are going down recent studies find that the global emissions are rapidly escalating. According to the
Climate Change 2022 Mitigation of Climate Change report, conducted by the IPCC, it states that it 2019 the world emissions output was 59 gigatonnes. This shows that global emissions has
141:
The well-to-wheels (WTW), commonly used in the Energy and
Transport sectors: this is a simplified LCA considering the emissions of the process itself, the emissions due to the extraction and refining of the material (or fuel) used in the process (also "Upstream emissions"), but excluding the
160:
WTW-LCA hybrid methods, trying to fill in the gap between the WTW and LCA methods. In example, for an
Electric Vehicle, an hybrid method considering also the GHG due to the manufacturing and the end of life of the battery gives GHG emissions 10–13% higher, compared to the WTW
1511:, the authors used "open-source oil-sector CI modeling tools" to "model well-to-refinery carbon intensity (CI) of all major active oil fields globally—and to identify major drivers of these emissions." They compared 90 countries with the highest crude oil footprint. The
138:(LCA): this includes not only the carbon emissions due to a specific process, but also those due to the production and end-of-life of materials, plants and machineries used for the considered process. This is a quite complex method, requiring a big set of variables.
2176:
emissions from energy combustion published in official inventories from the
European Environment Agency. The indicators are not expressed under normal climate conditions (i. e. with climate corrections) to comply with the official definition of
2120:
email distribution service. However, if you use or reproduce any of our information products, you should use an acknowledgment, which includes the publication date, such as: "Source: U.S. Energy
Information Administration (Oct 2008)."'
1363:. These and many more greenhouse gas emission factors can be found on IPCC's Emission Factor Database. Commercially applicable organisational greenhouse gas emission factors can be found on the search engine, EmissionFactors.com.
1402:
has developed methods to estimate emissions and the associated emission factors for air pollutants, which have been published in the EMEP/CORINAIR Emission
Inventory Guidebook on Emission Inventories and Projections TFEIP.
102:, on industrial production levels, distances traveled or similar activity data. Emission intensities may also be used to compare the environmental impact of different fuels or activities. In some case the related terms
268:
greenhouse gas emissions from combustion depend on the precise technology applied when fuel is combusted. These emissions are basically caused by either incomplete combustion of a small fraction of the fuel
249:), since sulphur contents of fuels are also generally well known. Both carbon and sulphur are almost completely oxidized during combustion and all carbon and sulphur atoms in the fuel will be present in the
3907:
164:
Methods not considering LCA aspects but only the emissions occurring during a specific process; i.e. just the combustion of a fuel in a power plant, without considering the
Upstream emissions.
31:
The carbon intensity of electricity measures the amount of greenhouse gases emitted per unit of electricity produced. The units are in grams of CO₂equivalents per kilowatt-hour of electricity.
4083:
1348:
to the UNFCCC have to annually report their national total emissions of greenhouse gases in a formalized reporting format, defining the source categories and fuels that must be included.
3751:
1269:
intensity in Asia rose by 2% during 2009 since energy consumption continued to develop at a strong pace. Important ratios were also observed in countries in CIS and the Middle East.
184:. Such highly skewed carbon intensity patterns necessitate disaggregation of seemingly homogeneous emission activities and proper consideration of many factors for understanding.
3924:
1345:
1341:
329:
47:
1388:
237:) emissions from the combustion of fuel can be estimated with a high degree of certainty regardless of how the fuel is used as these emissions depend almost exclusively on the
219:
assessments, along with projected future changes in population, economic activity and energy technologies. The interrelations of these variables is treated under the so-called
3360:
3186:
1582:
1371:
the IPCC, if an activity is a major source of emissions for a country ('key source'), it is 'good practice' to develop a country-specific emission factor for that activity.
1285:
emissions from energy use have decreased on average by 0.3%/year although the economic activity (GDP) increased by 2.3%/year. After dropping until 1994 (−1.6%/year), the CO
3355:
2441:
Duffy, James E.; Heath, Garvin A.; Keoleian, Gregory A.; McGlade, Christophe; Meehan, D. Nathan; Yeh, Sonia; You, Fengqi; Wang, Michael; Brandt, Adam R. (31 August 2018).
3223:
3160:
2013:
Fridleifsson, Ingvar B.; Bertani, Ruggero; Huenges, Ernst; Lund, John W.; Ragnarsson, Arni; Rybach, Ladislaus (11 February 2008). O. Hohmeyer and T. Trittin (ed.).
914:
2014:
110:
are used interchangeably. The jargon used can be different, for different fields/industrial sectors; normally the term "carbon" excludes other pollutants, such as
168:
Different calculation methods can lead to different results. The results can largely vary also for different geographic regions and timeframes (see, in example,
2869:
2538:
2116:
3102:
2625:
1887:
1711:
1621:
885:
1493:
2986:
1328:€300 billion in yearly investment required for energy efficiency and the roughly €120 billion required for power networks and renewable energy facilities.
1964:
3245:
3203:
4124:
3240:
2825:
1885:
Hillebrand, K. 1993. The
Greenhouse Effects of Peat Production and Use Compared with Coal, Natural Gas and Wood. Technical Research Centre of Finland
1356:
339:
216:
311:
O) emissions from agricultural soils are highly uncertain because they depend very much on both the exact conditions of the soil, the application of
4238:
3455:
3176:
2894:
2671:
904:
3811:
3600:
2768:
150:
3460:
3423:
3277:
3262:
3181:
2830:
2774:
2202:
4243:
4119:
3257:
473:
278:
4141:
3097:
3092:
2644:
1384:
943:
188:
3622:
3400:
3218:
3150:
3140:
3123:
3030:
2837:
1487:
1289:
emissions have increased steadily (0.4%/year on average) until 2003 and decreased slowly again since (on average by 0.6%/year). Total CO
1293:
emissions per capita decreased from 8.7 t in 1990 to 7.8 t in 2007, that is to say a decrease by 10%. Almost 40% of the reduction in CO
4248:
4051:
3912:
3869:
3365:
1482:
1444:
1305:
intensity”, decreased more rapidly than energy intensity: by 2.3%/year and 1.4%/year, respectively, on average between 1990 and 2007.
1245:/$ 05p in the OECD countries. ("$ 05p" = 2005 US dollars, using purchasing power parities). The USA posted a higher ratio of 0.41 kCO
4258:
3978:
3854:
3671:
2874:
281:) or by complicated chemical and physical processes during the combustion and in the smoke stack or tailpipe. Examples of these are
226:
The level of uncertainty of the resulting estimates depends significantly on the source category and the pollutant. Some examples:
1449:
1395:
4233:
4211:
3849:
3829:
3776:
3728:
2790:
1636:
3968:
3919:
3345:
3307:
3252:
2722:
1257:
intensity continued to be roughly higher in non-OECD countries. Despite a slight improvement, China continued to post a high CO
200:
Emission factors assume a linear relation between the intensity of the activity and the emission resulting from this activity:
2053:
Hanova, J; Dowlatabadi, H (9 November 2007), "Strategic GHG reduction through the use of ground source heat pump technology",
130:
Different methodologies can be used to assess the carbon intensity of a process. Among the most used methodologies there are:
4036:
3320:
3077:
1871:
2011: Annex II: Methodology. In IPCC: Special Report on
Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation (ref. page 10)
282:
2394:
2124:
4146:
3681:
3213:
1611:
1321:
1317:
2275:
1911:
4129:
3801:
3330:
3325:
3230:
3107:
2664:
2593:
2025:
1466:
142:
emissions due to the production and end-of-life of plants and machineries. This methodology is used, in the US, by the
3340:
3193:
3155:
1704:
1673:"A new hybrid method for reducing the gap between WTW and LCA in the carbon footprint assessment of electric vehicles"
1399:
2424:
4199:
3963:
3766:
3723:
3496:
3418:
3272:
1387:(2016) require countries to produce annual National Air Pollution Emission Inventories under the provisions of the
398:
2622:
2099:
1884:
1708:
4253:
4068:
3743:
3718:
3691:
3653:
3570:
3388:
3235:
3198:
2948:
2717:
2712:
2707:
1651:
761:
438:
4078:
4073:
4004:
3844:
3350:
3315:
3208:
3135:
2976:
2805:
2741:
2702:
1987:
1631:
1337:
83:
4063:
4187:
4109:
4019:
3761:
3733:
3413:
3050:
2657:
931:
1460:
3786:
3606:
3548:
3465:
3450:
3335:
2981:
2927:
2922:
2917:
2912:
2907:
2902:
87:
4175:
3821:
3698:
3506:
2966:
2889:
2598:
2248:
1555:
414:
135:
1730:"Electricity carbon intensity in European Member States: Impacts on GHG emissions of electric vehicles"
2512:
1777:
Masnadi, M. (2018). "Well-to-refinery emissions and net-energy analysis of China's crude-oil supply".
4014:
3892:
3583:
3553:
3128:
3055:
2635:
Electricity carbon intensity in European Member States: Impacts on GHG emissions of electric vehicles
2634:
2454:
2058:
1833:
1786:
927:
169:
147:
2240:
946:. Annual data between 1980 and 2009 are averaged over three decades: 1980–89, 1990–99, and 2000–09.
241:
content of the fuel, which is generally known with a high degree of precision. The same is true for
4031:
3806:
3040:
3035:
1516:
70:
relative to the intensity of a specific activity, or an industrial production process; for example
2565:
2226:
3859:
3791:
3708:
3558:
3523:
3480:
3475:
3470:
3045:
2494:
1849:
1802:
1646:
1626:
1592:
1569:
1549:
1281:
emissions from energy use were 5% below their 1990 level in 2007. Over the period 1990–2007, CO
170:
how C.I. of electricity varies, for different European countries, and how varied in a few years
27:
4093:
3756:
3501:
3267:
3060:
3023:
2810:
2764:
2639:
2486:
2478:
2470:
2076:
1759:
1641:
1606:
1507:
453:
2015:"The possible role and contribution of geothermal energy to the mitigation of climate change"
4136:
3703:
3686:
3627:
3518:
3282:
3006:
2879:
2815:
2462:
2066:
1979:
1841:
1794:
1749:
1741:
1684:
1597:
1587:
1563:
740:
671:
443:
380:
294:
215:
Intensities are also used in projecting possible future scenarios such as those used in the
99:
4088:
4009:
3973:
3902:
3876:
3864:
3781:
3713:
3588:
3445:
3067:
3018:
2996:
2629:
2617:
2261:
1915:
1891:
1870:
1715:
1297:
intensity is due to increased use of energy carriers with lower emission factors. Total CO
1004:
270:
242:
154:
1821:
821:
Note: 3.6 MJ = megajoule(s) == 1 kW·h = kilowatt-hour(s), thus 1 g/MJ = 3.6 g/kW·h.
2458:
2301:
2062:
1837:
1790:
4041:
3897:
3839:
3834:
3676:
3565:
3297:
3292:
3287:
3145:
3082:
2820:
2800:
2759:
2680:
2539:"MIL-OSI New Zealand: How (and where) Greenpeace is campaigning for a world beyond oil"
2137:
2071:
1754:
1729:
1602:
1450:
Revised 1996 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories (reference manual)
230:
75:
4227:
4114:
4046:
3771:
3593:
3578:
3513:
3408:
2198:
1853:
1806:
1616:
1577:
1313:
grown rapidly, increasing by about 2.1% each year compared from the previous decade.
1072:
1008:
778:
705:
408:
304:
220:
91:
2607:
2498:
2323:
1965:"Life-cycle energy balance and greenhouse gas emissions of nuclear energy: A review"
1336:
One of the most important uses of emission factors is for the reporting of national
3999:
3796:
3440:
3430:
3087:
2971:
2884:
2543:
Foreign Affairs via Multimedia Investments Ltd (MIL) Open Source Intelligence (OSI)
1983:
458:
290:
17:
1963:
Bilek, Marcela; Hardy, Clarence; Lenzen, Manfred; Dey, Christopher (August 2008).
894:
187:
122:), which is used to compare emissions from different sources of electrical power.
2347:
1455:
4026:
3543:
3535:
2795:
2121:
1241:
intensity of GDP in the OECD countries reduced by 2.9% and amounted to 0.33 kCO
1056:
935:
645:
483:
316:
312:
143:
111:
1479:
4058:
3435:
3072:
1903:
1845:
1798:
1745:
1689:
1672:
1545:
1501:
Well-to-refinery carbon intensity (CI) of all major active oil fields globally
799:
347:
95:
2474:
2080:
1426:), has 4 hydrogen atoms to burn for each one of carbon and thus has medium CO
3013:
2640:
A hybrid LCA-WTW method to assess the carbon footprint of electric vehicles
2466:
1531:
1523:
939:
79:
67:
2490:
1763:
35:
2203:"Factbox: Key takeaways from the IPCC report on climate change mitigation"
39:
Carbon emission intensity of economies in kg of CO₂ per unit of GDP (2016)
1535:
1520:
468:
250:
1869:
Moomaw, W., P. Burgherr, G. Heath, M. Lenzen, J. Nyboer, A. Verbruggen,
1526:
is the "fourth-most greenhouse gas (GHG) intensive in the world" behind
2991:
1527:
1505:
In an August 31, 2018 article by Masnadi et al. which was published by
1024:
988:
701:
425:
274:
2482:
2442:
2302:"Revised 1996 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories"
3994:
2594:
Washington Post article with an example of change in carbon intensity
2185:
emissions of final consumers include the emissions of auto producers.
2155:
1461:
National Inventory Report: Greenhouse Gas Sources and Sinks in Canada
1040:
968:
918:
Carbon intensity of GDP (using MER) for different regions, 1982–2011.
908:
Carbon intensity of GDP (using PPP) for different regions, 1982–2011.
898:
Greenhouse gas intensity in the year 2000, including land-use change.
238:
2057:, vol. 2, no. 4, UK: IOP Publishing, pp. 044001 8pp,
1353:
Revised 1996 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories
3001:
1380:
1088:
913:
903:
893:
334:
A literature review of numerous total life cycle energy sources CO
186:
177:
34:
26:
2649:
2612:
1494:
Fugitive emissions leaks from ethylene and other chemical plants
984:
595:
575:
559:
496:
393:
71:
3945:
3650:
3386:
2946:
2858:
2739:
2691:
2653:
2623:
International Energy Agency: CO2 emissions from fuel combustion
2369:
2138:"CO2 intensity – Map World CO2 Intensity by region – Enerdata"
623:
338:
emissions per unit of electricity generated, conducted by the
3908:
Cooperative Mechanisms under Article 6 of the Paris Agreement
1445:
2006 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories
2435:
2433:
2093:
2091:
2089:
1361:
2006 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories
90:(GDP). Emission intensities are used to derive estimates of
350:
of all total life cycle emissions studies were as follows.
2300:
Task Force on National Greenhouse Gas Inventories (1996).
264:
In contrast, the levels of other air pollutants and non-CO
4084:
Illustrative model of greenhouse effect on climate change
1734:
Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment
354:
Lifecycle greenhouse gas emissions by electricity source
2156:"Energy Efficiency Trends & Policies – ODYSSEE-MURE"
1904:
The CO2 emission factor of peat fuel 106 g CO
1308:
However, while the reports from 2007 suggest that the CO
94:
or greenhouse gas emissions based on the amount of fuel
2407:
1332:
Emission factors for greenhouse gas inventory reporting
1375:
Emission factors for air pollutant inventory reporting
1324:
projects carbon intensity in 2012 to be 0.343 tn/MWh.
3925:
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
1342:
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
926:
The following tables show carbon intensity of GDP in
846:= low-temperature/closed-circuit (geothermal doublet)
330:
Life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions of energy sources
48:
Life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions of energy sources
1480:
AP 42, Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors
1389:
Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution
4102:
3987:
3956:
3885:
3820:
3742:
3664:
3615:
3532:
3489:
3399:
3306:
3169:
3116:
2959:
2783:
2752:
1583:
AP 42 Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors
1253:
intensity compared to the previous year (−3.7%). CO
180:
with about 90% of all fields emitting 1.5–13.5 g CO
2645:Carbon emissions intensity from different regions
2443:"Global carbon intensity of crude oil production"
1249:/$ 05p while Europe showed the largest drop in CO
488:various combined cycle turbines without scrubbing
4125:Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
2022:IPCC Scoping Meeting on Renewable Energy Sources
1419:emission intensity. Natural gas, being methane (
826:B = Black coal (supercritical)–(new subcritical)
1865:
1863:
1488:EMEP/CORIMAIR 2007 Emission Inventory Guidebook
2599:A Note On Variations in UK Grid Electricity CO
2870:History of climate change policy and politics
2665:
2513:"AB barrels are not below the global average"
2239:Bank, European Investment (2 February 2023).
1381:United Nations Economic Commission for Europe
8:
2106:, US Energy Information Administration (EIA)
2048:
2046:
1880:
1878:
1622:List of countries by carbon intensity of GDP
1411:Coal, being mostly carbon, emits a lot of CO
1396:European Monitoring and Evaluation Programme
886:List of countries by carbon intensity of GDP
2987:Atlantic meridional overturning circulation
4206:
4194:
3953:
3942:
3661:
3647:
3396:
3383:
2956:
2943:
2855:
2749:
2736:
2688:
2672:
2658:
2650:
2608:IPCC Special Report on Emissions Scenarios
2395:EMEP/CORINAIR Emission Inventory Guidebook
1958:
1956:
1954:
1952:
1950:
1948:
1946:
1944:
1320:(CEB) has calculated carbon intensity for
1104:
948:
509:
352:
346:emission value, that fell within the 50th
3752:Adaptation strategies on the German coast
2895:United Nations Climate Change conferences
2397:.eea.europa.eu, 2016, retrieved 13.7.2018
2193:
2191:
2070:
2024:. Luebeck, Germany: 59–80. Archived from
1942:
1940:
1938:
1936:
1934:
1932:
1930:
1928:
1926:
1924:
1753:
1688:
1467:United Kingdom's emission factor database
1357:Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
1106:Carbon intensity of GDP, measured in PPP
950:Carbon intensity of GDP, measured in MER
938:of carbon dioxide per thousand year 2005
533:Energy Intensity (min & max estimate)
501:various generator types without scrubbing
340:Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
3456:Co-benefits of climate change mitigation
1422:
3812:National Adaptation Programme of Action
3601:Land use, land-use change, and forestry
2227:Calculation of carbon intensity in 2012
2008:
2006:
2004:
2002:
2000:
1663:
114:emissions. One commonly used figure is
3461:Economics of climate change mitigation
3424:Gold Standard (carbon offset standard)
2775:Scientific consensus on climate change
2348:"Emission Factor Database – Main Page"
2257:
2246:
279:non-methane volatile organic compounds
4120:Coupled Model Intercomparison Project
2618:World Energy Council:Odyssee Database
7:
4142:Representative Concentration Pathway
3093:Tipping points in the climate system
2769:Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere
2564:Markusoff, Jason (16 October 2019).
1918:. Imcg.net. Retrieved on 2011-05-09.
1385:National Emission Ceilings Directive
944:US Energy Information Administration
82:of energy produced, or the ratio of
3913:Nationally determined contributions
3623:Individual action on climate change
2838:World energy supply and consumption
4052:Fixed anvil temperature hypothesis
1972:Energy Conversion & Management
1709:CO2 emissions from fuel combustion
1483:US Environmental Protection Agency
1301:emissions per unit of GDP, the “CO
545:Electric (min & max estimate)
116:carbon intensity per kilowatt-hour
66:) is the emission rate of a given
25:
3979:Satellite temperature measurement
3584:forestry for carbon sequestration
2875:History of climate change science
2566:"Scrubbing the oil sands' record"
1355:, developed and published by the
830:Br = Brown coal (new subcritical)
511:Emission factors of common fuels
4205:
4193:
4182:
4181:
4169:
3830:Climate Change Performance Index
1637:Mobile emission reduction credit
1562:
1548:
191:An air pollution emission source
4239:Atmospheric dispersion modeling
3969:Instrumental temperature record
3920:Sustainable Development Goal 13
2104:International Energy Statistics
854:= high-temperature/open-circuit
4037:Climate variability and change
3078:Retreat of glaciers since 1850
2613:Statistical Energy Review 2012
2427:, 2008-03-15 tfeip-secretariat
2055:Environmental Research Letters
1984:10.1016/j.enconman.2008.01.033
1515:study, which was conducted by
1:
4147:Shared Socioeconomic Pathways
3682:Climate emergency declaration
1612:IPCC list of greenhouse gases
1456:IPCC Emission Factor Database
1322:Voluntary Emissions Reduction
1318:Commodity Exchange Bratislava
4244:Industrial emissions control
4130:IPCC Sixth Assessment Report
3356:Middle East and North Africa
2072:10.1088/1748-9326/2/4/044001
1415:when burnt: it has a high CO
1351:The UNFCCC has accepted the
208:= Activity * Emission Factor
43:Emission rate of a pollutant
1705:International Energy Agency
1703:This method is used by the
1434:Sources of emission factors
1400:European Environment Agency
1152:Central & South America
880:Carbon intensity of regions
98:, the number of animals in
4275:
3964:Global surface temperature
3855:Popular culture depictions
3767:Ecosystem-based adaptation
3497:Carbon capture and storage
3419:Carbon offsets and credits
2276:"2030 Climate Target Plan"
2172:This section deals with CO
2160:www.odyssee-indicators.org
1671:Moro A; Helmers E (2017).
1338:greenhouse gas inventories
1273:Carbon intensity in Europe
942:. Data are taken from the
883:
798:
777:
760:
739:
700:
670:
644:
622:
594:
574:
558:
342:in 2011, found that the CO
327:
45:
4249:Environmental engineering
4176:Climate change portal
4163:
4069:Extreme event attribution
3952:
3941:
3692:School Strike for Climate
3660:
3646:
3571:Climate-smart agriculture
3395:
3382:
2955:
2942:
2865:
2854:
2748:
2735:
2718:Climate change adaptation
2713:Climate change mitigation
2708:Effects of climate change
2698:
2687:
1846:10.1038/s41560-018-0103-6
1799:10.1038/s41560-018-0090-7
1746:10.1016/j.trd.2017.07.012
1690:10.1007/s11367-015-0954-z
1652:Vehicle emission standard
1398:(EMEP) Task Force of the
932:purchasing power parities
4259:Greenhouse gas emissions
4079:Global warming potential
3886:International agreements
3533:Preserving and enhancing
2977:Arctic methane emissions
2899:Years in climate change
2806:Greenhouse gas emissions
2703:Causes of climate change
1822:"Mapping Chinese supply"
1728:Moro A; Lonza L (2018).
1632:Low-carbon fuel standard
1344:(UNFCCC). The so-called
84:greenhouse gas emissions
4234:Air pollution emissions
4110:Climate change scenario
3762:Disaster risk reduction
3414:Carbon emission trading
3224:U.S. insurance industry
3204:Civilizational collapse
3051:sea surface temperature
2467:10.1126/science.aar6859
1677:Int J Life Cycle Assess
1366:Particularly for non-CO
474:Polycrystalline silicon
4103:Research and modelling
3787:Nature-based solutions
3607:Nature-based solutions
3549:Carbon dioxide removal
3466:Fossil fuel divestment
3451:Climate risk insurance
3361:Small island countries
2982:Arctic sea ice decline
2256:Cite journal requires
2241:"Energy Overview 2023"
1707:in the annual report:
919:
909:
899:
870:= Heavy Water Reactors
862:= Light Water Reactors
659:oc:3.05 (2.81 – 3.46)
192:
88:gross domestic product
40:
32:
4064:Earth's energy budget
3947:Background and theory
3835:Climate crisis (term)
3507:Fossil fuel phase-out
3401:Economics and finance
3366:by individual country
3308:By country and region
3283:Security and conflict
3278:Psychological impacts
2967:Abrupt climate change
2890:Charles David Keeling
2723:By country and region
2142:yearbook.enerdata.net
1556:Global warming portal
928:market exchange rates
917:
907:
897:
657:cc:2.35 (2.20 – 2.57)
415:generation II reactor
190:
146:and in Europe in the
136:life-cycle assessment
38:
30:
3893:Glasgow Climate Pact
3554:Carbon sequestration
3129:Mass mortality event
2280:climate.ec.europa.eu
1430:emission intensity.
196:Estimating emissions
153:29 June 2018 at the
4032:Climate sensitivity
3807:The Adaptation Fund
3263:Infectious diseases
3170:Social and economic
2603:Intensity with Time
2519:. 30 September 2019
2459:2018Sci...361..851M
2374:emissionfactors.com
2324:"FCCC/SBSTA/2004/8"
2063:2007ERL.....2d4001H
1993:on 25 October 2009.
1838:2018NatEn...3..166H
1791:2018NatEn...3..220M
1517:Stanford University
1261:intensity (0.81 kCO
1107:
951:
834:cc = combined cycle
512:
355:
324:Electric generation
18:Emissions intensity
3603:(LULUCF and AFOLU)
3575:Forest management
3559:Direct air capture
3524:Sustainable energy
3481:Net zero emissions
3476:Low-carbon economy
3471:Green Climate Fund
3258:Indigenous peoples
3161:Plant biodiversity
2949:Effects and issues
2628:2018-03-31 at the
2370:"Emission Factors"
2100:"Carbon intensity"
1914:2010-07-07 at the
1890:2013-11-04 at the
1714:2018-03-31 at the
1647:Resource intensity
1627:Low-carbon economy
1593:Emission inventory
1570:Environment portal
1138:Asia & Oceania
1105:
949:
920:
910:
900:
874:#Educated estimate
510:
353:
193:
56:emission intensity
41:
33:
4221:
4220:
4159:
4158:
4155:
4154:
4094:Radiative forcing
3937:
3936:
3933:
3932:
3757:Adaptive capacity
3642:
3641:
3638:
3637:
3502:Energy transition
3378:
3377:
3374:
3373:
3098:Tropical cyclones
3024:Urban heat island
2938:
2937:
2850:
2849:
2846:
2845:
2811:Carbon accounting
2765:Greenhouse effect
2731:
2730:
2545:. 10 October 2019
2453:(6405): 851–853.
1642:Radiative forcing
1607:Greenhouse effect
1407:Intensity targets
1235:
1234:
1103:
1102:
934:(PPP). Units are
924:
923:
819:
818:
722:0.20 (0.18~0.35)
508:
507:
16:(Redirected from
4266:
4254:Energy economics
4209:
4208:
4197:
4196:
4185:
4184:
4174:
4173:
4172:
4137:Paleoclimatology
3954:
3943:
3704:Ecological grief
3687:Climate movement
3662:
3648:
3628:Plant-based diet
3519:Renewable energy
3397:
3384:
3219:Economic impacts
3151:Invasive species
3007:Coastal flooding
2957:
2944:
2880:Svante Arrhenius
2856:
2826:from agriculture
2816:Carbon footprint
2801:Greenhouse gases
2750:
2737:
2689:
2674:
2667:
2660:
2651:
2581:
2580:
2578:
2576:
2561:
2555:
2554:
2552:
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2535:
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2509:
2503:
2502:
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2398:
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2328:
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2252:
2244:
2236:
2230:
2229:kbb.sk, Slovakia
2224:
2218:
2217:
2215:
2213:
2201:(4 April 2022).
2195:
2186:
2170:
2164:
2163:
2152:
2146:
2145:
2134:
2128:
2114:
2113:
2111:
2095:
2084:
2083:
2074:
2050:
2041:
2040:
2038:
2036:
2030:
2019:
2010:
1995:
1994:
1992:
1986:. Archived from
1978:(8): 2178–2199.
1969:
1960:
1919:
1901:
1895:
1882:
1873:
1867:
1858:
1857:
1820:Höök, M (2018).
1817:
1811:
1810:
1774:
1768:
1767:
1757:
1725:
1719:
1701:
1695:
1694:
1692:
1668:
1598:Energy intensity
1588:Carbon footprint
1572:
1567:
1566:
1558:
1553:
1552:
1439:Greenhouse gases
1425:
1108:
952:
890:
889:
875:
871:
863:
855:
847:
839:
835:
831:
827:
814:
808:
793:
787:
772:
755:
750:(0.020 – 0.137)
749:
741:Hydroelectricity
716:0.18 (0.16~0.40)
680:
664:oc:751 (627–891)
662:cc:577 (491–655)
640:
635:
630:
586:
582:
566:
513:
444:parabolic trough
365:50th percentile
356:
295:nitrogen dioxide
108:carbon intensity
100:animal husbandry
60:carbon intensity
21:
4274:
4273:
4269:
4268:
4267:
4265:
4264:
4263:
4224:
4223:
4222:
4217:
4170:
4168:
4151:
4098:
4089:Orbital forcing
3983:
3948:
3929:
3903:Paris Agreement
3881:
3877:Warming stripes
3816:
3782:Managed retreat
3777:Loss and damage
3738:
3672:Business action
3656:
3634:
3611:
3534:
3528:
3485:
3446:Climate finance
3391:
3370:
3302:
3165:
3141:Extinction risk
3117:Flora and fauna
3112:
3073:Permafrost thaw
3068:Ozone depletion
2997:Extreme weather
2951:
2934:
2861:
2842:
2779:
2744:
2727:
2694:
2683:
2678:
2630:Wayback Machine
2602:
2590:
2585:
2584:
2574:
2572:
2563:
2562:
2558:
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2536:
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2511:
2510:
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2329:
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2317:
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2305:
2299:
2298:
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2284:
2282:
2274:
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2269:
2255:
2245:
2238:
2237:
2233:
2225:
2221:
2211:
2209:
2197:
2196:
2189:
2184:
2181:inventories. CO
2180:
2175:
2171:
2167:
2154:
2153:
2149:
2136:
2135:
2131:
2109:
2107:
2097:
2096:
2087:
2052:
2051:
2044:
2034:
2032:
2031:on 22 July 2011
2028:
2017:
2012:
2011:
1998:
1990:
1967:
1962:
1961:
1922:
1916:Wayback Machine
1907:
1902:
1898:
1892:Wayback Machine
1883:
1876:
1868:
1861:
1819:
1818:
1814:
1776:
1775:
1771:
1727:
1726:
1722:
1716:Wayback Machine
1702:
1698:
1670:
1669:
1665:
1660:
1568:
1561:
1554:
1547:
1544:
1503:
1476:
1441:
1436:
1429:
1424:
1420:
1418:
1414:
1409:
1377:
1369:
1346:Annex I Parties
1334:
1311:
1304:
1300:
1296:
1292:
1288:
1284:
1280:
1275:
1268:
1264:
1260:
1256:
1252:
1248:
1244:
1240:
888:
882:
873:
869:
865:
861:
857:
853:
849:
845:
841:
838:oc = open cycle
837:
833:
829:
825:
812:
809:(0.041 – 0.12)
806:
791:
785:
770:
762:Conc. Solar Pwr
753:
747:
734:
730:
728:
721:
717:
715:
704:
695:
691:
689:
678:
673:
665:
663:
658:
653:
651:
638:
633:
628:
617:
615:
610:
608:
603:
601:
584:
583:
580:
564:
554:
550:
546:
542:
538:
534:
530:
526:
522:
517:
374:
370:
366:
345:
337:
332:
326:
310:
300:
289:, a mixture of
288:
271:carbon monoxide
267:
260:
256:
248:
243:sulphur dioxide
236:
211:
207:
198:
183:
175:
155:Wayback Machine
128:
104:emission factor
50:
44:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
4272:
4270:
4262:
4261:
4256:
4251:
4246:
4241:
4236:
4226:
4225:
4219:
4218:
4216:
4215:
4203:
4191:
4179:
4164:
4161:
4160:
4157:
4156:
4153:
4152:
4150:
4149:
4144:
4139:
4134:
4133:
4132:
4122:
4117:
4112:
4106:
4104:
4100:
4099:
4097:
4096:
4091:
4086:
4081:
4076:
4071:
4066:
4061:
4056:
4055:
4054:
4044:
4042:Cloud feedback
4039:
4034:
4029:
4024:
4023:
4022:
4017:
4012:
4007:
3997:
3991:
3989:
3985:
3984:
3982:
3981:
3976:
3971:
3966:
3960:
3958:
3950:
3949:
3946:
3939:
3938:
3935:
3934:
3931:
3930:
3928:
3927:
3922:
3917:
3916:
3915:
3910:
3900:
3898:Kyoto Protocol
3895:
3889:
3887:
3883:
3882:
3880:
3879:
3874:
3873:
3872:
3867:
3862:
3852:
3850:Media coverage
3847:
3842:
3840:Climate spiral
3837:
3832:
3826:
3824:
3818:
3817:
3815:
3814:
3809:
3804:
3799:
3794:
3789:
3784:
3779:
3774:
3769:
3764:
3759:
3754:
3748:
3746:
3740:
3739:
3737:
3736:
3731:
3729:Public opinion
3726:
3721:
3716:
3711:
3706:
3701:
3696:
3695:
3694:
3684:
3679:
3677:Climate action
3674:
3668:
3666:
3658:
3657:
3651:
3644:
3643:
3640:
3639:
3636:
3635:
3633:
3632:
3631:
3630:
3619:
3617:
3613:
3612:
3610:
3609:
3604:
3598:
3597:
3596:
3591:
3589:REDD and REDD+
3586:
3581:
3573:
3568:
3566:Carbon farming
3563:
3562:
3561:
3556:
3546:
3540:
3538:
3530:
3529:
3527:
3526:
3521:
3516:
3511:
3510:
3509:
3499:
3493:
3491:
3487:
3486:
3484:
3483:
3478:
3473:
3468:
3463:
3458:
3453:
3448:
3443:
3438:
3433:
3428:
3427:
3426:
3416:
3411:
3405:
3403:
3393:
3392:
3387:
3380:
3379:
3376:
3375:
3372:
3371:
3369:
3368:
3363:
3358:
3353:
3348:
3343:
3338:
3333:
3328:
3323:
3318:
3312:
3310:
3304:
3303:
3301:
3300:
3298:Water security
3295:
3293:Water scarcity
3290:
3288:Urban flooding
3285:
3280:
3275:
3270:
3265:
3260:
3255:
3250:
3249:
3248:
3238:
3233:
3228:
3227:
3226:
3216:
3211:
3206:
3201:
3196:
3191:
3190:
3189:
3184:
3173:
3171:
3167:
3166:
3164:
3163:
3158:
3153:
3148:
3146:Forest dieback
3143:
3138:
3133:
3132:
3131:
3120:
3118:
3114:
3113:
3111:
3110:
3105:
3100:
3095:
3090:
3085:
3083:Sea level rise
3080:
3075:
3070:
3065:
3064:
3063:
3058:
3056:stratification
3053:
3048:
3043:
3038:
3028:
3027:
3026:
3021:
3011:
3010:
3009:
2999:
2994:
2989:
2984:
2979:
2974:
2969:
2963:
2961:
2953:
2952:
2947:
2940:
2939:
2936:
2935:
2933:
2932:
2931:
2930:
2925:
2920:
2915:
2910:
2905:
2897:
2892:
2887:
2882:
2877:
2872:
2866:
2863:
2862:
2859:
2852:
2851:
2848:
2847:
2844:
2843:
2841:
2840:
2835:
2834:
2833:
2828:
2823:
2821:Carbon leakage
2818:
2813:
2803:
2798:
2793:
2787:
2785:
2781:
2780:
2778:
2777:
2772:
2762:
2760:Climate system
2756:
2754:
2746:
2745:
2740:
2733:
2732:
2729:
2728:
2726:
2725:
2720:
2715:
2710:
2705:
2699:
2696:
2695:
2692:
2685:
2684:
2681:Climate change
2679:
2677:
2676:
2669:
2662:
2654:
2648:
2647:
2642:
2637:
2632:
2620:
2615:
2610:
2605:
2600:
2596:
2589:
2588:External links
2586:
2583:
2582:
2556:
2530:
2504:
2429:
2417:
2399:
2387:
2361:
2339:
2315:
2292:
2267:
2258:|journal=
2231:
2219:
2199:Dickie, Gloria
2187:
2182:
2178:
2173:
2165:
2147:
2129:
2117:Archived page.
2085:
2042:
1996:
1920:
1905:
1896:
1874:
1859:
1832:(3): 166–167.
1812:
1785:(3): 220–226.
1769:
1720:
1696:
1662:
1661:
1659:
1656:
1655:
1654:
1649:
1644:
1639:
1634:
1629:
1624:
1619:
1614:
1609:
1603:Greenhouse gas
1600:
1595:
1590:
1585:
1580:
1574:
1573:
1559:
1543:
1540:
1502:
1499:
1498:
1497:
1491:
1485:
1475:
1474:Air pollutants
1472:
1471:
1470:
1464:
1458:
1453:
1447:
1440:
1437:
1435:
1432:
1427:
1416:
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1128:
1125:
1121:
1120:
1117:
1114:
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1101:
1100:
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1084:
1081:
1078:
1075:
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1037:
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1030:
1027:
1021:
1020:
1017:
1014:
1011:
1001:
1000:
997:
994:
991:
981:
980:
977:
974:
971:
965:
964:
961:
958:
955:
922:
921:
911:
901:
881:
878:
867:
859:
851:
843:
817:
816:
810:
804:
802:
796:
795:
789:
788:(0.16 – 0.67)
783:
781:
775:
774:
768:
766:
764:
758:
757:
751:
745:
743:
737:
736:
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328:Main article:
325:
322:
321:
320:
317:meteorological
308:
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265:
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231:Carbon dioxide
209:
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197:
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139:
127:
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76:carbon dioxide
42:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4271:
4260:
4257:
4255:
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4118:
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4115:Climate model
4113:
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4108:
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4101:
4095:
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4072:
4070:
4067:
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4062:
4060:
4057:
4053:
4050:
4049:
4048:
4047:Cloud forcing
4045:
4043:
4040:
4038:
4035:
4033:
4030:
4028:
4025:
4021:
4018:
4016:
4013:
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3822:Communication
3819:
3813:
3810:
3808:
3805:
3803:
3802:Vulnerability
3800:
3798:
3795:
3793:
3790:
3788:
3785:
3783:
3780:
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3775:
3773:
3772:Flood control
3770:
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3758:
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3608:
3605:
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3599:
3595:
3594:reforestation
3592:
3590:
3587:
3585:
3582:
3580:
3579:afforestation
3577:
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3514:Nuclear power
3512:
3508:
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3498:
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3482:
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3429:
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3422:
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3420:
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3412:
3410:
3409:Carbon budget
3407:
3406:
3404:
3402:
3398:
3394:
3390:
3385:
3381:
3367:
3364:
3362:
3359:
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3246:Mental health
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3187:United States
3185:
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3041:deoxygenation
3039:
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3036:acidification
3034:
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3017:
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2836:
2832:
2831:from wetlands
2829:
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2824:
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2817:
2814:
2812:
2809:
2808:
2807:
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2802:
2799:
2797:
2794:
2792:
2791:Deforestation
2789:
2788:
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2125:archived page
2122:
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2068:
2064:
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2016:
2009:
2007:
2005:
2003:
2001:
1997:
1989:
1985:
1981:
1977:
1973:
1966:
1959:
1957:
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1951:
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1945:
1943:
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1826:Nature Energy
1823:
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1617:Kaya identity
1615:
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1599:
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1591:
1589:
1586:
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1578:Air pollution
1576:
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1208:North America
1207:
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1199:
1196:
1193:
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1073:North America
1071:
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1038:
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1022:
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1015:
1012:
1010:
1009:South America
1006:
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1002:
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995:
992:
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906:
902:
896:
892:
891:
887:
879:
877:
822:
811:
805:
803:
801:
797:
790:
784:
782:
780:
779:Photovoltaics
776:
769:
767:
765:
763:
759:
752:
746:
744:
742:
738:
724:
711:
709:
707:
706:Nuclear power
703:
699:
685:
683:
677:
675:
669:
661:
656:
649:
647:
643:
637:
632:
627:
625:
621:
613:
606:
600:B:91.50–91.72
599:
597:
593:
590:
588:
579:
577:
573:
570:
568:
563:
561:
557:
544:
532:
520:
515:
514:
503:
500:
498:
495:
494:
490:
487:
485:
482:
481:
477:
475:
472:
470:
467:
466:
462:
460:
457:
455:
452:
451:
447:
445:
442:
440:
439:Solar thermal
437:
436:
432:
429:
427:
424:
423:
419:
416:
412:
410:
407:
406:
402:
400:
397:
395:
392:
391:
387:
384:
382:
381:Hydroelectric
379:
378:
364:
361:
358:
357:
351:
349:
341:
331:
323:
318:
314:
306:
305:Nitrous oxide
303:
296:
292:
284:
280:
276:
272:
263:
261:respectively.
252:
244:
240:
232:
229:
228:
227:
224:
222:
221:Kaya identity
218:
213:
212:
201:
195:
189:
185:
179:
171:
163:
159:
156:
152:
149:
145:
140:
137:
133:
132:
131:
126:Methodologies
125:
123:
121:
117:
113:
109:
105:
101:
97:
93:
92:air pollutant
89:
85:
81:
78:released per
77:
73:
69:
65:
61:
57:
52:
49:
37:
29:
19:
4210:
4198:
4186:
4167:
4000:Carbon cycle
3957:Measurements
3652:Society and
3536:carbon sinks
3441:Climate debt
3431:Carbon price
3253:Human rights
3088:Season creep
3046:heat content
2972:Anoxic event
2885:James Hansen
2573:. Retrieved
2569:
2559:
2547:. Retrieved
2542:
2533:
2521:. Retrieved
2516:
2507:
2450:
2446:
2420:
2412:www.emep.int
2411:
2402:
2390:
2378:. Retrieved
2373:
2364:
2352:. Retrieved
2350:. IPCC. 2012
2342:
2330:. Retrieved
2318:
2306:. Retrieved
2295:
2283:. Retrieved
2279:
2270:
2249:cite journal
2234:
2222:
2210:. Retrieved
2206:
2168:
2159:
2150:
2141:
2132:
2108:, retrieved
2103:
2054:
2033:. Retrieved
2026:the original
2021:
1988:the original
1975:
1971:
1899:
1829:
1825:
1815:
1782:
1778:
1772:
1737:
1733:
1723:
1699:
1680:
1676:
1666:
1512:
1506:
1504:
1410:
1393:
1378:
1365:
1360:
1352:
1350:
1335:
1326:
1315:
1307:
1276:
1236:
925:
823:
820:
735:65 (10~120)
459:hot dry rock
333:
291:nitric oxide
283:particulates
225:
214:
203:
202:
199:
167:
129:
119:
115:
107:
103:
86:produced to
63:
59:
55:
53:
51:
4027:Carbon sink
4005:atmospheric
3870:video games
3544:Blue carbon
3177:Agriculture
3156:Marine life
3103:Water cycle
3061:temperature
2796:Fossil fuel
2408:"EMEP Home"
2110:21 December
1519:found that
1383:and the EU
1265:/$ 05p). CO
1194:Middle East
1057:Middle East
936:metric tons
756:(6.5 – 44)
729:60 (10~130)
646:Natural gas
607:B:2.62–2.85
484:Natural gas
362:Description
319:conditions.
313:fertilizers
144:GREET model
112:particulate
4228:Categories
4059:Cryosphere
4020:permafrost
3792:Resilience
3744:Adaptation
3719:Litigation
3709:Governance
3654:adaptation
3436:Carbon tax
3389:Mitigation
3326:Antarctica
3214:Disability
2575:23 October
2549:23 October
2523:23 October
1658:References
1391:(CLRTAP).
1340:under the
1237:In 2009 CO
940:US dollars
930:(MER) and
884:See also:
800:Wind power
672:Geothermal
454:Geothermal
359:Technology
348:percentile
293:, NO, and
251:flue gases
134:The whole
46:See also:
4074:Feedbacks
3845:Education
3346:Caribbean
3341:Australia
3268:Migration
3231:Fisheries
3182:Livestock
3108:Wildfires
3014:Heat wave
2570:Maclean's
2475:0036-8075
2380:19 August
2354:19 August
2332:20 August
2308:19 August
2081:1748-9326
1894:. Seai.ie
1854:169334867
1807:134193903
1532:Venezuela
1524:crude oil
794:(53–217)
614:B:863–941
518:Resource
385:reservoir
210:pollutant
206:pollutant
96:combusted
80:megajoule
68:pollutant
4200:Glossary
4188:Category
4010:biologic
3724:Politics
3616:Personal
3321:Americas
3194:Children
2960:Physical
2753:Overview
2693:Overview
2626:Archived
2499:52131292
2491:30166477
2098:US EIA,
1912:Archived
1888:Archived
1764:30740029
1740:: 5–14.
1712:Archived
1683:: 4–14.
1542:See also
1536:Cameroon
1521:Canadian
1277:Total CO
1231:0.48058
1217:0.46509
1203:0.65723
1189:0.32077
1175:1.02797
1161:0.30185
1147:0.57356
1133:0.43067
1119:2000–09
1099:0.60725
1083:0.48160
1067:1.22310
1051:0.30975
1035:2.36849
1019:0.56015
999:0.91721
979:1.03995
963:2000–09
824:Legend:
815:(13–40)
652:oc:68.40
650:cc:68.20
616:Br:1,175
602:Br:94.33
469:Solar PV
413:various
204:Emission
151:Archived
4015:oceanic
3865:fiction
3714:Justice
3665:Society
3273:Poverty
2992:Drought
2860:History
2784:Sources
2517:Twitter
2483:1485127
2455:Bibcode
2447:Science
2285:9 March
2212:5 April
2207:Reuters
2059:Bibcode
2035:6 April
1834:Bibcode
1787:Bibcode
1755:6358150
1528:Algeria
1513:Science
1508:Science
1228:0.54868
1225:0.54495
1214:0.56634
1211:0.66743
1200:0.65690
1197:0.51641
1186:0.38897
1183:0.40413
1172:1.43161
1166:Eurasia
1158:0.30740
1155:0.30095
1144:0.59249
1141:0.66187
1130:0.50215
1127:0.48844
1116:1990–99
1113:1980–89
1096:0.66120
1093:0.62170
1080:0.58681
1077:0.69381
1064:1.21475
1061:0.98779
1048:0.37245
1045:0.36840
1032:3.31786
1025:Eurasia
1016:0.57278
1013:0.55840
1005:Central
996:0.83015
993:0.86256
989:Oceania
976:1.20702
973:1.13149
960:1990–99
957:1980–89
702:Uranium
696:91–122
609:Br:3.46
521:Thermal
430:various
426:Biomass
409:Nuclear
399:onshore
371:-eq/kWh
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3699:Denial
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